Icat

MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT
L. D. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
AHMEDABAD.
CERTIFICATE
THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT Ms. HITARTHI Y. BUCH WITH

ENROLLMENT NO. 200280711004 OF M.E. IN I.C. ENGINE & AUTOMOBILE
SEMESTER 2ND HAS SATISFACTORILY COMPLETED THE TERM WORK IN
SUBJECT I.C ENGINE AND AUTOMOBILE TECHNOLOGY (SUBJECT CODE:
3721109) FOR ACADEMIC YEAR 2020-21.
TERM DATE:
FACULTY SIGNATURE HEAD OF DEPT.
INTERNAL EXAMINAR EXTERNAL EXAMINAR

I.C. Engine and Automobile Technology - 3721109
L D COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDEX
SR. TITLE PAGE DATE OF SIGN OF REMARK
NO NUMEBR ASSESSMENT FACULTY
1 To Study Piston assembly, 1 to 10
material, construction and
Design
2 Testing of Internal combustion 11 to 16

engine as per IS Standards.
3 Study and Performance 17 to 20

analysis of four stroke Petrol
Engine.
4 Study and Performance 21 to 26

analysis of four stroke Diesel
Engine.
5 Study of MPFI and CRDI 27 to 35

systems
6 Study of ignition , cooling, 36 to 46

lubrication systems
7 Study of clutch and 47 to 57

Transmission systems
8 Study of automotive brakes , 58 to 73

suspension and steering
systems
9 Study of Recent developments 74 to 85

in the field of I.C. Engine and
Automobile.
M.E. in I.C. Engine & Automobile Semester-II 2019-20

EXPERIMENT: - 1
AIM: - To study piston assembly, material, construction and Design
The design and production of pistons and rings is a complicated job, which is
invariably carried out by specialist manufacturers; a piston assembly is shown in
Figure 1.1 Pistons are mostly made from aluminum alloy, a typical composition
being 10-12 per cent silicon to give relatively low coefficient of thermal expansion
of 19.5 x 10-' K-'. The low density reduces the reciprocating mass, and the good
thermal conductivity avoids hot spots. The temperature of the piston at the upper
ring groove should be limited to about 200˚C, to avoid decomposition of the
lubricating oil and softening of the alloy. In high-output engines, additional piston
cooling is provided by an oil spray to the underside of the piston; otherwise cooling
is via the piston rings and cylinder barrel. The piston skirt carries the inertial side
loading from the piston, and this loading can be reduced by offsetting the gudgeon
pin (piston pin) from the piston diameter. The gudgeon pin is usually of hollow, case
hardened steel, either retained by circlips or by an accurate diametral fit. The Centre
hole reduces the weight without significantly reducing the strength. The piston is
reinforced by bosses in the region of the gudgeon pin.
One of the key problems

in piston design is allowing
for thermal expansion and
distortion. The thermal
coefficient of expansion
for the piston is greater
than that of the bore, so
that sufficient clearances
have to be allowed to
prevent the piston seizing
when it is at its maximum
possible service
temperature. Furthermore, Figure 1.1 Piston assembly constructions
the asymmetry of the piston
leads to non-uniform temperature distributions and asymmetrical expansions. To
ensure minimal but uniform clearances under operating conditions, the piston is
1
accurately machined to a non-circular shape. To help control the expansion, carefully
machined slots and steel inserts can also be used. None the less, it is inevitable that
the clearances will be such that piston slap will occur with a cold engine. Combustion
chambers are often in the piston crown, and the additional machining is trivial. The
piston can also influence the engine emissions through the extent of the quench areas
around the top piston ring and the top land. However, the extent of the top land is
governed by piston temperature limitations.
More complex pistons include those with heat resistant crowns, articulated skirts,
and raised pads on the skirt to reduce the frictional losses. Very high output Diesel
engines sometimes use cast steel or cast-iron pistons. Such engines can also use an
integral annular cooling gallery that surrounds the piston bowl. The cooling gallery
is fed with oil through drillings in the connecting rod and gudgeon pin. Cast iron or
steel pistons have a greater tolerance of higher temperatures than aluminum alloy
pistons, and they also have a lower coefficient of thermal expansion. With their low
expansion, iron and steel pistons can be designed to have lower clearances with the
piston bore. This leads to reduce exhaust emissions and piston slap; piston slap is a
significant source of noise in engines during warm-up.
The three main roles of the piston rings are:

(1) To seal the combustion chamber
(2) To transfer heal from the piston to the cylinder walls
(3) To control the flow of oil.
The material used is invariably a fine grain alloy cast iron, with the excellent heat
and wear resistance inherent in its graphitic structure. Piston rings are usually cast in
the open condition and profile-finished, so that when they are closed their periphery
is a true circle. Since the piston rings tend to rotate a simple square-cut slot is quite
satisfactory, with no tendency to wear a vertical ridge in the cylinder. Numerous
different ring cross-sections have been used.
The cross-sectional depth is dictated by the required radial stiffness, with the
proviso that there is adequate bearing area between the sides of the ring and the
piston groove. The piston ring thickness is governed primarily by the desired radial
pressure; by reducing the thickness the inertial loading is also reduced. Conventional
practice is to have three piston rings: two compression rings, and an oil control ring.
A typical oil control ring is of slotted construction with two narrow lands produce a
relatively high pressure on the cylinder walls, and this removes oil that is surplus to
2
the lubrication requirements. Otherwise the pumping action of the upper rings would
lead to high oil consumption.
In a reciprocating piston engine, the
connecting rod connects the piston to the crank
or crankshaft. Together with the crank, they form
a simple mechanism that converts reciprocating
motion into rotating motion. Connecting-rods
are invariably steel stampings, with an 'H' cross-
section Centre section to provide high bending
strength. Titanium, aluminum alloys and cast
irons have all been used (or particular
applications, with the manufacture being by
(forging and machining. The big-end bearing is
invariably split for ease of assembly on to the
crank pin. Sometimes the split is on a diagonal
to allow the largest possible bearing diameter.
The big-end cap bolts are very highly loaded and Figure 1.2 Connecting - rod assembly
careful design, manufacture and assembly arc
necessary to minimize the risk of fatigue failure. The little-end bearing is usually a
force-fit bronze bush. Connecting-rods should be checked for the correct length, the
correct weight distribution, straightness and freedom from twist
Crankshafts for many automotive applications are now made from SG (spheroidal
graphite) or nodular cast iron as opposed to forged steel. The cast iron is cheaper to
manufacture and has excellent wear properties. Yet the lower stiffness makes the
shaft more flexible and the superior internal damping properties reduce the dangers
from torsional vibrations. In normal cast iron the graphite is in flakes which are liable
to be the sources of cracks and thus reduce the material's strength. In SG cast iron,
the copper, chromium and silicon alloying elements make the graphite particles
occur as spheres or nodules; these are less likely to introduce cracks than are Hakes
of graphite with their smaller radii of curvature. A five-bearing crankshaft for a four-
cylinder engine is shown in figure 1.3. The drilled oil passages allow oil to flow from
the main bearings to the big-end bearings. The journals (bearing surfaces) are usually
hardened and it is common practice to fillet-roll the radii to the webs. This process
puts a compressive stress in the surface which inhibits the growth of cracks, thereby
improving the fatigue life of the crankshaft. The number of main bearings is reduced
in some instances. If the crankshaft in figure 1.3 had larger journal diameters or a
3
smaller throw, it might be sufficiently stiff in a small engine to need only three main
bearings. Whatever the bearing arrangement, as the number of main bearings is
increased it becomes increasingly important for the journals and main bearings to be
accurately in-line.
Figure 1.3 Five-bearing crankshaft for a four-cylinder engine
Camshafts are typically made from hardened steel, hardened alloy cast iron,
nodular cast iron or chilled cast iron. Chill casting is when suitably shaped iron
'chills' is inserted into the mound to cause rapid cooling of certain parts. The rapid
cooling prevents some of the iron carbide dissociating, and thus forms a very hard
surface. A variety of surface hardening techniques are used, including induction
hardening, flame hardening, nitriding, Tuff riding and carburizing. The material of
the cam follower has to be carefully selected since the components are very highly
loaded, and the risk of surface pick-up or cold welding must be minimized. The valve
which allows mixture into the cylinder is the inlet valve; the one through which the
spent gases escape is the exhaust valve. They are designed to open and close at
precise moments; to allow the engine to run efficiently at all speeds. The operation
is controlled by pear-shaped lobes, called cams, on a rotating shaft, the camshaft,
driven by a chain, a belt, or a set of gears from the crankshaft. Where the camshaft
is mounted in the engine block, small metal cylinders tappets sit in channels above
each cam, and from the tappets metal pushrod extend up into the cylinder head. The
top of each pushrod meets a rocker arm which bears against the stem of a valve,
which is held in a raised (closed) position by a strong coiled spring the valve spring.
As the pushrod rises on the cam it pivots the rocker arm, which pushes the valve
down (open) against the pressure of its spring. As the cam lobe rotates further, the
valve spring acts to close the valve. This is called an overhead-valve (OHV) system.
4
Some engines have no pushrods; the valves are operated more directly by single or
double camshafts in the cylinder head itself the overhead- cam system.
Figure 1.4 Camshaft with pushrods
The overhead valve system (OHV) system, operated by pushrods, has the
crankshaft adjacent and parallel to the crankshaft in the cylinder block. As the
crankshaft rotates, each valve is opened by means of a tappet, pushrod and rocker
arm. The valve is closed by spring pressure. The camshaft drive-chain sprocket has
twice as many teeth as the crankshaft sprocket, so that the camshaft rotates at half
engine speed.
As there are fewer moving parts between the camshaft and the valve, the
overhead-cam (OHC) method is more efficient and produces more power for a given
engine capacity than an engine with pushrods, because it can operate at higher
speeds. With either system, there must be some free play in the operating gear, so
that the valve can still close completely when parts have expanded through heat. A
pre-set gap tappet clearance is essential between the valve stem and the rocker arm
or cam, to allow for expansion. Tappet clearances vary widely on different cars, and
faulty adjustment can have serious effects.
If the gap is too large, the valves open late and close early, reducing power and
increasing engine noise. Too small a clearance prevents the valves from closing
properly, with a consequent loss of compression. Some engines have self-adjusting
tappets, which are hydraulically operated by the engine oil pressure.
5
Figure 1.5 Engine with overhead camshaft
An overhead-cam (OHC) engine needs fewer parts to operate the valves. The
cams act directly on bucket tappets or on short levers - known as fingers - which in
turn act directly on the valve stems. The system dispenses with the extra weight and
mechanical complexity of pushrods and rocker arms. A long chain is frequently used
to drive the camshaft from a sprocket on the crankshaft, but such a long chain tends
to 'whip'. The problem is overcome in some designs by fitting intermediate sprockets
and two shorter drive chains, kept under tension. Another method uses a non-stretch
oil-resistant, toothed rubber drive belt which engages with toothed sprockets on the
camshaft and crankshaft. The inlet valves and in particular the exhaust valves have
to operate under arduous conditions with temperatures rising above 500˚ and 800˚,
respectively. To economies on the exhaust valve materials a composite construction
can be used; a Nimonic head with a satellite facing may be friction-welded to a
cheaper stem. This also allows a material with a low coefficient of thermal expansion
to be used for the stem. The valve guide not only guides the valve, but also helps to
conduct heat from the valve to the cylinder head. In cast iron cylinder heads the guide
is often an integral part of the cylinder head, but with aluminum alloys a ferrous
insert is used.
In spark ignition engines with high outputs (say over 60 kW/liter), then sodium-
cooled exhaust valves are used. These valves have a hollow exhaust valve stem, and
as the sodium melts (98˚) the liquid is shaken inside the chamber. This provides a
6
very high heat transfer coefficient between the valve head anti the valve stem. Valve
seat inserts have to be used in aluminum cylinder heads. While with cast iron
cylinder heads the scats can be induction-hardened. In spark ignition engines running
on load fuel, the lead compounds lubricate the valve seat, so obviating the need for
surface hardening. The factors which affect valve gear friction and wear have been
reviewed by Narasimhan and Larson (I985), along with a comprehensive overview
of the materials that are used in the valve gear.
There are basically two types of valves used in automobile. Inlet valves are used
to allow fresh air or mixture into the cylinder. There is at least one inlet valve on
each cylinder head. On equal number valve heads inlet valves are larger in diameter
than exhaust valves. Exhaust valve are used to allow burnt and unburnt gasses to
escape to the atmosphere. Exhaust valves are normally small in diameter. There must
be at least one exhaust valve for each cylinder.
➢ Valve terms
• Valve seat: Valve head is sitting on

this circular hard disk to maintain a
good leak proof seal when closed. It
has 30 or 45 degrees sit angle.
• Valve Guide (Retainer): Made from
good quality bronze material for
guiding and lubricating valve stem
during engine operation. Figure
Figure 1.6 1.6 Valve
Typical Engine Valve
• Valve spring: High grade steel is used
to load valve to close during dwell period of cam lobe.
• Seal: A rubber seal is mounted at the end of valve guide to prevent oil leakage
into cylinder during operation of engine.
• Collet: These two semi conical parts are used to lock spring and valve.
To reduce torsional vibration a damper can be mounted at the front end of the
crankshaft. A typical vibration damper is shown in Figure 1.7, where a V-belt drive
has also been incorporated. An annulus is bonded by rubber to the hub, and the inertia
of the annulus and the properties of the rubber insert are chosen for the particular
application. The torsional energy is dissipated as heat by the hysteresis losses in the
rubber. The annulus also acts as a 'vibration absorber' by changing the crankshaft
vibration characteristics.
7
A damper is a very sensitive part of the
engine system. The damper is engineered to
match engine model on which it is used. A
typical vibration damper consists of a
damper drive or housing and inertia ring.
The housing is coupled to the crankshaft and,
using springs, rubber or viscous medium,
drives the inertia ring: the objective is to
drive the inertia ring at average crankshaft
speed.
➢ Vibration dampers therefore have three

main components:
1. Drive member: bolted to crankshaft

2. Drive medium: either a fluid (silicone gel)
or solid rubber Drive member: an inertia
ring Figure 1.7 Torsional Vibration Damper
➢ Material
Originally the cylinder head and block were often an integral iron casting. By
eliminating the cylinder head gasket, problems with distortion, thermal conduction
between the block and head and gasket failure were avoided. However, manufacture
and maintenance were more difficult. The most widely used materials are currently
cast iron and aluminum alloys.
Typical properties are shown in Table 1. There are several advantages associated
with using an aluminum alloy for, the cylinder head. Aluminum alloys have the
advantage of lightness in weight and ease of production to close tolerances by casting
very important considerations for the combustion chambers. The high thermal
conductivity also allows higher compression ratios to he used, because of the
reduced problems associated with hot spots. The main disadvantages arc the greater
material costs, the greater susceptibility to damage (chemical and mechanical), and
the need for valve scat inserts and valve guides. Furthermore, the mechanical
properties of aluminum alloys are poorer than cast iron. The greater coefficient of
thermal expansion and the lower Young's Modulus make the alloy cylinder head
more susceptible to distortion. None the less, aluminum alloy is increasingly being
used for cylinder heads.
8
Property Cast iron Aluminum alloy
Density 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 7270 2700
Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 52 150
Thermal expansion coefficient 10−6/K 12 23
Young’s Modulus 𝑘𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 115 70
Table 1. 1 Properties of cast iron and aluminium alloy
When aluminum alloy is used for the cylinder block, cast iron cylinder liners are
invariably used because of their excellent wear characteristics. The principal
advantage of aluminum alloy is its low weight, the disadvantages being the greater
cost and lower stiffness (Young's Modulus). The reduced stiffness makes aluminum
alloy cylinder blocks more susceptible to torsional flexing and vibration (and thus
noisier). Furthermore, it is essential for the main bearing housings to remain in
accurate alignment if excessive wear and friction are to be eliminated. These
problems are overcome by careful design, with ribs and flanges increasing the
stiffness.
In order to facilitate design, much use is now made of finite element methods.
These enable the design to be optimizing by carrying out stress analysis and vibration
analysis with different arrangements and thicknesses of ribs and flanges.
In addition, (the lignite clement method can be applied to heat transfer problems,
and the thermal stresses can he deduced to complete the model.
An interesting example of an aluminum cylinder block is the Chevrolet Vega 2.3-
liter engine. The open-deck design reduces the torsional stiffness of the block hut
enables the block to be die cast, thus greatly easing manufacture. The aluminum
alloy contains 16- 18 per cent silicon, 4-5 per cent copper and 0.45-0.65 per cent
magnesium. Cast iron cylinder liners are not used; instead the cylinder bore is treated
to form a wear-resistant and oil-retaining surface by electrochemical etching to
expose the hard silicon particles, to provide a compatible bearing surface the piston
skirts are electroplated successively with zinc, copper, iron and tin. The zinc bonds
well to the piston alloy, and the copper protects the zinc; the iron provides the bearing
material, while the tin protects the iron and facilitates the running-in.
9
Figure 1.8 Engine block
In larger (non-automotive) engines, steel liners are often used because of their
greater strength compared to that of cast iron. To provide an inert, oil-retaining,
wear-resistant surface a carefully etched chromium-plated finish is often used.
10
EXPERIMENT: - 2
AIM: Testing of Internal Combustion Engine as per IS Standers

Objective: To perform test on four stroke single cylinder diesel engine with eddy
Current dynamometer to understand operational characteristics.
➢ IS Standard:
The standard covering methods of Tests is being published in following 12 parts
(Each covering a particular tests method or information related to method of tests)
IS: 10000 Part I Glossary of Terms related to test methods. IS: 10000 Part II Standard
Reference condition.
IS: 10000 Part III Measurement for Testing – units and limits if accuracy
IS: 10000 Part IV Declaration of Power, Efficiency, Fuel Consumption and
Lubricating Oil Consumption.
IS: 10000 Part V Preparation for Test and Measurement of Wear. IS: 10000 Part VI
Recording of Test Results.
IS: 10000 Part VII Governing Test for constant speed Engine and selection of
engine for use of electrical generators.
IS: 10000 Part VIII Performance Test. IS: 10000 Part IX Endurance Tests.
IS: 10000 Part X Teat for smoke level, limits and correction for smoke level for
variable speed engine.
IS: 10000 Part XI Information required with inquiry or order and information
supplied by the manufacturer with the engine.
IS: 10000 Part XII Test Certificates
• This standard will be complimentary to specification for performance required of

different types of engines covered by following standards.
IS: 10001 Specification for performance requirements for constant speed
compression ignition (diesel) engine for general purpose (up to 20 kW).
IS: 10002 Specification for performance requirements for constant speed
compression ignition (diesel) engine for general purpose (above 20 kW)
11
IS: 10003 Specification for performance requirements for variable speed
compression ignition (diesel) engine for automotive purposes.
IS: 10004 Specification for performance requirements for variable speed spark
ignition engines for automotive purposes.
➢ Specification:
Number of cylinders = 1
Bore * Stroke = 80 * 110 mm
Compression ratio = 16.5
Rated output = 3.7 KW @ 1500 rpm
Rated S.F.C. = 245 gm/KW
Fuel tank capacity = 6.5-liter
Engine weight = 114 Kg
Flywheel weight = 33 Kg
Direction of rotation – Clockwise while looking at flywheel
Starting method – Hand start with cranking angle
➢ Precautions:
• It is strongly recommended that the operator is familiar with the engine before it
is started. Before the engine is started, check the lubricating oil level of crank
case and add oil if required. All recommended periodic maintenance and service
in the manual must be carried out for the engine.
• At any time either the radiator or the external cooling water line is to be used.
Both cannot be used at the same time. When external cooling water is used,
radiator valves should be closed to avoid leakage or even rupture due to high
pressure water supply.
• Do not operate the exhaust gas calorimeter without water as the brazing used for
copper tubes in the heat exchanger will melt at full load exhaust temperature
(over 400 – 500)̊
➢ Procedure:
• Check fuel level.
• Check lubrication oil level.
• Open the three-way cock so that fuel flows to the engine directly from the tank.
• Open the cooling water valves and ensure that the flows through the engine.
12
• Keep dynamometer ready.
• Start the engine.
• Operate the throttle valve so that the engine picks up the speed to its rated rpm.
• Load the engine with the dynamometer.
• When steady condition is reached, the cooling water temperature is maintained
at the required level by adjusting the flow rate. Measure the flow
• rate.
• Adjust the cooling water flow rate in the exhaust gas calorimeter to achieve steady
state condition
➢ Observations:
Ambient air temperature Tamb = 42 ̊ C
Dynamometer constant = 3.51
Gas constant of air, R = 0.287 kJ/Kg K
Atmospheric pressure, Pa = 101.325 kPa
Air density, ρa = 1.12082 kg/m3 (according to P = ρa * R* Ta)
Air surge tank orifice dia. Do = 0.05 m
Co efficient of discharge Cd = 0.62
Density of diesel ρ = 860 kg/m3
Dynamometer type = Eddy current dynamometer
Fuel = Diesel
Calorific value of fuel = 45355 kJ/kg
➢ Calculations:
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Engine output power, Po = =0 kW
60000
Fuel consumption per minute, Qf = 10/t
= 10/80
= 0.125 ml/s
Qf
Fuel consumption, mf = × specific gravity of diesel
1000
0.125
= × 0.86
1000
13
=1.075 × 10-4 kg/s
Engine input power, Pi = mf × C.V.
= 1.075 × 10-4 × 45355
= 4.87 kW
𝑃𝑜
Engine efficiency, η = = 0%
𝑃𝑖
𝑚𝑓
Brake specific fuel consumption, bsfc = ×3600
𝑃𝑜
Volume flow rate of air, Qa = Cd × Ao × Vair

𝜋
= 0.64×0.05×0.0× 7.7× 4
= 9.37 × 10-3 m3 /s
Mass flow rate of air, ma = ρair × Qa
= 0.8922 × 9.37 × 10-3
= 8.36 × 10-3 kg/s
𝐴𝐿𝑁
Theoretical volume flow rate of air, Qath = 2×60
= 3.14× 0.082 ×0.11 ×1385.37/480
= 6.38× 10-3 m3/s
14
➢ FLOW CHART OF CALCULATION OF α AND ẞ USING TABLE 1 ND APNDIX A, B,C,
D, AND F
15
➢ GRATH
Efficiency Vs Brake
10.46709273
5.20580519
0. 0. 0. 0. 1. 1. 1.
Brake
Figure 2.1 Efficiency Vs Brake
SFC Vs load
8 1.524717614
1.
6
1.
4 0.758317
1. 813
2
1 0.5092769506.488601
0. 169
8
0. 1 1.5 2 2. 3
Figure 2.1 SFC Vs load

➢ CONCLUSION
• Measured leakages from return line and fuel pipe line is 0.05 gm/s.
• Diesel engine shows maximum efficiency near full load condition.
• Maximum efficiency of diesel engine id 16.25 %
• A/F ratio of subject engine varies from 100.15 to 55.78.
16
EXPERIMENT: - 3
AIM: Study and performance analysis of four stroke petrol engine.
➢ Objective: To perform test on four stroke single cylinder petrol engine.

Technical Specification of the Engine:
We have selected a vertical, single cylinder, air-cooled, cold starting
SPARK ignition, four stroke, Petrol engine, which we are going to use for the
experiment.
No of cylinder 1
Fuel tank capacity 6.5 liter
Bore (mm) 68
Stroke (mm) 45
Displacement (cm3) 163
Compression ratio 9:01
RPM 3000
H.P. 4.8
Max. Torque – (kg-m) 10.5 Nm @2600 RPM
Consumption of Fuel (S.F.C)- 220

gm./h.p./hr.
Lub oil consumption-kg/hr. 0.008
Capacity of oil sump- Liter 0.58

Dry weight-Kg. 15.1 kg
Table 3.1 Technical Specification of the Engine
17
➢ Precautions:
• It is strongly recommended that the operator is familiar with the engine
before it is started. Before the engine is started, check the lubricating oil level
of crank case and add oil if required. All recommended periodic maintenance
and service in the manual must be carried out for the engine.
• At any time either the radiator or the external cooling water line is to be
used. Both cannot be used at the same time. When external cooling water
is used, radiator valves should be closed to avoid leakage or even rupture
due to high pressure water supply.
• Do not operate the exhaust gas calorimeter without water as the brazing used
for copper tubes in the heat exchanger will melt at full load exhaust
temperature (over 400 – 500 ̊ C)
➢ Procedure:
• Open the three-way cock so that fuel flows to the engine directly from the
tank.
• Operate the throttle valve so that the engine picks up the speed to its rated
rpm.
• When steady condition is reached, the cooling water temperature is
maintained at the required level by adjusting the flow rate. Measure
the flow rate.
• Adjust the cooling water flow rate in the exhaust gas calorimeter to
achieve steady state condition.
18
➢ Formulae used:

t=time for fuel consumption of 10ml (sec.)
Fuel consumption, mf = specific gravity of diesel,
𝑃0
Engine efficiency, η =
𝑃𝑖
𝑚𝑓
𝑃0
Theoretical volume flow rate of air, Qath = 𝐴𝐿𝑁
2×60
19
➢ Parameter
Engine speed RPM 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000 3000
Voltage V 230 230 230 230 230 230 230 230
Current Amp 0 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rod Depth mm 0 32.5 50 70 92 128 171 216 270
Plate Depth mm 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
mm of water column CmWc 0.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.4 5.8 6.2 6.5 7
meter of air column (ha) m or air 3.33333 38.3333 40 41.6666 45 48.33333 51.66667 54.16667 58.33333
Amb. temp (Tamb) ℃ 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
Water in to calorimeter (T1) ℃ 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29 29
Water out from calorimeter (T2) ℃ 37 37 37 38 38 38 38 38 39
Exhaust gas in temp to cal. (T3) ℃ 621 611 596 587 591 584 581 581 584
Exhaust gas Out temp from cal. T4 ℃ 89 108 111 113 114 115 115 117 117
cal. Meter water discharge tw sec 8.195 8.195 8.195 8.195 8.195 8.195 8.195 8.195 8.195
time for fuel cons. Of 10 ml (tf) sec 31.75 31.54 31.07 29.08 28.15 27.6 26.37 25.94 24.26
alternator efficiency % 100 64 66 68 70 72 71 70 69
Table 3.2 Parameter
➢ Calculation
Fuel consumption (FC) kg/s 0.00022 0.000222 0.000225 0.000241 0.000249 0.000254 0.000265 0.00027 0.000289
Brake Power (BP) kW 0 0.719457 0.871919 1.015413 1.314993 1.597929 1.944369 2.300707 2.667374
Brake Specific Fuel
Consumption (BSFC) kg/kWhr 0 1.110539 0.930214 0.853421 0.680767 0.571392 0.491487 0.42225 0.389427
efficiency of engine % 0 7.385891 8.81767 9.611108 12.04864 14.35499 16.6888 19.4253 21.06255
mass of air consumption 0.00092
kg/s 0.003142 0.00321 0.003276 0.003404 0.003528 0.003648 0.003735 0.003876
7
air/fuel 4.20269
A/F 8 14.15778 14.24677 13.60924 13.69083 13.91162 13.74233 13.84144 13.43366
➢ Table 3.3 Calculation
20
21
EXPERIMENT: - 4
AIM: Study and Performance analysis of four stroke Diesel Engine
➢ Objective: To perform test on four stroke single cylinder diesel engine with
eddy Current dynamometer to understand operational characteristics.
➢ Specification:
Number of cylinders = 1
Bore * Stroke = 80 * 110 mm Compression
ratio = 16.5
Rated output = 3.7 KW @ 1500 rpm
Rated S.F.C. = 245gm/KW
Fuel tank capacity = 6.5 liter
Engine weight = 114 Kg
Flywheel weight = 33 Kg
Direction of rotation-Clockwise while looking at flywheel Starting
method – Hand start with cranking angle
➢ Precautions:
• It is strongly recommended that the operator is familiar with the engine before it
is started. Before the engine is started, check the lubricating oil level of crank
case and add oil if required. All recommended periodic maintenance and service
in the manual must be carried out for the engine.
• At any time either the radiator or the external cooling water line is to be used.
Both cannot be used at the same time. When external cooling water is used,
radiator valves should be closed to avoid leakage or even rupture due to high
pressure water supply.
• Do not operate the exhaust gas calorimeter without water as the brazing used for
copper tubes in the heat exchanger will melt at full load exhaust temperature
(over 400 – 500 ̊C)
➢ Procedure:
21
• Open the three-way cock so that fuel flows to the engine directly from the tank.
• Operate the throttle valve so that the engine picks up the speed to its rated rpm.
• When steady condition is reached, the cooling water temperature is maintained
at the required level by adjusting the flow rate. Measure the flow rate.
• Adjust the cooling water flow rate in the exhaust gas calorimeter to achieve steady
state condition.
➢ Observations:
Ambient air temperature Tam = 42 ̊ C
Dynamometer constant = 3.51
Gas constant of air, R = 0.287 kJ/Kg K
Atmospheric pressure, Pa = 101.325 kPa
Air density, ρa = 1.12082 kg/m3 (according to P = ρa * R* Ta)
Air surge tank orifice dia. Do = 0.05 m
Co efficient of discharge Cd = 0.62
3
Density of diesel ρ = 860 kg/m
Dynamometer type = Eddy current dynamometer
Fuel = Diesel
Calorific value of fuel = 45355 kJ/kg
22
➢ Observation table:
Sr Dynamom Time for Air Load Engine speed

no. eter 10 ml fuel velocit (kg) (rpm)
excitation consumptio y
current (A) n (S) (m/s)
1 0 80 7.7 0.0 1385.37
2 0.5 69.53 7.4 0.60 1372.92
3 0.7 60.11 7.4 1.40 1368.46
4 0.9 52.43 7.3 2.40 1362.74
5 1 47 7.3 2.80 1358.15
6 1.1 43.8 7.3 3.60 1353.92
7 1.2 39 7.3 4.20 1355.71
8 1.3 35.55 7.3 5.10 1358.85
9 1.4 32.25 7.3 5.90 1347.99
10 1.5 29.75 7.2 6.90 1338.23
11 1.6 26.67 7.2 7.90 1333.86
Table 4.1 Observation table
➢ Calculations:
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Engine output power, Po = =0 kW
60000
= 10/80
= 0.125 ml/s
Qf
Fuel consumption, mf = × specific gravity of diesel
1000
0.125
= × 0.86
1000
=1.075 × 10-4 kg/s
= 1.075 × 10-4 × 45355
= 4.87 kW
23
𝑃𝑜
Engine efficiency, η = = 0%
𝑃𝑖
𝑚𝑓
𝑃𝑜
𝜋
= 0.64×0.05×0.0× 7.7×
4
= 9.37 × 10-3 m3 /s
= 0.8922 × 9.37 × 10-3
= 8.36 × 10-3 kg/s
𝐴𝐿𝑁
Theoretical volume flow rate of air, Qath = 2×60
= 3.14× 0.082 ×0.11 ×1385.37/480
= 6.38× 10-3 m3/s
24
➢ Result table
Sr Dynamomet B.P. Fuel Air Mass A/F B.S.F.C. Volumetr Engine

no. er current (kW) Consumption densit flow rate ratio (gm/kW ic efficien
(A) (kg/s) × 10-3 y (ρ) of air h) efficiency cy
(ma)
1 0 0 0.108 1.12 0.011 102.14 - 81.18 0
6
2 0.5 0.302 0.124 1.12 0.011 85.319 1469.77 78.72 5.40
3 0.7 0.704 0.143 1.12 0.011 73.759 730.99 78.98 10.86
4 0.9 1.203 0.164 1.12 0.90 63.467 490.92 78.24 16.17
5 1 1.399 0.183 1.12 0.01 56.899 470.99 78.50 16.85
6 1.1 1.793 0.196 1.12 0.01 53.020 396.32 78.75 20.13
7 1.2 2.094 0.221 1.12 0.01 47.210 379.09 78.65 20.94
8 1.3 2.549 0.242 1.12 0.01 43.033 341.69 78.46 23.23
9 1.4 2.925 0.261 1.12 0.01 39.039 328.21 78.10 24.18
10 1.5 3.396 0.289 1.12 0.01 35.519 306.44 78.58 25.90
11 1.6 3.875 0.322 1.12 0.01 31.842 299.54 78.74 26.50
Table 4.2 Result table
25
➢ Graph:
Draw the graph of B.P. versus B.S.F.C. and efficiency.
Figure 4.1 Graph of result
➢ Conclusion:
• Measured leakages from return line and fuel pipe line is 0.05 gm/s.
• Diesel engine shows maximum efficiency near full load condition.
• Maximum efficiency of diesel engine id 26.50 %
• Minimum BSFC of diesel engine is 299.54 gm/kW hr
• A/F ratio of subject engine varies from 102.146 to 31.842.
26
EXPERIMENT: - 5
AIM: Study of MPFI and CRDI systems.
➢ Objective: After this practical, student will be able to,
• Describe & explain MPFI system of an I. C. engine.
• Describe & explain CRDI system of an I. C. engine.
• Compare MPFI and CRDI system.
➢ MPFI System
In a multi-cylinder engine with a carburetor, it is difficult to obtain a uniform
mixture in each cylinder. The various cylinders receive the air-fuel mixture in
varying quantities and richness. This problem is called mal-distribution & it can
be solved by gasoline injection system.
Advantages of gasoline injection system:
• Uniform fuel distribution in multi-cylinder engine
• For improving volumetric efficiency of an engine
• To reduce detonation
• To reduce fuel loss in two stroke engines during scavenging Types of Injection
Systems:
• Gasoline direct injection system (GDI)
• Port injection system
(1) Timed injection system
(2) Continuous injection system
• Manifold injection system
• Timed Injection System: This system has a fuel supply pump which sends fuel
at low pressure of about 2 bar when the engine is running at maximum speed. A
fuel injection pump and nozzle are the other parts of the system. This system
injects fuel usually during the early part of the suction stroke. In timed injection
system, gasoline is sprayed from the injector in pulses.
• Continuous Injection System: This system has a rotary pump. The pump
maintenance a fuel line gauge pressure of .75 to 1.5 bar. The system injects fuel
through a nozzle. The timing and duration of the injection is determined by the
electronic control unit (ECU) depending on the load and speed. In continuous
system, gasoline is sprayed continuously from the injectors.
27
➢ The gasoline injection system can be grouped under two categories:
1. Single point injection
2. Multi point injection (MPFI)
• In single point injection system, one or two injectors are mounted inside the
throttle body assembly. Fuel sprays are directed at one point or center of the intake
manifold. This type is also known as throttle body injection.
• Multi point injection has one injector for each engine cylinder, where fuel is
injected in more than one location. This type is also called port injection system.
➢ Electronic fuel injection system:

In this system various sensors, a computer and a solenoid operated fuel injector
is used to meter and inject required amount of fuel into the engine cylinders. In
this system an ECU (electronic control unit) receives signals from various sensors
to control the operation of injector.
Various sensors used are as under:
1. Exhaust gas or oxygen sensor
2. Engine temperature sensor
3. Air flow sensor
4. Air inlet temperature sensor
5. Throttle position sensor
6. Manifold pressure sensor
7. Camshaft position sensor
8. Knock sensor
28
1. MPFI System:
Multi point fuel injection system
function under following two basic
arrangements:
• Port Injection
• Throttle body Injection
➢ Port Injection: In this system, the

injector is placed on the side of the intake
manifold near the intake port. The
injector sprays gasoline into the air,
inside the intake manifold.
➢ In port injection every cylinder is Figure 5.9 Port Injection System
provided with an injector in its intake
manifold.
Figure 5.2 Port Injection System with an injector in its

intake manifold.
➢ Throttle Body Injection:
Figure 5.3 Throttle Body Injection System
29
NOTE: The port injection system and the throttle body injection system may be
either pulsed system or continuous system. In both systems, the amount of gasoline
injected depends upon the engine speed and power requirements.
➢ The MPFI systems can also be classified as D-MPFI and L-MPFI.
• D-MPFI: The D-MPFI system is the manifold fuel injection system. In this system
intake manifold vacuum and volume of air is sensed and according to that ECU
sends signal to injector for amount of gasoline injection.
Figure 5.4 D-MPFI system
• L-MPFI: This is port fuel injection system. Here the fuel metering is regulated
by the engine speed and amount of air that actually enters the engine.
Figure 5.5 L-MPFI system
30
➢ Functional division of MPFI system:
Three main components of MPFI system are:
1. Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
2. Fuel system
3. Air Induction system
I. Electronic control system:

The ECU receives signals from various sensors, process them and
sends command to injector for volume of fuel to be injected.
Figure 5.6 Electronic control system
II. Fuel System:

Here the fuel is supplied by the fuel pump. At the time of starting, the
cold start injector is operated by cold start injector timing switch. The injector
receives signals from ECU and according to it inject fuel into intake manifold.
It is shown in diagram on besides page.
III. Air induction system: It is shown in diagram on beside page.

Here the air cleaner, air flow meter, throttle body and air valve supply
proper amount of air to the air intake chamber.
31
2. CRDI System:
CRDI stands for Common Rail Direct Injection meaning, direct injection of the
fuel into the cylinders of a diesel engine via a single, common line, called the
common rail which is connected to all the fuel injectors. Whereas ordinary diesel
direct fuel-injection systems have to build up pressures a new for each and every
injection cycle, the new common rail (line) engines maintain constant pressure
regardless of the injection sequence. This pressure then remains permanently
available throughout the fuel line. The engine's electronic timing regulates
injection pressure according to engine speed and load. The electronic control unit
(ECU) modifies injection pressure precisely and as needed, based on data obtained
from sensors on the cam and crankshafts.
Common rail refers to the single fuel injection line on the CRDI engines. Whereas
conventional direct injection diesel engines must repeatedly generate fuel pressure
for each injection, in CRDI engines the pressure is built up independently of the
injection sequence and remains permanently available in the fuel line.
Figure 5.7 CRDI System
32
➢ The Common Rail Direct Diesel Injection system consists of the following
parts:
1. Injection nozzle:
Injects fuel into the combustion chamber (for direct injection) or pre-
combustion (for indirect injection).
2. Fuel Supply Pump:

The fuel supply pump in low pressure stage is responsible for maintaining an
adequate supply of fuel to the high-pressure components.
The fuel supply pump draws fuel out of the fuel tank and conveys it
continuously in the required quantity to the high-pressure fuel injection
installation. Many pumps bleed themselves automatically so that starting is
possible even when fuel tank has run dry.
3. Fuel Filter:
The service life design of the fuel injection system depends on a specific
minimum purity of the fuel. Functions of fuel filter are:
a) Particulate filtration:
b) Water Separation:
Two filters can also be fitted in parallel, resulting in greater particulate storage
capacity. Connecting the filter in series produces a higher filtration efficiency.
Pre-filter is fitted on the suction or pressure side if requirements are particularly
high with a filter fineness matched to the main filter.
4. The Common Rail:

The common rail is a modular system, and can therefore be easily adapted for
different engines. Besides acting as fuel accumulator, the fuel rail also
distributes fuel to the injectors. The function of the high-pressure accumulator
is to maintain the fuel at high pressure. In so doing accumulator volume has to
dampen pressure fluctuations caused by fuel pulses delivered by the fuel pump
and the fuel injection cycles. This ensures that, when the injector opens the
injection pressure remains constant.
5. High Pressure Line:
In common rail systems, they serve as the connection between the high-
pressure pump and the rail and from rail to the injector. The pipe is made of
steel as it has to withstand high pressures.
33
6. Fuel Injection Pump:
Diesel fuel injection pumps are generally divided into two categories:
➢ Mechanically controlled fuel injection pumps are available as:
a) In-line type
b) Distributor type
➢ Electronically controlled fuel injection pumps are available as:
a) In-line type
b) Distributor type
c) Common Rail type
7. Injector
A fuel injector is nothing but an electronically controlled valve. It is supplied
with pressurized fuel by the fuel pump, and it is capable of opening and closing
many times per second. The amount of fuel supplied to the engine is determined
by the amount of time the fuel injector stays open. This is called the pulse width,
and it is controlled by the ECU.
8. Electronic Control Unit:

An Engine Control Unit (ECU), also known as Engine Management System
(EMS) is an electronic device, fundamentally a computer, that is part of an
internal combustion engine, which reads several sensors in the engine and uses
the information to control the ignition systems of the engine.
An electronic control unit contains the hardware and software (firmware). The
hardware consists of electronic components on a printed circuit board (PCB).
The main component on this circuit board is a microcontroller chip (CPU). The
software is stored in the microcontroller or other chips on the PCB, typically in
EPROMs or flash memory so the CPU can be re- programmed by uploading
updated code. This is also referred to as an (electronic) Engine Management
System (EMS). Sophisticated engine management systems also may
communicate with transmission control units or directly interface electronically-
controlled automatic transmissions, traction control systems, and the like.
9. Engine Sensors:
In order to provide the right amount of fuel, the engine control unit is equipped
with a whole lot of sensors. Let's take a look at some of them.
In order to provide the correct amount of fuel for every operating condition,
34
the engine control unit (ECU) has to monitor a huge number of input sensors.
Here are just a few:
• Mass airflow sensor - Tells the ECU the mass of air entering the engine
• Oxygen Sensor - Monitors the amount of oxygen in the exhaust so the ECU
can determine how rich or lean the fuel mixture is and make adjustments
accordingly
• Throttle position sensor - Monitors the throttle valve position (which
determines how much air goes into the engine) so the ECU can respond
quickly to changes, increasing or decreasing the fuel rate as necessary
• Coolant temperature sensor - Allows the ECU to determine when the engine
has reached its proper operating temperature
• Voltage sensor - Monitors the system voltage in the car so the ECU can raise
the idle speed if voltage is dropping (which would indicate a high electrical
load)
• Manifold absolute pressure sensor - Monitors the pressure of the air in the
intake manifold. The amount of air being drawn into the engine is a good
indication of how much power it is producing; and the more air that goes
into the engine, the lower the manifold pressure, so this reading is used to
gauge how much power is being produced.
• Engine speed sensor - Monitors engine speed, which is one of the factors used
to calculate the pulse width.
35
EXPERIMENT: - 6
AIM: Study of Ignition, Cooling and Lubrication Systems.

➢ Objective: After this practical, student will be able to,
• Describe & explain Ignition system of an I. C. engine.
• Describe & explain Cooling system of an I. C. engine.
• Describe & explain Lubrication system of an I. C. engine.
➢ Ignition System:
The combustion in spark ignition engine is initiated by electric discharge
across the electrodes across the spark plug, which usually occurs from 10˚ to 30˚
before TDC depending upon chamber geometry and operating conditions. The
ignition system provides the spark of sufficient intensity to ignite air-fuel mixture
at the predetermined position in the engine cycle under all speeds and load
conditions.
Automotive engines are usually cranked by a small electric motor, which is
better known as a starter motor or starter. The starter for SI and CI engine operates
on the same principle as a direct current electric motor.
• Ignition System – Requirements:
• It should provide good spark between the electrodes of the plug at correct
timing.
• The duration of the spark must be long enough with sufficient energy to
ensure that ignition of the mixture has a high chance of occurring.
• The system must distribute the high voltage to each spark plug at the exact
time in every cycle, i.e. it must have distributing device.
• It should function efficiently over the entire range of engine speed.
• It should light, effective and reliable in service.
➢ Classification of Ignition System:

1. Older Systems:
• Glow plug ignition:
A glow plug is coil of Nichrome wire that will glow red hot when anelectric
current is passed through it. This ignite Air-Fuel mixture upon contact. The
36
coil is electrically activated from engine starting and once it runs it will retain
sufficient residual heat on each stroke due to heat generated on the previous
stroke. Glow plugs are used to aid starting of diesel engine.
• Contact ignition:
It consists of copper of brass rod that protruded into the cylinder and was
heated using external source. Heat conduction keep the end of the rod hot and
ignition takes place when the combustible mixture comes into its contact.
Naturally this was very inefficient as the fuel would not be ignited in the
controlled manner.
2. Modern Systems:
a) Battery ignition system:
Figure 6.1 Battery ignition system
The primary circuit consists of the battery, ammeter, ignition switch,

primary coil windings and capacitor, breaker points. Functions of these
components are:
Battery: Provides power to run the system.
Ignition switch: Allows the driver to turn the system on and off.
Primary coil: Produces the magnetic field to create the high voltage in
secondary coil.
Breaker points: A mechanical switch that acts as the triggering mechanism.
Capacitor: Protects the points from burning out.
37
The secondary circuit converts magnetic induction into high voltage electricity
to jump across the spark plug gap, firing the mixture at right time. Functions
of these components are:
Secondary coil: The part of the coil that creates high voltage electricity.
Coil wire: A highly insulated wire to take the high voltage to the distributor
cap.
Distributor cap: A plastic cap which goes on the top of distributor to hold
high tension wire in right order.
Rotor: Spins around on the top of the distributor shaft and distributes the spark
to the right spark plug.
Spark plug leads: Another highly insulated wire that takes the high voltage
from the cap to the plugs.
Spark plugs: Take the electricity from the wires and give it an air gap in the
combustion chamber to jump across to ignite the mixture.
b) Magneto ignition system:
Figure 6.2 Magneto ignition system
38
It uses the changing magnetic field to generate current in primary and
secondary circuits. As the magnet approaches it induces magnetic flux in the
armature thus breaker point closes and current dissipates through primary
circuit. After magnet rotates past, armature flux reverses in direction and the
breaker points open. That change in magnetic flux produces 170 V in primary
circuit and induces 10000 V in secondary circuits that produces the spark in
spark plug.
c) Electronic ignition system:

In this system contact breaker points are replaced by an angular sensor of
some kind – either optical, where a vane rotor breaks the light beam or more
commonly using a Hall Effect sensor, which responds to a rotating magnet
mounted on a suitable shaft. The sensor output processed by a suitable circuit
is then used to trigger a switching device such as a thyristor, which switches a
large flow of current through the coil.
Figure 6. 3 Electronic ignition system
39
➢ Cooling System:
The cooling is a matter of equalization of internal temperature to prevent
local overheating as well as to remove sufficient heat energy to maintain
practical overall working temperature.
➢ Reasons for cooling:
• To promote high volumetric efficiency
• To ensure proper combustion
• To ensure mechanical operation & reliability
➢ Effect of over-cooling:
• The thermal efficiency is decreased due to more loss of heat carried by a
coolant
• The vaporization of the fuel is less resulting in lower combustion
efficiency
• Low temperature increases the viscosity of lubricant causing more less
due to friction
➢ Types of cooling system:
1) Air cooling (Direct cooling) system:
Air cooled engines depends on airflow across their external surface of the
engine cylinder to remove the necessary heat. The amount of heat dissipated
depends upon:
• The area of cooling surface in contact with air
• Mass flow rate of air
• Temperature difference between cylinder and air
• Conductivity of metal
Figure 6. 4 Cooling fins in air cooled system

40
➢ Advantages
• The absence of radiator, cooling jackets, coolant and pumps makes the
engine lighter
• The engine can be operated in cold climate where liquid may freeze.
• In places where water is scarce, air cooled engine is in advantage
• Handling of liquid coolant requires piping and plumbing auxiliaries
• Air cooled engines have no coolant leakage and freezing problems
➢ Disadvantages:
• Relatively large amount of power is used to drive the cooling fan
• Engines gives low power output
• Cooling fins under certain conditions may vibrates and amplify the noise
level
• Cooling is not uniform
• Engines are subjected to high working temperature
2) Liquid cooling (Indirect cooling) systems:
• Direct or Non–Return system:

The heat released from the
combustion of Air-Fuel mixture is
transferred in all direction to the
walls of combustion chambers,
cylinders and pistons by direct
radiation and convective currents of
gas rubbing against the stationary
gas film and then by conduction
through this stagnant boundary
layer of gas and oil film to the metal
wall. Figure 6. 5 Direct system
41
• Thermo syphon system:
In this system a fan rotated by a
crankshaft draws cold air from outside
through the radiator. It is connected to
the engine block by means of two
pipes. The hot water passes through
some thin pipes built in the radiator,
where it gets cooled. Thus, the fluid
circulates through the system in the
form of convective currents.
3) Forced circulation cooling system: Figure 6. 6 Thermo syphon system

This system is used in large no. of
vehicles where circulation of water takes
place with convection currents helped by a
pump. The water or coolant is circulated
through jacket around the parts of the
engine to be cooled, and is kept in motion
by a centrifugal pump driven from the
engine. A thermostat is used to control the
water temperature required for cooling.
Figure 6. 7 Forced circulation cooling
4) Evaporative cooling system: system
In this system the engine will be
cooled because of the evaporation
of the water in the cylinder jackets
into steam. The advantage is being
taken from the high latent heat of
vaporization of water by allowing it
to evaporate in the cylinder jackets.
This system is widely used for
cooling of many industrial engines.
Figure 6. 8 Evaporative cooling system
42
➢ Advantages:
• Because of even cooling of cylinder barrel and head makes it possible to
reduce the cylinder head and valve seat temperatures.
• The volumetric efficiency of water-cooled engines is higher than air cooled
engines.
• Compact design of engine with appreciably smaller frontal area is possible.
• In case of water-cooled engines, installation is not necessarily at the front of
the vehicles as the cooling system can be conveniently located.
➢ Disadvantages:
• The system requires more maintenance.
• The engine performance becomes sensitive to climate conditions.
• The power absorbed by the pump is considerable and affects the power
output of the engine.
• In the event of failure of cooling system serious damage may be caused to
the engine.
➢ Lubrication System:
• Purpose of lubrication:
• Reduce the frictional resistance of the engine to a minimum to ensure the
maximum mechanical efficiency.
• Protect the engine against the wear.
• Serve as a cooling agent by picking up heat.
• Remove all impurities from lubricated region.
• Form a seal between piston rings and the cylinder walls to prevent blow by.
➢ Types of lubrication systems:

1) Mist lubrication system (For Two stroke engines):
In two stroke engines the charge is compressed in the crankcase and as
such it is not suitable to have the lubricating oil in the sump. So, this type of
engines are lubricated by adding 3% to 6% oil in the fuel tank itself. The main
advantage with this system lies in the simplicity and the low cost as the system
does not require any oil pump, filter etc.
43
2) Wet sump lubrication system (For Four stroke engines):
In this type of system, the bottom of the crankcase contains an oil sump
that serves as the oil supply reservoir. Oil dripping from the cylinders and bearing
flows by gravity back into the wet sump where it is picked up by a pump and
recirculated through the engine lubrication system. The types of wet sump
lubrication system used are:
• The splash and circulating pump system:
Figure 6. 9 splash and circulating pump system
44
• The splash and pressure system:
Figure 6. 10 splash and pressure system
• The full force-feed system:
Figure 6. 11 Full force-feed system
45
3) Dry sump lubrication system (For Four stroke engines):
Figure 6. 12 Dry sump lubrication system (For Four stroke engines)
➢ Properties of lubricating oil:

• The oil used in the engine must serve as a lubricant, a coolant and an agent
for removing impurities.
• It must be able to withstand high temperature without breaking down. The oil
must be operating over a good range of temperature.
• They must not oxidize on the chamber walls, piston crown or at the piston
rings. Oil should have high film strength to prevent metal-to-metal contact
even under extreme loads.
46
EXPERIMENT: - 7
AIM: - Study of Clutch and Transmission System
➢ Clutch
Clutch is a machine member used to connect the driving shaft to a driven shaft,
so that the driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the
driving shaft. A clutch thus provides an interruptible connection between two
rotating shafts. Clutches allow a high inertia load to be stated with a small power.
Clutches are used whenever the ability to limit the transmission of power or
motion needs to be controlled either in amount or over time (e.g. electric
screwdrivers limit how much torque is transmitted through use of a clutch;
clutches control whether automobiles transmit engine power to the wheels).
In the simplest application clutches are employed in devices which have two
rotating shafts. In these devices one shaft is typically attached to a motor or other
power unit (the driving member) while the other shaft (the driven member)
provides output power for work to be done. In a drill for instance, one shaft is
driven by a motor and the other drives a drill chuck. The clutch connects the two
shafts so that they may be locked together and spin at the same speed (engaged),
locked together but spinning at different speeds (slipping), or unlocked and
spinning at different speeds (disengaged).
A popularly known application of clutch is in automotive vehicles where it is
used to connect the engine and the gear box. Here the clutch enables to crank and
start the engine disengaging the transmission Disengage the transmission and
change the gear to alter the torque on the wheels. Clutches are also used
extensively in production machinery of all types.
When your foot is off the pedal, the springs push the pressure plate against the
clutch disc, which in turn presses against the flywheel. This locks the engine to
the transmission input shaft, causing them to spin at the same speed.
Clutch for a drive shaft: The clutch disc (center) spins with the flywheel (left).
To disengage, the lever is pulled (black arrow), causing a white pressure plate
(right) to disengage the green clutch disc from turning the drive shaft, which turns
within the thrust-bearing ring of the lever. Never will all 3 rings connect, with no
47
gaps. In a car's clutch, a flywheel connects to the engine, and a clutch plate
connects to the transmission.
The amount of force the clutch can hold depends on the friction between the
clutch plate and the flywheel, and how much force the spring puts on the pressure
plate. When the clutch pedal is pressed, a cable or hydraulic piston pushes on the
release fork, which presses the throw-out bearing against the middle of the
diaphragm spring. As the middle of the diaphragm spring is pushed in, a series
of pins near the outside of the spring causes the spring to pull the pressure plate
away from the clutch disc (see below). This releases the clutch from the spinning
engine.
Clutch is a mechanism which enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be
transmitted, when desired, to a second shaft the axis of which is coincident with
that of the first.
➢ Function of clutch
• Transmitting the torque from the engine to the drivetrain.
• Smoothly deliver the power from the engine to enable smooth vehicle
movement.
• Perform quietly and to reduce drive-related vibration.
• Protect the drivetrain when given the inappropriate use. Given the situation, the
Exide clutch will fail when given the inappropriate use in turn to protect the rest
of the drivetrain, similar to the function of an electric fuse.
➢ Type of clutch
1) Friction clutches and
2) Fluid flywheel
1) Friction clutches:
These clutches work on the principle of friction exist in between two rotating
shafts when they come in contact with each other.
• Type of friction clutches:
1. Single plate clutch
2. Multi-plate cutch
3. Cone clutch
4. Centrifugal clutch
5. Semi-centrifugal clutch
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1. Single plate clutch
As per name single plate clutch consist a single friction plate or clutch
plate. It consists different parts but principle of working is same as per discuss
above that is by sliding clutch plate, engage and disengage of shaft is done. It is
use there, where radial space is more like in trucks and buses.
Figure 7. 1 Single plate clutch
2. Multi plate clutch

Multi plate clutch consist multiple pressure plate and this pressure plate is use
to develop friction force. And this friction force is used to transmit torque. The
operating principle is same as single plate clutch, by sliding pressure plate engage
and disengage of shafts is done. This type clutches use where space is limited like
in motorcycle.
3. Cone clutch
Cone clutch consist cup and cone. Cup has inner conical cavity and cone has
outer conical shape. Cone is inserted in cup and on outer surface of cone friction
material or friction lining is used. When cone is inserted in cup friction force is
develop and this friction force is used for transmitting torque driving shaft to drive
shaft. Cup is fixed to driving shaft and cone is free to slide axially on splined
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driven shaft. By sliding cone engage and disengage is done. Cone clutch is not
widely used because high axial thrust is required to engage or disengage driven
shaft from driving shaft.
4.Centrifugal
The name centrifugal clutch is come from the centrifugal force is used in
clutch. Principle of working of centrifugal clutch is that, it consists clutch drum
of circular shape, spider, helical spring, shoes with friction lining at outer side.
Clutch drum is
Figure 7. 2 Centrifugal clutch
fixed to drive shaft and spider and shoes is connected to driving shaft. Shoes with
outer friction lining are connecting at center with the help of helical spring and it
free to move or slide in spider as centrifugal force is increase. Centrifugal force is
increase with increase in speed. Then shoes move outside and come in contact
with drum or engage with drum and due to friction lining friction force is develop
and this is use to transmit torque. And when speed is reducing shoes come back
and disengage with clutch drum. In this way cone clutch is work. Centrifugal
clutches are use in scooter where automatic gear transmission is used.
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5. Semi-centrifugal clutch
Semi Centrifugal Clutches used in high powered engines and racing car engines
where clutch disengagements require appreciable and tiresome drivers’ effort. The
power transmitted with partly by clutch springs and remaining by the centrifugal
action of an extra weight provided in the system. The clutch springs transmit
power at low engine speed and the centrifugal force transmit power at higher
engine speed.
Figure 7. 3 Semi-Centrifugal clutch
• When the engine at low speed the spring keeps the clutch engaged to transmit
power, the weighted levers do not have any pressure on the pressure plate.
• When engine at high speed the weights fly off and levers exert pressure on the
pressure plate which keeps the clutch firmly engaged to transmit high torque.
• Thus, instead of having more stiff springs for keeping the clutch engaged firmly
at high speeds, they are less stiff because of centrifugal forces of weighted
levers, so that the driver may not get any strain in operating the clutch.
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• when the engine speed decreases, the weights fall and the weighted levers do
not exert any pressure on the pressure plate and only spring pressure is exerted
on the pressure plate to keep the clutch engaged.
2) Fluid flywheel:
Fluid flywheel clutches works on transfer of energy from one rotor to the other
by means of some fluid. for Example: Fluid coupling and torque converter.
Figure 7. 4 Fluid flywheel
Fluid flywheel or torque converter works as clutch in automatic gear box. The
working of fluid flywheel or torque converter is shown with the help of actual
parts assembled on square iron pipe frame. All the necessary parts of fluid
flywheel or torque converter are shown in actual form. This model helps the
student to understand the working of fluid flywheel or torque converter very
easily. It is specially made dissectible for demonstration purposes.
➢ Transmission System
Transmission system is an assembly of parts including the speed-changing
gears and the propeller shaft by which the power is transmitted from an engine
to a live axle. Often transmission refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and
gear trains to provide speed and torque conversions from a rotating power source
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to another device.
In British English, the term transmission refers to the whole drivetrain,
including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft (for rear-wheel drive), differential, and final
drive shafts. In American English, however, the term refers more specifically to
the gearbox alone, and the usage details are different. The most common use is in
motor vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal
combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a
relatively highrotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping, and
slower travel. The transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the slower
wheel speed, increasing torque in the process. Often, a transmission has multiple
gear ratios (or simply "gears"), with the ability to switch between them as speed
varies. This switching may be done manually (by the operator), or automatically.
Directional (forward and reverse) control may also be provided. Single-radio
transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque (and
sometimes direction) of motor output.
In motor vehicles, the transmission generally is connected to the engine
crankshaft via a flywheel and/or clutch and/or fluid coupling, partly because
internal combustion engines cannot run below a particular speed. The output of
the transmission is transmitted via driveshaft to one or more differentials, which
in turn, drive the wheels. While a differential may also provide gear reduction, its
primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at
different speeds (essential to avoid wheel slippage on turns) as it changes the
direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the only
mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque
converters and power transformation (for example, diesel-electric transmission
and hydraulic drive system). The need for a transmission in an automobile is a
consequence of the characteristics of the internal combustion engine. Engines
typically operate over a range of 600 to about 7000 revolutions per minute
(though this varies, and is typically less for diesel engines), while the car's wheels
rotate between 0 rpm and around 1800 rpm.
Furthermore, the engine provides its highest torque and power outputs
unevenly across the rev range resulting in a torque band and a power band. Often
the greatest torque is required when the vehicle is moving from rest or traveling
slowly, while maximum power is needed at high speed. Therefore, a system is
required that transforms the engine's output so that it can supply high torque at
low speeds, but also operate at highway speeds with the motor still operating
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within its limits. Transmissions perform this transformation.
Graph 8. 1Comparing the power and torque bands of a "torquey"engine versus a "peaky"one
The dynamics of a car vary with speed: at low speeds, acceleration is limited
by the inertia of vehicular gross mass; while at cruising or maximum speeds wind
resistance is the dominant barrier. Many transmissions and gears used in
automotive and truck applications are contained in a cast iron case, though more
frequently aluminum is used for lower weight especially in cars. There are usually
three shafts: a main shaft, a countershaft, and an idler shaft.
The main shaft extends outside the case in both directions: the input shaft
towards the engine, and the output shaft towards the rear axle (on rear wheel
drive cars. Front wheel drives generally have the engine and transmission
mounted transversely, the differential being part of the transmission assembly.)
The shaft is suspended by the main bearings, and is split towards the input end.
At the point of the split, a pilot bearing holds the shafts together. The gears and
clutches ride on the main shaft, the gears being free to turn relative to the main
shaft except when engaged by the clutches.
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Types of automobile transmissions include manual, automatic or semi-automatic
transmission.
➢ Manual transmission: -
A simple but rugged sliding-mesh or unsynchronized/non-synchronous
system, where straight-cut spur gear sets spin freely, and must be synchronized
by the operator matching engine revs to road speed, to avoid noisy and damaging
clashing of the gears
The now common constant-mesh gearboxes, which can include non-
synchronized or synchronized/synchromesh systems, where typically diagonal,
cut helical (or sometimes either straight-cut, or double-helical) gear sets are
constantly "meshed" together, and a dog clutch is used for changing gears. On
synchromesh boxes, friction cones or "synchro- rings" are used in addition to the
dog clutch to closely match the rotational speeds of the two sides of the
(declutched) transmission before making a full mechanical engagement.
The former type was standard in many vintage cars (alongside e.g. epicyclic
and multi-clutch systems) before the development of constant-mesh manuals and
hydraulic-epicyclic automatics, older heavy-duty trucks, and can still be found in
use in some agricultural equipment. The latter is the modern standard for on- and
off-road transport manual and semi-automatic transmission, although it may be
found in many forms; e.g., non-synchronized straight-cut in racetrack or super-
heavy-duty applications, non-synchro helical in the majority of heavy trucks and
motorcycles and in certain classic cars (e.g. the Fiat 500), and partly or fully
synchronized helical in almost all modern manual-shift passenger cars and light
trucks.
Manual transmissions are the most common type outside North America and
Australia. They are cheaper, lighter; usually give better performance, but the
newest automatic transmissions, and CVTs give better fuel economy. It is
customary for new drivers to learn, and be tested, on a car with a manual gear
change.
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Figure 7. 5 Manual transmission system
➢ Automatic transmission
An automatic transmission selects an appropriate gear ratio without any
operator intervention. They primarily use hydraulics to select gears, depending
on pressure exerted by fluid within the transmission assembly. Rather than using
a clutch to engage the transmission, a fluid flywheel, or torque converter is placed
in between the engine and transmission. It is possible for the driver to control the
number of gears in use or select reverse, though precise control of which gear is
in use may or may not be possible.
Automatic transmissions are easy to use. However, in the past, automatic
transmissions of this type have had a number of problems; they were complex
and expensive, sometimes had reliability problems (which sometimes caused
more expenses in repair), have often been less fuel-efficient than their manual
counterparts (due to "slippage" in the torque converter), and their shift time was
slower than a manual making them uncompetitive for racing. With the
advancement of modern automatic transmissions this has changed.
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Figure 7. 6 CVT transmission system
Attempts to improve fuel efficiency of automatic transmissions include the use

of torque converters that lock up beyond a certain speed or in higher gear ratios,
eliminating power loss, and overdrive gears that automatically actuate above
certain speeds. In older transmissions, both technologies could be intrusive, when
conditions are such that they repeatedly cut in and out as speed and such load
factors as grade or wind vary slightly. Current computerized transmissions
possess complex programming that both maximizes fuel efficiency and
eliminates intrusiveness. This is due mainly to electronic rather than mechanical
advances, though improvements in CVT technology and the use of automatic
clutches have also helped. A few cars, including the 2013 Subaru Impreza, and
the 2012 model of the Honda Jazz sold in the UK, actually claim marginally better
fuel consumption for the CVT version than the manual version.
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EXPERIMENT: - 8
AIM: Study of Automotive brakes, Suspension, and Steering
system.
➢ Objective:
• Describe & explain types of brakes used in automobile.
• Describe & explain Suspension system of an Automobile.
• Describe & explain Steering system of an Automobile.
➢ Types of automotive brakes:

A vehicle brake is a brake used to slow down a vehicle by converting its kinetic
energy into heat. The basic hydraulic system, most commonly used, usually has
six main stages: the brake pedal, the brake boost (vacuum servo), the master
cylinder, the apportioning valves, and finally the wheel brakes themselves.
1. Brake
A friction brake is a type of automotive brake that slows or stops a vehicle by
converting kinetic energy into heat energy, via friction. The heat energy is then
dissipated into the atmosphere. In most systems, the brake acts on the vehicle's
wheel hubs, but some vehicles use brakes which act on the axles or transmission.
Friction brakes may be of either drum or disc type.
I. Drum brake
A drum brake is a vehicle brake in which the friction is caused by a set of brake
shoes that press against the inner surface of a rotating drum.
Figure 8.1
Friction brake
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➢ Working of Drum brake
Components
Drum brake components include the backing plate, brake drum, shoe, wheel
cylinder, and various springs and pins.
• Backing plate
The backing plate provides a base for the other components. It attaches to the
axle sleeve and provides a non-rotating rigid mounting surface for the wheel
cylinder, brake shoes, and assorted hardware. Since all braking operations exert
pressure on the backing plate, it must be strong and wear-resistant. Levers for
emergency or parking brakes, and automatic brake-shoe adjuster were also added
in recent years.
• Brake drum
Brake drum is generally made of a special type of cast iron that is heat-
conductive and wear- resistant. It rotates with the wheel and axle. When a driver
applies the brakes, the lining pushes radially against the inner surface of the drum,
and the ensuing friction slows or stops rotation of the wheel and axle, and thus the
vehicle. This friction generates substantial heat.
• Wheel cylinder
One-wheel cylinder operates the brake on each wheel. Two pistons operate the
shoes, one at each end of the wheel cylinder. Hydraulic pressure from the master
cylinder acts on the piston cup, pushing the pistons toward the shoes, forcing them
against the drum. When the driver releases the brakes, the brake shoe springs
restore the shoes to their original (disengaged) position. The parts of the wheel
cylinder are shown to the right.
• Brake shoe
Brake shoes are typically made of two pieces of sheet steel welded together.
The friction material is either riveted to the lining table or attached with adhesive.
The crescent-shaped piece is called the Web and contains holes and slots in
different shapes for return springs, hold-down hardware, parking brake linkage
and self-adjusting components. All the application force of the wheel cylinder is
applied through the web to the lining table and brake lining. The edge of the lining
table generally has three “V"-shaped notches or tabs on each side called nibs. The
nibs rest against the support pads of the backing plate to which the shoes are
installed. Each brake assembly has two shoes, a primary and secondary. The
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primary shoe is located toward the front of the vehicle and has the lining
positioned differently from the secondary shoe. Quite often, the two shoes are
interchangeable, so close inspection for any variation is important.
Linings must be resistant against heat and wear and have a high friction
coefficient unaffected by fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Materials that
make up the brake shoe include, friction modifiers (which can include graphite
and cashew nut shells), powdered metal such as lead, zinc, brass, aluminum and
other metals that resist heat fade, binders, curing agents and fillers such as rubber
chips to reduce brake noise.
In the UK two common grades of brake shoe material used to be used. DON
202 was a high friction material that did not require a brake servo. The
disadvantage was that the lining was prone to fading on steep hills (calculate the
kilowatts dissipated by a one-ton car descending a 15% hill at a constant 60 mph)
A harder lining, the famous VG95 was produced but this required a brake servo.
The other snag was that the parking brake would often fail the annual MOT test
unless the high friction linings were put back just for the test.
➢ Operation of Drum brake

• Normal braking
When the brakes are applied, brake fluid is forced under pressure from the
master cylinder into the wheel cylinder, which in turn pushes the brake shoes into
contact with the machined surface on the inside of the drum. This rubbing action
reduces the rotation of the brake drum, which is coupled to the wheel. Hence the
speed of the vehicle is reduced. When the pressure is released, return springs pull
the shoes back to their rest position.
• Automatic self-adjustment
As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater distance to reach the
drum. When the distance reaches a certain point, a self-adjusting mechanism
automatically reacts by adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that they are
closer to the drum. Here, the adjusting lever rocks enough to advance the adjuster
gear by one tooth. The adjuster has threads on it, like a bolt, so that it unscrews a
little bit when it turns, lengthening to fill in the gap. When the brake shoes wear a
little more, the adjuster can advance again, so it always keeps the shoes close to
the drum.
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• Emergency brake
The parking brakes (emergency brake) system controls the brakes through a
series of steel cables that are connected to either a hand lever or a foot pedal. The
idea is that the system is fully mechanical and completely bypasses the hydraulic
system so that the vehicle can be brought to a stop even if there is a total brake
failure. Here the cable pulls on a lever mounted in the brake and is directly
connected to the brake shoes. This has the effect of bypassing the wheel cylinder
and controlling the brakes directly.
• Self-applying characteristic
Drum brakes have a natural "self-applying" characteristic, better known as
"self-energizing." The rotation of the drum can drag either one or both of the shoes
into the friction surface, causing the brakes to bite harder, which increases the
force holding them together. This increases the stopping power without any
additional effort being expended by the driver, but it does make it harder for the
driver to modulate the brake's sensitivity. It also makes the brake more sensitive
to brake fade, as a decrease in brake friction also reduces the amount of brake
assist.
Disc brakes exhibit no self-applying effect because the hydraulic pressure
acting on the pads is perpendicular to the direction of rotation of the disc. Disc
brake systems usually have servo assistance ("Brake Booster") to lessen the
driver's pedal effort, but some disc braked cars (notably race cars) and smaller
brakes for motorcycles, etc., do not need to use servos.
Note: Some people thought that the "self-energizing" effect only occurs on one
shoe
II. Disc brake

The disc brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a road wheel.
A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English), usually made of cast iron or ceramic, is
connected to the wheel or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form
of brake pads (mounted in a device called a brake caliper) is forced mechanically,
hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc.
Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop.
The brake disc is the component of a disc brake against which the brake pads
are applied. The material is typically grey iron,[15] a form of cast iron. The design
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of the disc varies somewhat. Some are simply solid, but others are hollowed out
with fins or vanes joining together the disc's two contact surfaces (usually
included as part of a casting process). The weight and power of the vehicle
determines the need for ventilated discs.[10]The "ventilated" disc design helps to
dissipate the generated heat and is commonly used on the more-heavily-loaded
front discs.
Discs may also be slotted, where shallow channels are machined into the disc
to aid in removing dust and gas. Slotting is the preferred method in most racing
environments to remove gas and water and to deglaze brake pads. Some discs are
both drilled and slotted. Slotted discs are generally not used on standard vehicles
because they quickly wear down brake pads; however, this removal of material is
beneficial to race vehicles since it keeps the pads soft and avoids verification of
their surfaces.
As a way of avoiding thermal stress, cracking and warping, the disc is
sometimes mounted in a half loose way to the hub with coarse splines. This allows
the disc to expand in a controlled symmetrical way and with less unwanted heat
transfer to the hub.
Figure 8.2 Disc brake
Unlike car disk brakes that are buried within the wheel, bike disc brakes are in
the airstream and have optimum cooling. Although cast iron discs have a porous
surface which give superior braking performance, such disc’s rust in the rain and
become unsightly. Accordingly, motorcycle discs are usually stainless steel,
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drilled, slotted or wavy to disperse rain water. Modern motorcycle discs tend to
have a floating design whereby the disc "floats" on bobbins and can move slightly,
allowing better disc centering with a fixed caliper. A floating disc also avoids disc
warping and reduces heat transfer to the wheel hub. Calipers have evolved from
simple single-piston units to two-, four- and even six-piston items. Compared to
cars, motorcycles have a higher mass: wheelbase ratio,
So they experience more weight transfer when braking. Front brakes absorb
most of the braking forces, while the rear brake serves mainly to balance the
motorcycle during braking. Modern sport bikes typically have twin large front
discs, with a much smaller single rear disc.
Bikes that are particularly fast or heavy may have vented discs.
III. Hydraulic brake

The hydraulic brake is an arrangement of braking mechanism which uses brake
fluid, typically containing ethylene glycol, to transfer pressure from the
controlling mechanism to the braking mechanism
• Construction
The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes for passenger vehicles,
motorcycles, scooters, and mopeds, consists of the following:
Brake pedal or lever
A pushrod (also called an actuating rod)
A master cylinder assembly containing a piston assembly (made up of either one
or two pistons, a return spring, a series of gaskets/ O-rings and a fluid reservoir)
Reinforced hydraulic lines
Brake caliper assembly usually consisting of one or two hollow aluminum or
chrome-plated steel pistons (called caliper pistons), a set of thermally conductive
brake pads and a rotor (also called a brake disc) or drum attached to an axle.
The system is usually filled with a glycol-ether based brake fluid (other fluids
may also be used).
At one time, passenger vehicles commonly employed drum brakes on all four
wheels. Later, disc brakes were used for the front and drum brakes for the rear.
However, disc brakes have shown better heat dissipation and greater resistance to
'fading' and are therefore generally safer than drum brakes. So four-wheel disc
brakes have become increasingly popular, replacing drums on all but the most
basic vehicles. Many two-wheel vehicle designs, however, continue to employ a
drum brake for the rear wheel.
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The following description uses the terminology for and configuration of a simple
disc brake.
• System operation
In a hydraulic brake
system, when the brake
pedal is pressed, a
pushrod exerts force on
the piston(s) in the
master cylinder, causing
fluid from the brake
fluid reservoir to flow
into a pressure chamber
through a compensating
port. This results in an
increase in the pressure
of the entire hydraulic
Figure 8.3 Hydraulic Brake
system, forcing fluid
through the hydraulic lines toward one or more calipers where it acts upon one or
two caliper pistons sealed by one or more seated O-rings (which prevent leakage
of the fluid).
The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there is a
leak in the system, none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor does the fluid
get consumed through use.
IV. Power brakes

The vacuum booster or vacuum servo is used in most modern hydraulic brake
systems which contain four wheels. The vacuum booster is attached between the
master cylinder and the brake pedal and multiplies the braking force applied by
the driver. These units consist of a hollow housing with a movable rubber
diaphragm across the center, creating two chambers. When attached to the low-
pressure portion of the throttle body or intake manifold of the engine, the pressure
in both chambers of the unit is lowered. The equilibrium created by the low
pressure in both chambers keeps the diaphragm from moving until the brake pedal
is depressed. A return spring keeps the diaphragm in the starting position until the
brake pedal is applied. When the brake pedal is applied, the movement opens an
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air valve which lets in atmospheric pressure air to one chamber of the booster.
Since the pressure becomes higher in one chamber, the diaphragm moves toward
the lower pressure chamber with a force created by the area of the diaphragm and
the differential pressure. This force, in addition to the driver's foot force, pushes
on the master cylinder piston. A relatively small diameter booster unit is required;
for a very conservative 50% manifold vacuum, an assisting force of about 1500 N
(200n) is produced by a 20 cm diaphragm with an area of 0.03 square meters. The
diaphragm will stop moving when the forces on both sides of the chamber reach
equilibrium. This can be caused by either the air valve closing (due to the pedal
apply stopping) or if "run out" is reached. Run out occurs when the pressure in
one chamber reaches atmospheric pressure and no additional force can be
generated by the now stagnant differential pressure. After the run-out point is
reached, only the driver's foot force can be used to further apply the master
cylinder piston.
The fluid pressure from the master cylinder travels through a pair of steel brake
tubes to a pressure differential valve, sometimes referred to as a "brake failure
valve", which performs two functions: it equalizes pressure between the two
systems, and it provides a warning if one system loses pressure. The pressure
differential valve has two chambers (to which the hydraulic lines attach) with a
piston between them. When the pressure in either line is balanced, the piston does
not move. If the pressure on one side is lost, the pressure from the other side moves
the piston. When the piston makes contact with a simple electrical probe in the
center of the unit, a circuit is completed, and the operator is warned of a failure in
the brake system.
From the pressure differential valve, brake tubing carries the pressure to the
brake units at the wheels. Since the wheels do not maintain a fixed relation to the
automobile, it is necessary to use hydraulic brake hose from the end of the steel
line at the vehicle frame to the caliper at the wheel. Allowing steel brake tubing
to flex invites metal fatigue and, ultimately, brake failure. A common upgrade is
to replace the standard rubber hoses with a set which are externally reinforced
with braided stainless-steel wires; these have negligible expansion under pressure
and can give a firmer feel to the brake pedal with less pedal travel for a given
braking effort.
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V. Air brake (road vehicle)
An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of
friction brake for vehicles in which air pressing on a piston is used to apply the
pressure to the brake pad needed to stop the vehicle. Air brakes are used in large
heavy vehicles, particularly those having multiple trailers which must be linked
into the brake system, such as trucks, buses, trailers, and semi in addition to their
use in railroad trains. George Westinghouse first developed air brakes
Figure 8.4 Air brake
An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of
friction brake for vehicles in which air pressing on a piston is used to apply the
pressure to the brake pad needed to stop the vehicle. Air brakes are used in large
heavy vehicles, particularly those having multiple trailers which must be linked
into the brake system, such as trucks, buses, trailers, and semi in addition to their
use in railroad trains. George Westinghouse first developed air brakes for use in
railway service. He patented a safer air brake on March 5, 1872. Westinghouse
made numerous alterations to improve his air pressured brake invention, which
led to various forms of the automatic brake. In the early 20th century, after its
advantages were proven in railway use, it was adopted by manufacturers of trucks
and heavy road vehicles.
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➢ Advantages
• Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on
lighter vehicles such as automobiles. Hydraulic brakes use a liquid (hydraulic
fluid) to transfer pressure from the brake pedal to the brake shoe to stop the
vehicle. Air brakes have several advantages for large multitailed vehicles
• The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never run out of its
operating fluid, as hydraulic brakes can. Minor leaks do not result in brake
failures.
• Airline couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic lines; there is
no danger of letting air into a pneumatic circuit. So, air brake circuits of trailers
can be attached and removed easily by operators with little training.
• Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also stores potential
energy. So, it can serve to control the force applied. Air brake systems include
an air tank that stores sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the compressor
fails.
• Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an air brake system
can be designed with sufficient "fail-safe" capacity to stop the vehicle safely
even when leaking.
2. Suspension system
Figure 8.5 Suspension system
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Suspension is the system of tires, tire air, springs, shock absorbers and linkages
that connects a vehicle to its wheels and allows relative motion between the two.[1]
Suspension systems serve a dual purpose — contributing to the vehicle's road
holding/handling and braking for good active safety and driving pleasure, and
keeping vehicle occupants comfortable and a ride quality reasonably well isolated
from road noise, bumps, and vibrations ,etc. These goals are generally at odds, so
the tuning of suspensions involves finding the right compromise. It is important for
the suspension to keep the road wheel in contact with the road surface as much as
possible, because all the road or ground forces acting on the vehicle do so through
the contact patches of the tires. The suspension also protects the vehicle itself and
any cargo or luggage from damage and wear. The design of front and rear
suspension of a car may be different.
➢ Function of suspension system

• To prevent the road shocks from being transmitted to the vehicle frame. To
preserve the stability of the vehicle in pitching or Rolling.
• To safeguard the occupants from road shocks.
• To provide good road holding while driving, cornering and braking.
➢ Types of springs
1) Leaf spring
Leaf spring is a suspension system for vehicles that has been used as far back
as medieval times. They were originally called carriage or laminated springs. Its
system has been tried and true, primarily used on almost all vehicles up to the
1970’s and still today on trucks and vans that haul heavy loads.
The spring leaf is made up of an arc-shape, slender piece of steel that is stacked
with the same material in smaller sizes and bolted together creating a reinforced
bow-like item. It is then attached to the rear axle and the chassis providing support
to any additional weight that is added to a vehicle, preventing the axle from
buckling in and snapping from the pressure of an extreme amount of weight that
it was not originally designed to carry.
2) Helper spring
A helper spring is a suspension enhancement product engineered to enhance,
support, and help various types of original equipment suspension. There are two
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basic types of helper springs: steel springs and pneumatic springs, more
commonly known as air springs. Both variations are designed and manufactured
in many different styles. Super Springs, Sumo Springs, and Coil Sumo Springs
can all be considered helper springs. However, there is an astronomical difference
between Super Springs products (when referred to as helper springs) and some of
their competing alternatives. Scroll down to learn what makes Super Springs and
our products different – they are more than helper springs
3) Coil spring
A coil spring, also known as a helical spring, is a mechanical device which is
typically used to store energy and subsequently release it, to absorb shock, or to
maintain a force between contacting surfaces. They are made of an elastic material
formed into the shape of a helix which returns to its natural length when unloaded.
Under tension or compression, the material (wire) of a coil spring undergoes
torsion. The spring characteristics therefore depend on the shear modulus, not
Young's Modulus.
4) Torsion bars
A torsion bar is a solid bar of steel which is Connected to the car chassis at one
end, and free to Move at the other end. They can be mounted across the car or
along the car. The springing motion is Provided by the metal bar's resistance to
twisting.
To over-simplify, stick your arm out straight and get Someone to twist your
wrist. Presuming that your Mate doesn't snap your wrist, at a certain point,
Resistance in your arm (and pain) will cause you to Twist your wrist back the
other way. That is the Principle of a torsion bar. Torsion bars are normally locked
to the chassis and the Suspension parts with splined ends. This allows them to Be
removed, twisted round a few splines and reinserted, which can be used to raise
or lower a car, or to Compensate for the natural 'sag' of a suspension system Over
time. They can be connected to just about any type of suspension system listed on
this page.
5) Air and gas spring
In these springs compressed air or gases Filled in the cylinder or bellows against
Which the wheel movement is transmitted Through diaphragm. As soon as the wheel
Passes over a road irregularity the Compressed air returns the system to its Original
position
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3. Steering system
Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allow a vessel
(ship, boat) or vehicle (car, motorcycle, bicycle) to follow the desired course. An
exception is the case of rail transport by which rail tracks combined together with
railroad switches (and also known as 'points' in British English) provide the
steering function.
The most conventional steering arrangement is to turn the front wheels using a
hand–operated steering wheel which is positioned in front of the driver, via the
steering column, which may contain universal joints (which may also be part of
the collapsible steering column design), to allow it to deviate somewhat from a
straight line. Other arrangements are sometimes found on different types of
vehicles, for example, a tiller or rear–wheel steering. Tracked vehicles such as
bulldozers and tanks usually employ differential steering— that is, the tracks are
made to move at different speeds or even in opposite directions, using clutches
and brakes, to bring about a change of course or direction.
➢ Wheeled vehicle steering
Basic geometry
Figure 8.6 Ackerman steering

system
70
Caster angle θ indicates kingpin
pivot line and grey area indicates
vehicle's tire with the wheel moving
from right to left. A positive caster
angle aids in directional stability, as the
wheel tends to trail, but a large angle
makes steering more difficult.
Curves described by the rear wheels
of a conventional automobile. While
the vehicle moves with a constant
speed its inner and outer rear wheels do
not.
The steering linkages connecting the
Figure 8.7 Caster angle
steering box and the wheels usually
conforms to a variation of Ackermann steering geometry, to account for the fact
that in a turn, the inner wheel is actually travelling a path of smaller radius than
the outer wheel, so that the degree of toe suitable for driving in a straight path is
not suitable for turns. The angle the wheels make with the vertical plane also
influences steering dynamics (see camber angle) as do the tires. Rack and pinion,
recirculating ball, worm
Rack and pinion steering mechanism: 1 Steering wheel; 2 Steering columns; 3
Rack and pinion; 4 Tie rods; 5 Kingpin
Figure 8.8 Tie rod
71
Rack and pinion unit mounted in the cockpit of an Ariel Atom sports car
chassis. For most high-volume production, this is usually mounted on the other
side of this panel
Steering box of a motor vehicle, the traditional (non-assisted), you may notice
that the system allows you to adjust the braking and steering systems, you can also
see the attachment system to the frame.
Many modern cars use rack and pinion steering mechanisms, where the steering
wheel turns the pinion gear; the pinion moves the rack, which is a linear gear that
meshes with the pinion, converting circular motion into linear motion along the
transverse axis of the car (side to side motion). This motion applies steering torque
to the swivel pin ball joints that replaced previously used kingpins of the stub axle
of the steered wheels via tie rods and a short lever arm called the steering arm.
The rack and pinion design have the advantages of a large degree of feedback
and direct steering "feel". A disadvantage is that it is not adjustable, so that when
it does wear and develop lash, the only cure is replacement.
Older designs use two main principles: the worm and sector design and the
screw and nut. Both types were enhanced by reducing the friction; for screw and
nut it is the recirculating ball mechanism, which is still found on trucks and utility
vehicles. The steering column turns a large screw which meshes with nut by
recirculating balls. The nut moves a sector of a gear, causing it to rotate about its
axis as the screw is turned; an arm attached to the axis of the sector moves the
Pitman arm, which is connected to the steering linkage and thus steers the wheels.
The recirculating ball version of this apparatus reduces the considerable friction
by placing large ball bearings between the screw and the nut; at either end of the
apparatus the balls exit from between the two pieces into a channel internal to the
box which connects them with the other end of the apparatus, thus they are
"recirculated".
➢ Power steering
Power steering helps the driver of a vehicle to steer by directing some of the its
power to assist in swiveling the steered road wheels about their steering axes. As
vehicles have become heavier and switched to front wheel drive, particularly
using negative offset geometry, along with increases in tire width and diameter,
the effort needed to turn the wheels about their steering axis has increased, often
to the point where major physical exertion would be needed were it not for power
assistance. To alleviate this auto makers have developed power steering systems:
72
or more correctly power-assisted steering—on road going vehicles there has to be
a mechanical linkage as a failsafe. There are two types of power steering systems;
hydraulic and electric/electronic. A hydraulic-electric hybrid system is also
possible.
A hydraulic power steering (HPS) uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an
engine-driven pump to assist the motion of turning the steering wheel. Electric
power steering (EPS) is more efficient than the hydraulic power steering, since
the electric power steering motor only needs to provide assistance when the
steering wheel is turned, whereas the hydraulic pump must run constantly. In EPS,
the amount of assistance is easily tunable to the vehicle type, road speed, and even
driver preference. An added benefit is the elimination of environmental hazard
posed by leakage and disposal of hydraulic power steering fluid. In addition,
electrical assistance is not lost when the engine fails or stalls, whereas hydraulic
assistance stops working if the engine stops, making the steering doubly heavy as
the driver must now turn not only the very heavy steering—without any help—
but also the power-assistance system itself.
➢ Speed sensitive steering

An outgrowth of power steering is speed sensitive steering, where the steering is
heavily assisted at low speed and lightly assisted at high speed. The auto makers
perceive that motorists might need to make large steering inputs while
manoeuvring for parking, but not while traveling at high speed. The first vehicle
with this feature was the Citroën SM with its Drava layout[citation needed],
although rather than altering the amount of assistance as in modern power steering
systems, it altered the pressure on a centering cam which made the steering wheel
try to "spring" back to the straight-ahead position. Modern speed-sensitive power
steering systems reduce the mechanical or electrical assistance as the vehicle
speed increases, giving a more direct feel. This feature is gradually becoming
more common.
73
EXPERIMENT: -9
AIM: Study of recent developments in the field of I.C. Engine and
Automobile.
Some of the new unconventional I.C. engines and recent developments in
automobile industries are discussed below.
1. Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI) Engine:
Most modern engine's fuel systems use an advanced technology known as CRDi
or Common Rail Direct Injection. Both petrol and diesel engines use a common 'fuel-
rail' which supplies the fuel to injectors. However, in diesel engines, manufacturers
refer to this technology as CRDi whereas Petrol engines term it as Gasoline
Direct Injection (GDI) or Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI). Both these technologies
have a similarity in design since they consist of “fuel-rail” which supplies fuel
to injectors. However, they considerably differ from each other on parameters such
as pressure & type of fuel used.
Figure 9.1 CRDI Engine
In Common Rail Direct Injection, the combustion takes place directly into the
main combustion chamber located in a cavity above the piston crown. Today,
manufacturers use CRDi technology to overcome some of the deficiencies
of conventional diesel engines which were sluggish, noisy and poor in performance
when implemented, especially in passenger vehicles.
The CRDi technology works in tandem with the engine ECU which gets inputs
from various sensors. It then calculates the precise quantity of fuel and timing of
74
injection. The fuel system features components which are more intelligent in nature
and controls them electrically/electronically. Additionally, the
conventional injectors are replaced with more advanced, electrically operated,
solenoid injectors. They are opened by an ECU signal, depending upon the variables
such as engine speed, load, engine temperature etc.
A Common Rail system uses a ‘common-for-all-cylinders’ fuel-rail or in simple
words a 'fuel distribution pipe'. It maintains optimum residual fuel pressure and also
acts as a shared fuel reservoir for all the injectors. In the CRDi system, the fuel-rail
constantly stores and supplies the fuel to the solenoid valve injectors at the required
pressure. This is quite opposite to the fuel injection pump supplying diesel through
independent fuel lines to injectors in case of earlier generation (DI) design.
2. Multi-fuel Engines:
Multifuel, sometimes spelled multi-fuel, is any type of engine, boiler, or heater or
other fuel-burning device which is designed to burn multiple types of fuels in its
operation. One common application of multifuel technology is in military settings,
where the normally-used diesel or gas turbine fuel might not be available during
combat operations for vehicles or heating units. Multifuel engines and boilers have
a long history, but the growing need to establish fuel sources other
than petroleum for transportation, heating, and other uses has led to increased
development of multifuel technology for non-military use as well, leading to
many flexible-fuel vehicle designs in recent decades.
A multifuel engine is constructed so that its compression ratio permits firing the
lowest octane fuel of the various accepted alternative fuels. A strengthening of the
engine is necessary in order to meet these higher demands. Multifuel engines
sometimes have switch settings that are set manually to take different octanes, or
types, of fuel.
3. Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI):

Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) is a form of internal
combustion in which well-mixed fuel and oxidizer (typically air) are compressed to
the point of auto-ignition. As in other forms of combustion, this exothermic
reaction releases energy that can be transformed in an engine into work and heat.
HCCI combines characteristics of conventional gasoline engine and diesel
engines. Gasoline engines combine homogeneous charge (HC) with spark
75
ignition (SI), abbreviated as HCSI. Diesel engines combine stratified charge (SC)
with compression ignition (CI), abbreviated as SCCI.
As in HCSI, HCCI injects fuel during the intake stroke. However, rather than
using an electric discharge (spark) to ignite a portion of the mixture, HCCI raises
density and temperature by compression until the entire mixture reacts
spontaneously.
Stratified charge compression ignition also relies on temperature and density
increase resulting from compression. However, it injects fuel later, during the
compression stroke. Combustion occurs at the boundary of the fuel and air,
producing higher emissions, but allowing a leaner and higher compression burn,
producing greater efficiency.
Controlling HCCI requires microprocessor control and physical understanding of
the ignition process. HCCI designs achieve gasoline engine-like emissions with
diesel engine-like efficiency.
HCCI engines achieve extremely low levels of oxides of nitrogen emissions (NO
x) without a catalytic converter. Hydrocarbons (unburnt fuels and oils) and carbon
monoxide emissions still require treatment to meet automobile emissions
control regulations.
Recent research has shown that the hybrid fuels combining different reactivities
(such as gasoline and diesel) can help in controlling HCCI ignition and burn rates.
RCCI, or reactivity controlled compression ignition, has been demonstrated to
provide highly efficient, low emissions operation over wide load and speed ranges.
This HCCI system can be highly efficient with the help of free piston engine.
4. Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) Engine:

Variable compression ratio is a technology to adjust the compression ratio of
an internal combustion engine while the engine is in operation. This is done to
increase fuel efficiency while under varying loads. Variable compression engines
allow the volume above the piston at top dead centre to be changed. Higher loads
require lower ratios to increase power, while lower loads need higher ratios to
increase efficiency, i.e. to lower fuel consumption. For automotive use this needs to
be done as the engine is running in response to the load and driving demands. The
2019 Infiniti QX 50 is the first commercially available car that uses a variable
compression ratio engine.
Gasoline engines have a limit on the maximum pressure during the compression
stroke, after which the fuel/air mixture detonates rather than burns. To achieve higher
76
power outputs at the same speed, more fuel must be burned and therefore more air
is needed. To achieve this, turbochargers or superchargers are used to increase the
inlet pressure. This would result in detonation of the fuel/air mixture unless the
compression ratio was decreased, i.e. the volume above the piston made greater. This
can be done to a greater or lesser extent with massive increases in power being
possible. The down side of this is that under light loading, the engine can lack power
and torque. The solution is to be able to vary the inlet pressure and adjust the
compression ratio to suit. This gives the best of both worlds, a small efficient engine
that behaves exactly like a modern family car engine but turns into a highly tuned
one on demand.
Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) is becoming increasingly desirable as oil
prices increase and car buyers have an increased interest in fuel economy. In
addition, Global Climate Warming requires measures from the international
community. To the Automobile industry, it means stricter limits to car emissions,
especially CO2. Variable compression ratio is one cost effective way of achieving
these targets. In addition, VCR allows free use of different fuels besides petrol e.g.
LPG or ethanol.
The cylinder head can be altered by using a hydraulic system which is connected to
the crank shaft and responds according to the load and acceleration required.
5. Lean Burn Engine:

Lean-burn refers to the burning of fuel with an excess of air in an internal
combustion engine. In lean-burn engines the air: fuel ratio may be as lean as 65:1
(by mass). The air / fuel ratio needed to stoichiometrically combust fuel, by contrast,
is 14.64:1. The excess of air in a lean-burn engine emits far less hydrocarbons. High
air–fuel ratios can also be used to reduce losses caused by other engine power
management systems such as throttling losses
A lean burn mode is a way to reduce throttling losses. An engine in a typical
vehicle is sized for providing the power desired for acceleration, but must operate
well below that point in normal steady-speed operation. Ordinarily, the power is cut
by partially closing a throttle. However, the extra work done in pumping air through
the throttle reduces efficiency. If the fuel/air ratio is reduced, then lower power can
be achieved with the throttle closer to fully open, and the efficiency during normal
driving (below the maximum torque capability of the engine) can be higher.
The engines designed for lean-burning can employ higher compression ratios and
thus provide better performance, efficient fuel use and low exhaust hydrocarbon
77
emissions than those found in conventional gasoline engines. Ultra lean mixtures
with very high air–fuel ratios can only be achieved by direct injection engines.
The main drawback of lean-burning is that a complex catalytic converter system is
required to reduce NOx emissions. Lean-burn engines do not work well with modern
3-way catalytic converter—which require a pollutant balance at the exhaust port so
they can carry out oxidation and reduction reactions—so most modern engines run
at or near the stoichiometric point.
6. Electric and Hybrid Vehicles:

Electric vehicles can be classified into three types as tabulated in Table 1: hybrid
electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in electric vehicles (PHEVs) and full electric vehicles
(FEVs). HEVs are equipped with an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an
electric motor. In these vehicles, the primary source of energy is an ICE that runs on
fossil or alternative fuels. In HEVs, the electric motor makes use of energy in the
battery, which is provided by regenerative braking and thermoelectric generators.
HEVs are designed for fuel efficiency and low emissions. As distinct from HEVs,
PHEVs can be plugged in to an electric power source to charge the battery. Different
kinds of hybrid system configurations, such as series, parallel and full hybrid systems
are being used in the industry. The Fisker Karma is an example of a series system
PHEV. The Toyota Prius, the Chevy Malibu and the Honda Insight are some
examples of parallel hybrid systems, which are commercially available. In the
parallel hybrid system, the electric motor and ICE can operate together or
individually. Full hybrid system is a combination of series and parallel hybrid
systems.
Table 9.1 Types of electric and hybrid vehicles
FEVs do not have an ICE; the power is supplied by electric motors only. Due to
environmental and energy concerns, these zero-emission vehicles are gaining
increased attention. To replace the traditional fossil fuel vehicles, FEVs have to meet
78
some expectations, like high power, high torque and a reasonable range. Beside an
optimum energy control strategy, the key features for FEVs are the electric motor
and the battery. Permanent magnet (PM) electric motors are the most efficient
alternatives. These motors are equipped with rare-earth permanent magnets, like
samarium cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron magnets. Samarium cobalt magnets
provide higher operating temperatures (up to 500°C) than neodymium-iron-boron
magnets. On the other hand, neodymium-iron-boron magnets offer the maximum
efficiency. However, the use of rare-earth permanent magnets has to be reduced in
terms of sustainability.
To be employed in electric and hybrid vehicles, a variety of electric motors are
developed in recent years. More than 100 different electric motors can be found in
modern vehicles. Most common types of electric motors available in the market are
DC motors, multi-phase AC induction motors, permanent magnet (PM) synchronous
motors (or brushless AC motors), switched reluctance (SR) motors and brushless
direct current (BLDC) motors. The choice of electric motor type is critical. In order
to compete against the fossil fuel vehicles, a FEV has to successfully satisfy the
following criteria:
• High torque value
• Minimum torque ripple control
• Low speed hill climbing
• Overload and fault tolerant capability
• Instant acceleration
• High speed cruise
• High efficiency over a wide torque-speed range
• Regenerative braking system
• Operational controllability
• Temperature management
7. Fuel cell
Technology is increasing our energy needs, but it
is also showing in new ways to generate power
more effetely with less impact on the
environment. One of the most promising options
for supplementing future power supplies is the
fuel cells. They have the potential to create much
more reliable power, with lower levels of Figure 9. 2 Fuel cell
79
undesirable emissions and noise and higher overall efficiency than more traditional
power generation systems with existing and projected applications ranging from space
craft to private automobiles, large stationary power generator systems to small
electronic devices, fuel cells are poised to play an increasingly critical role in meeting
the world's plowing demand for clean, reliable power.
• What is a fuel cell

Fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device which converts chemicals
hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity by slipping electrons from hydrogen. The
hydrogen med is exceeded from natural gun, propane and other common fuel and
oxygen is from air.
• A fuel cell system consists of 3 major components

1. A fuel cell stack
2. A processor to extract pare hydrogen from the fuel source
3. A storage and conditioners system to adapt the fuel cell's continuous
power only out to fluctuating demand.
4. A mechanism for recovering heat from electrochemical process.
The remainder of the system consists of pumps compressors and controls.

Fuel cell stack: in fuel cell stack, purified hydrogen and oxygen from air pass through
linked platter similar to those in battery. the electrochemical reaction generator
electricity and heat.
An energy storage and power conditioners system adapt the fuel cell's maximum
power flour to fluctuating power loads. A battery storage system with dc-ac inventor
stores power from low demand periods for use during peak demand.
Heat recovery system directs heat from the jacket of water surrounding the fuel cell in
to a preheat tank for the domes tie hot water system.
• Types of fuel cells.

There are different types of fuel cells
1. Research is underway to develop proton exchange membrane fuel cell.
2. Proton exchange membrane fuel cell user one of the simplest reactions of any fuel
cell.
80
• PEM fuel cell history
PEM technology was developed after 1960. It was developed for U.S. Navy and Army.
The first unit was fueled by hydrogen generated by mixing water and lithium hydride
8. Smart materials in Automobile

Some materials have the ability
to change shape or size simply by
adding a little bit of heat, or to
change from a liquid to a solid
almost instantly when near a
magnet; these materials are called
smart materials.
• What are they? Figure 9. 3 Smart material

They are those materials that
possess both intrinsic and extrinsic capabilities to respond environmental changes.
They respond to changes in temperature, moisture, pH, magnetic Field, electric field,
etc.
Piezoelectric Effect
The term smart materials encompass a wide
variety of materials, such
as piezoelectric materials, magneto
rheostatic materials, electro rheostatic & shape
memory alloys.
Figure 9. 4 Piezoelectric Effect
9. Smart Car Concept
Today, the cars that are being manufactured abroad have smartness or intelligence
build into them. These cars, called smart cars.
The incorporation of smart materials makes driving even in difficult climate or weather
conditions easy and pleasurable.
Whenever the cars swerve/ drift from their lanes, they are warned by means of a
rumble-strip noise.
• Application
Piezoelectric Materials Magneto strictive Materials
Magnetorheological/ Electrorheological Fluids
81
Figure 9. 5 Smart window
10. Stirling Engine

The Stirling engine is a heat engine that is
vastly different from an internal combustion
engine. Stirling engines have two pistons that
create a 90-degree phase angle and two
different temperature spaces. The working gas
in the engine is perfectly sealed, and doesn't go
in and out to the atmosphere. The Stirling
engine uses a Stirling cycle, which is unlike the
cycles used in normal internal combustion
engines.
Figure 9. 6 Stirling Engine
• Parts of A Stirling Engine
Main chamber: It is the chamber where a fixed amount of gas is sealed initially. Inside
this chamber only expansion and compression of gas takes place.
Output Shaft: It is horizontal and mounted several inches above the main chamber.
The end of shaft centered over the main chamber has a crank and connecting rod,
82
which drives the displacer.
Displacer: This is the large piston in the drawing. This piston is very loose in its
cylinder, so air can move easily between the heated and cooled sections of the engine
as the piston moves up and down.
Power piston: This is the smaller piston at the top of the engine. It is a tightly sealed
piston that moves up as the gas inside the engine expands.
Crankshaft: The crankshaft is made up of steel, which passes through the bearing
and receives the crank disc. the crank disc forms mount for flywheel.
Regenerator: The regenerator is constructed of material that readily conducts heat
and has a high surface area. When hot gas is transferred to the cool cylinder, it is first
driven through the regenerator, where a portion of the heat is deposited. When the cool
gas is transferred back, this heat is reclaimed; thus, the regenerator "pre heats" and
"pre cools" the working gas, dramatically improving efficiency.
11. Nano IC Engine

Nanotechnology in mechanical field is the internal combustion engine on a Nano
scale, which we have chosen as our area of interest. Heat engines have evolved from
external combustion engines to internal combustion engines and the hot off the block
is the Nano internal combustion engine.
• Construction of "Nano" - A 0.1cc Compression Ignition Engine
The Nano is a 0.1cc (that's less than 0.01 coin) compression ignition engine - most
frequently, if somewhat inaccurately, referred to as a "diesel". It was designed by
Richard Gordon and the plans were included as a supplement with the British
Magazine Model Engineer in the early 1990's An idea of the size of the Nano is given
by this picture. From backplate to drive washer is less than 1 inch. There are no exotic
materials required. The crankcase is hacked from a solid cube of aluminum 3/4" on a
side. The piston and contra piston are cast iron. The crankshaft and liner are any old
steel from the scrap box
Here is an exploded view of the engine. The odd-looking thing in the foreground is
a special Nano-Spanner required to tighten the backplate. It also fits the fuel nipple.
The construction is extremely conventional - only the scale is unusual
Like all model IC projects, there are a few special jigs and tools required to construct
the Nano. All are fully detailed in the plan, which includes step by step instructions
with photos. The cutter is made from water hardening drill rod (called "silver steel" in
the UK because of its appearance it contains no silver). the teeth are formed of Dermal-
type cut-off wheel
83
The cutter is used to form the exhaust ports in the cylinder. There are three of these,
spaced at 120 degrees with sufficient space between them for the angled transfer ports to
slightly overlap the timing. The crown of the piston is conical to assist transfer. Thecontra
piston has a matching concave conical depression.
The venturi is machined separately and secured with Lok-Tate before the final
reaming of the crankshaft journal. Notice the three transfer passages in the photo. These
terminate in a transfer belt below the cylinder seat that matches with the cylinder transfer
ports. If you look very closely, you'll also see the stuff-up that turned away part of the
venturi opening.
There's nothing special in the crankshaft components. Another jig (not shown) is
made to hold the shaft in the 3-jaw chuck, offset by half the throw for forming the crank
pin. Even at these sizes, final lapping to size is no different from larger engines in terms
of the amount of metal that must be LEFT for removal. Only the microscopic size makes
things difficult. The prop driver knurls were formed with a thread form tool, set on edge
and used as a shaper. The prop nut is anodized in the usual way
IGH SPEED DIESEL ENGINE - 3721105
L D COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
INDEX
SR. TITLE PAGE DATE OF SIGN OF REMARK
NO NUMEBR ASSESSMENT FACULTY
1 To Study delay period, factor 1 to 3
affecting and its influence on
performance.
2 To compare 4 to 10
thermodynamically ideal and
actual cycle.
3 To study and demonstrate 11 to 18

different types of combustion
chamber used in latest IC
engine.
4 To study swirl in high speed 19 to 21

diesel engine.

5 The detail study and 22 to 27
demonstration of plunger and
distributor pumps and nozzles.
6 To study turbo charging 28 to 30

system used in GSRTC bus.
7 The detail study of multi fuel 31 to 33

engine.

EXPERIMENT NO :1
AIM: TO STUDY DELAY PERIOD, FACTOR AFFECTING AND ITS

INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE.
Delay Period
Delay period is defined as the time immediately following injection of the fuel during
which the ignition process is being initiated and the pressure does not rise beyond the
value it would have due to compression of air.
Types of Delay Period

Delay period generally are of two types such as
1. Physical Delay Period
This represents the time interval from the time of injection of fuel to its
attainment of self- ignition temperature during which the fuel is atomized,
vaporized and mixed with air.
2. Chemical Delay Period

After physical delay period is over, the time interval up to the time the fuel auto-
ignites and flame appears is called chemical delay. During this period pre flame
reactions take place. This period corresponds to ignition lag of S. I. engines.
In practice, it is very difficult to separate exactly these two delay periods since
the processes involved are very complex
We can also classifieds delay period in

1. Delay Period in CI Engine.
2. Delay Period in SI Engine.
Factor affecting to Delay Period & its influence on Engine Performance

Factors that influence delay period in engine performance are as under:
1. Compression ratio
1
2. Inlet air temperature
3. Coolant temperature
4. Jacket water temperature
5. Fuel temperature
6. Intake pressure
7. Air- fuel ratio and
8. Engine size
1. Compression ratio: With the increase in compression ratio reduces ignition lag,
a higher pressure increases density resulting in closer contact of the molecules
which reduce the time of action when fuel is injected.
2. Inlet air temperature: With the increase in inlet temperature increases the air
temperature after compression and hence decreases the ignition delay.
3. Coolant temperature: Increase in engine speed increases cylinder air

temperature and thus reduces ignition lag. The increase in engine speed
increases turbulence and this reduces the ignition lag.
4. Jacket water temperature: With the increase in jacket water temperature also
increases compressed air temperature and hence delay period is reduced.
5. Fuel temperature: Increase in fuel temperature would reduce both physical and
chemical delay period.
6. Intake pressure (supercharging): Increase in intake pressure or

supercharging reduces the auto- ignition temperature and hence reduces delay
period. Since the compression pressure will increase with intake pressure, the
peak pressure will be higher. Also, the power output will be more air and hence
more fuel can be injected per stroke.
7. Air-fuel ratio (load): With the increase in air-fuel ratio (leaner mixture) the
combustion temperatures are lowered and cylinder wall temperatures are
reduced and hence the delay period increases, with an increase in load, the
air- fuel ratio decreases, operating temperature increases and hence, delay
period decreases.
2
8. Engine size: The engine size has lit le effect on the delay period in
milliseconds. As large engines operate at low revolutions per minute (rpm)
because of inertia stress l imitations, the delay period in terms of crank angle is
smaller and hence less fuel enters the cylinder during the period. Thus,
combustion in large slow speed Compression Ignition engines is smooth.
In below table, we have mentioned how the increase in each variable effects
the ignition delay period and the reason for the cause of the delay.
Conclusion
After completing this experiment student will able to understand about what is delay
period in engine, factor affecting delay period and its influence in engine performance.
3
EXPERIMENT NO: 2
AIM: TO COMPARE THERMODYNAMICALLY IDEAL AND ACTUAL

CYCLE.
Disassociation theory:
Dissociation process can be considered as the disintegration of combustion produce at
high temperature. Dissociation can also be looked as the reverse process to
combustion. During dissociation the heat is absorbed whereas during combustion
the heat is liberated. In IC engines, mainly dissociation of CO2 into CO and O 2 occurs,
whereas there is very little dissociation of H2 O.
The dissociation of CO2 into CO and O2 starts commencing around 1000 co. and the
reaction equation can be written as
CO2 =2CO+O2 +Heat CO2 =2 CO+O2 +Heat
Similarly, the dissociation of H 2 OH2 O occurs at temperatures above 1300∘C

1300∘C and is written a
H2O= 2H2 +O2 +Heat H2O=2H2 +O2 +Heat
The presence of CO and O2O2 in the gases tends to prevent dissociation of CO2CO2;
this is noticeable in a rich fuel mixture, which by producing more CO, suppresses
dissociation of CO2CO2. In case of ICE heat transfer to the cooling medium causes a
reduction in the maximum temperature and pressure. As the temperature falls during
the expansion stroke the separated constituents recombine; the heat absorbed during
dissociation is thus again released, but it is too late in the stroke to recover entirely
the lost power. A portion of this heat is carried away by the exhaust gases. Fig
shows a typical curve that indicates the reduction in the temperature of the exhaust gas
mixtures due to dissociation with respect to A/F ratio. With no dissociation maximum
temperature is attained at chemically correct air- fuel ratio. With dissociation maximum
temperature is obtained when mixture is slightly rich. Dissociation reduces the
maximum temperature by about 300∘C 300∘C
even at the chemically correct A/ F ratio. In the fig. lean mixtures and rich mixtures
marked clearly.
4
Effect of Dissociation on
Temperature
The effect of dissociation on output power is shown in fig for a typical four stroke
spark ignition engine operating at constant speed. If there is no dissociation, the brake
power output is maximum when the mixture ratio is stoichiometric. The shaded area
between the brake power graphs shows the loss of power due to dissociation. When the
mixture is quite lean there is no dissociation. As the A/ F ratio decreases I.e., as the
mixture becomes rich the maximum temperature raises and dissociation commences.
The maximum dissociation occurs at chemically correct mixture strength. As the
mixture becomes richer, dissociation effect tends to decline due to incomplete
combustion.
effect of dissociation on power
5
Dissociation effects are not so pronounced in a CI engine as in an SI engine. This is
mainly due to
i) The presence of a heterogeneous mixture and

ii) Excess air to ensure complete combustion
Variable Specific heat effect on diesel cycle:
• Effect on reversible Diesel cycle: The performance of a Diesel cycle with heat
transfer loss and variable specific heat ratio of working fluid is analyzed. Using
finite time thermodynamics, the characteristic curves of the work output v.
compression ratio, the thermal efficiency v. compression ratio and the work
output v. thermal efficiency are obtained. Moreover, the effects of variable
specific heat ratio of working fluid on the cycle performance are significant. The
results obtained in this work can help to understand how the cycle performance
is influenced by the variation specific heat ratio, and they should be considered
in practical cycle analysis.
• Effect on irreversible Diesel cycle: The effects of the variable specific heat ratio
of the working fluid on the performance of a Diesel cycle, with considerations of
heat transfer and friction-like term losses, are investigated by using finite time
thermodynamics. The relationships between power output and compression
ratio, between thermal efficiency and compression ratio, as well as the optimal
relationship between power output and efficiency of the cycle, are derived by
detailed numerical examples. The results obtained herein show that the effects
of variable specific heat ratio of working fluid on the power output and thermal
efficiency of the cycle are significant and should be considered in the design of
practical Diesel engines.
Assumptions made in air standard and air fuel cycle:

Following assumption made in air standard cycle.
1. The working f laid is perfect gas.

2. There is no change in mass of the working medium.
6
3. All the process that constitutes the cycle is reversible.
4. Heat is assumed to be supplied from a constant high temperature source and not
from chemical reaction during the cycle.
5. There are no heat losses.
6. The working medium has constant specific heats throughout the cycle.
Cp = 1. 005 kJ /kg K, C v = 0 .718 kJ / kg K, γ = 1. 4
Following are the assumptions made in air fuel cycle
1. There is no chemical change in either fuel or air prior to combustion.

2. Subsequent to combustion the charge is always in chemical equilibrium. 3.
There is no heat transfer between gases and cylinder wall.
4. The compression and expansion processes are friction less. 5.
Combustion takes place instantaneously at top dead center. 6.
The velocities are negligible low.
Effects of variables on air standard cycle, air fuel cycle and actual cycle:
1. Compression ratio:
➢ Thermal efficiency increases with compression ratio.

➢ Thermal efficiency is maximum near the stoichiometric region of fuel-air ratio.
➢ Thermal efficiency is maximum with air-standard analysis, since losses are
ignored in this case.
➢ Ratio of fuel- air cycle efficiency to air standard cycle efficiency about
constant for a given air- fuel ratio.
➢ Maximum pressure and temperature increase with compression ratio, thus
efficiency improves.
2. Fuel- air ratio: on Efficiency
➢ Slightly lean mixture: lower specific heats and lower temperature rise and
thus lower chemical equilibrium losses.
➢ More energy for piston work. Therefore, higher efficiency.
7
3. Fuel- air ratio: on maximum power
➢ Air-standard theory- maximum power at stoichiometric condition.

➢ Fuel-air cycle-mixture 10 % rich.
➢ Enriching the mixture results in fall of efficiency, due to higher specific heat
and equilibrium losses.
➢ Wastage of fuel.
4. Fuel- air ratio: on maximum temperature
➢ Maximum temperature at slightly rich mixture.

➢ Reason- At stoichiometric condition, some oxygen lefts due to dissociation
effects, hence slightly rich mixture will result in more fuel to combine with
oxygen.
➢ Further, enriching the charge will decrease the maximum temperature due to
dissociation effect.
5. Fuel- air ratio: on maximum pressure
➢ Maximum pressure depends on temperature and number of moles.

➢ Trend similar to maximum temperature.
Difference between air standard and actual diesel cycle with P-V diagram:
8
Diagram shown of an ideal Diesel cycle in which there are a lot of assumptions differs
from actual Diesel cycle. The main differences between the actual and ideal Diesel
engine appear in the figure. In reality, the ideal cycle does not occur and there are
many losses associated with each process. For an actual cycle, the shape of the pave
diagram is similar to the ideal, but the area (work) enclosed by the p V diagram is
always less than the ideal value. The ideal Diesel cycle is based on the following
assumptions:
Closed cycle: The largest difference between the two diagrams is the simplification of
the intake and exhaust strokes in the ideal cycle. In the exhaust stroke, heat Qout is
ejected to the environment (in a real engine, the gas leaves the engine and is replaced
by a new mixture of air and fuel).
Isobaric heat addition. In real engines the heat addition is never isobaric.
No heat transfers
Compression – The gas is compressed adiabatically from state 1 to state 2. In real

engines, there are always some inefficiencies that reduce the thermal efficiency.
Expansion. -The gas expands adiabatically from state 3 to state 4.
Complete combustion of the mixture.
No pumping works. Pumping work is the difference between the work done during
exhaust stroke and the work done during intake stroke. In real cycles, there is a
pressure difference between exhaust and inlet pressures.
9
No blow down loss. Blow down loss is caused by the early opening of exhaust valves.
This results in a loss of work output during expansion stroke.
No blow- by loss. The blow- by loss is caused by the leakage of compressed gases
through piston rings and other crevices.
No frictional losses.
These simplifying assumptions and losses lead to the fact that the enclosed area (work)
of the pV diagram for an actual engine is significantly smaller than the size of the
area (work) enclosed by the p V diagram of the ideal cycle. In other words, the ideal
engine cycle will overestimate the net work and, if the engines run at the same speed,
greater power produced by the actual engine by around 20 % (similarly as in the case
of Otto engine).
Conclusion:
After completing this experiment student will able to understand about disassociation
theory, variable specific heat effects on diesel cycle, effect of variable on air standard,
air fuel and actual cycle.
10
EXPERIMENT NO: 3
AIM: TO STUDY AND DEMONSTRATE DIFFERENT TYPES OF

COMBUSTION CHAMBER USED IN LATEST IC ENGINE.
Combustion Chamber:
A combustion chamber is that part of an internal combustion engine (ICE) or a reaction
engine in which the fuel/ air mix is burned.
Objectives of Combustion Chamber:
The main objectives and importance of the combustion chamber is to provide the
following objectives.
• Smooth Engine operation
Smooth engine operation can be achieved by reducing the possibility of knocking in the
engine. This can be done by the locate the spark plug at the correct position, proper
Cooling of the spark plug and the exhaust valves area.
• High power output and thermal efficiency
High power output and thermal efficiency can be achieved by creating a high degree
of turbulence and sucking more amount of charge to attain high volumetric efficiency,
improved antiknock characteristics, compact design. all these can be achieved by a
suitable combustion chamber for the engine. There are different types of combustion
chambers for SI engines. Let’s discuss them in detail.
Different types of Combustion Chamber used in IC engine:
The design of a combustion chamber for a spark Ignition Engine involves the shape of
the combustion chamber, location of the spark plug and the location of the inlet valve
and exhaust valve. Due to this design, the combustion chamber has a great influence on
engine performance.
• Types of combustion chamber for SI Engines
1. T- Head type
2. L- Head type
3. I- Head type
4. F-Head type
11
1. T-Head type
Check out the T-Head type of the combustion chamber for the spark ignition
engines. As you can see there will be two valves on each side and a spark plug from
the top side. This type of combustion chambers was used in the early stages of the
engine’ s development. In this type of combustion chamber, the knocking tendency
is more because of the distance across the combustion chamber is long. There is
need of two cam shafts for the two valves. Which is another disadvantage.
2. L-Head type
As you can see one of the disadvantages in the T-head type is having two valves on
either side which needs two camshafts to operate them. Bringing these inlet and
exhaust valves to the same side will solve this problem. In this L- Head type
combustion chamber, you can see both inlet and the exhaust valve will be on the
same side operated by the same camshaft.
Check out the above L- Head type (Left side) combustion chamber. L- Head type
combustion chamber the charge need to take a right angle turn to enter into the
combustion chamber. This cause the loss of velocity and low turbulence results in
the slow combustion process. To avoid this, we have Ricardo’s turbulent head
design for the L- Head combustion chamber (Right side picture). The head design
will be helpful to create the turbulence for the charge to keep the velocity for
improving the combustion process.
Also, the spark plug is placed at the center of the combustion chamber, the flame
travel length is reduced. The knocking is also reduced with this head design.
12
3. I-Head type
This I- Head type combustion chamber is also called as the overhead valve combustion
chamber. As you can see the inlet and the exhaust valves are located on the top of
the cylinder head. The main advantage of this combustion chamber is that it can
achieve high compression ratios, and also less tendency to the knock. High volumetric
efficiency. We can avoid the thermal failures by keeping the hot exhaust valve in the
head instead of the cylinder.
4. F-Head type
F-Head type combustion chamber is an inspired design from the L- head type and the I-
Head type combustion chambers. As you can see the F- Head type combustion chamber
in the above diagram, One exhaust valve is in the cylinder head, the inlet valve in the
side, and the spark plug is in the cylinder head. Again, this has the same disadvantage
as the T- Head type combustion chamber as the two valves need to be operated by two
different camshafts.
These are the different types of combustion chambers for the SI engines.
13
• Types of combustion chamber for CI Engine:
The main important function of the combustion chamber of CI engines is to allow

the injected fuel to properly mix with the pre-compressed air in a short time.
Turbulence is necessary to mix the fuel within a short period after injecting the fuel
into the combustion chamber. It can be controlled by the combustion chamber shape and
design. Compression- Ignition engine combustion chambers are classified into two
categories.
There are two different types of combustion chambers for CI Engines.
1. Direct Injection type
2. Indirect Injection type
1. Direct Injection type combustion chambers
Direct Injection type combustion chambers are also known as the open type combustion
chambers. This open type combustion chambers, the combustion chamber volume will
be located in the cylinder. The fuel will be injected directly into the combustion
chamber with the help of the fuel injector.
There are four design variants available in Direct Injection type combustion chambers.
those are
1. Shallow depth chamber
2. Hemispherical chamber
3. cylindrical chamber
4. Toroidal chamber
1. Shallow depth chamber
Shallow depth combustion chambers are mostly used in the heavy engines running with
the low speeds. As you can see the shallow depth chamber diagram, the depth of the
cavity provided in the piston is quite small and the diameter is large. Due to the large
diameter, there will be almost negligible squish.
2. Hemispherical chamber
As you can see the hemispherical chamber, the depth to the diameter ratio can be
varied. so that the squish can be controlled to attain better performance.
14
3. Cylindrical Chamber
In a few modern diesel engines, this type of combustion chambers was implemented.
As you can see the Cylindrical Chamber diagram, the shape of the combustion chamber
is truncated cone with the base angle of 30°. The Squish can be varied by varying
the depth. The swirl can be produced by masking the valve for nearly 180°of the
circumference. Squash also can be controlled by varying the depth.
4. Toroidal Chamber
This Toroidal chamber design is mainly focused to provide the powerful Squish along
with the air moment. As the more Squish, the mask needed on the inlet valve is
small and there is better utilization of oxygen.
15
2. Indirect Injection type combustion chambers
In this type of combustion chambers, they are having two parts. One part will be located
in the cylinder and the other part will be in the cylinder head. The fuel will be
injected into the part which is located in the cylinder head.
There are three variant designs available in indirect Injection type combustion
chambers. those are
1. Swirl Chamber
2. Pre- combustion chamber
3. Air cell chamber
1. Swirl Chamber
This is also known as the Ricardo swirl chamber. Swirl combustion chamber consists
of the spherical-shaped chamber located in the cylinder head separated from the engine
cylinder. During the compression stroke, 50% of the air will be transferred to this swirl
chamber. In this spherical shaped swirl chamber, the fuel will be injected with the help
of a nozzle and the combustion will be initiated. The main drawback of this chamber is
that the heat loss is greater compared to the open combustion chambers. These
chambers are used where the less quality of fuels are used. Where reliability is the
main objective than the fuel economy.
2. Precombustion chamber
As you can see the above diagram of the Precombustion chamber. It consists of the
Prechamber connected to the main chamber. This Prechamber located in the cylinder
head. This Prechamber volume accounts for 40 % of the total combustion space.
16
During the compression stroke, the air will be injected into the Prechamber the
combustion will be initiated in it. But the bulk combustion will be taken place in
the main chamber only. About 80 % of the energy will be released in the main
combustion chamber. The rate of pressure rise and the maximum pressure attain during
the combustion process is comparatively low than the open combustion chambers.
3. Air- Cell Chamber
In this combustion chamber, the clearance volume will be shared by the two parts. One
portion of the clearance will be in the main cylinder. The second portion will be
called the energy cell. In energy cell itself, there will be two parts again. One is major
and the other one is minor which were separated by the main chamber connected by the
narrow orifices. The nozzle injects the fuel across the main combustion chamber
space towards the open neck the air cell.
During the compression stroke, the main chamber pressure will be more than the
energy cell pressure. When the temperature reaches high in the main chamber, the
combustion will start in the main chamber initially. In the energy, the cell contains the
well-mixed charge, due to the heat release in the main chamber the high- pressure
combustion particles will blow out thru the small passages into the main chamber. This
high-velocity jet produces swirling motion in the main chamber thereby thoroughly
mixes the fuel with the air, therefore the combustion will be completed.
17
Selection of Combustion Chamber:
For Agriculture purpose....
There are six primary sources of power in agriculture: human labor, domestic animals,
wind, flowing water, electricity, and heat engines. In relatively recent times, the
source of power for agricultural production has shifted from humans to animals, to
external combustion heat engines (steam engines), to internal combustion heat engines
(gasoline and diesel). Someday the primary source of power may change to fuel cells,
solar energy, or atomic energy, but in the immediate future the primary sources of
power for agriculture will continue to be internal combustion heat engines and
electric motors.
For military vehicle purpose....
The continuing development of the internal combustion engine as a compact,
powerful, and relatively light source of power opened up opportunities for the
development of new weapons. Tanks, the development of motor vehicles had also
stimulated some interest in their potential military use when armed and armored.
The improving power-to- weight ratio of internal combustion engines also enabled the
development of heavier-than- air f lying machines. Lighter-than- air airships also
benefitted from the developments in internal combustion engines.
For transportation vehicle purpose....
Faster dissemination of energy efficient engine technologies into the vehicle
population results in earlier realization of reduction of petroleum consumption and
greenhouse gas emissions since combustion engines will remain to be the dominant
power source for transportation vehicles in the next several decades.
CONCLUSION:
After completing this experiment students can discuss about the different types of
combustion chamber used for the latest IC engines such as combustion chambers used
in SI engine & CI engine & understand by the net pictures.
18
EXPERIMENT NO: 4
AIM: TO STUDY SWIRL IN HIGH SPEED DIESEL ENGINE.
For proper mixing of fuel and air in the combustion chamber the various methods of
air movement are employed called air swirl.
Air swirl is generated with the support of a suitable inlet port and it is amplified at the
end of the compression stroke by forcing the air towards the cylinder axis into the bowl-
in-piston combustion chamber. Swirl is basically an organized rotation of air about the
cylinder axis. swirl in diesel engines is an important parameter that affects the mixing
rate of air and fuel, heat release rate, emissions and overall engine performance.
Various types of air swirls are explained below.
● Induction Swirl
In this method the flow of air is directed in desired direction through a port
tangential to the piston or by masking or shrouding the intake valve head or
by squish during the compression stroke. This method is generally employed in
case of open or direct type combustion chamber.
Fig. 1 (a) illustrates a tangential port method of induction swirl.
Fig. 1(b) illustrates the method of producing air swirl by masking or shrouding
one side of the inlet valve, permitting the air flow only around the part of
periphery of the valve.
The angle of mask used usually varies 90o to 140 o. The best tangential direction
of air movement can be obtained by turning the valve around its axis.
Since such a method imposes a restriction on area of flow, it reduces the

volumetric efficiency.
Fig. 1 (c) illustrates the method of producing air swirl by casting a lip on one
side of the inlet valve.
19
Though it has been established that the air motion induced by the above method
during suction stroke persist even during the compression stroke but these air
movements are not enough for proper mixing of fuel and air.
Therefore, it is further augmented by squish method illustrated in Fig. 1(d).

Squish is the flow of air from periphery to the center of the cylinder into the
combustion recess by squeezing it t out from between the piston and cylinder
head towards the end of compression stroke.
● Compression Swirl.
In this method the air is forced through a tangential passage into a separate swirl
chamber during compression stroke. The method is used in swirl combustion chambers.
The compression swirl method is illustrated in Fig. 2. During the compression stroke
the air is forced into the chamber and during the expansion or power Stroke the burnt
gases pass out to the main combustion chamber through the throat of swirl chamber
resulting into excessive turbulence and better combustion.
20
● Combustion Induced Swirl
This is created due to partial combustion; therefore, its t is known as Combustion

Induced Swirl. This method is used only in pre-combustion chamber. In this method,
upward movement of piston during compression forces the air tangentially and fuel is
injected in pre-combustion, when combustion of accumulated fuel during delay period
burns rapidly in pre- combustion chamber as air to fuel mixture is rich and forces the
gases at a very high speed in main combustion chamber. This creates a good swirl
and provide better combustion.
CONCLUSION:
After completing this experiment students can understand about the different types of
swirl in high speed diesel engine.
21
EXPERIMENT NO: 5
AIM: THE DETAIL STUDY AND DEMONSTRATION OF PLUNGER

AND DISTRIBUTOR PUMPS AND NOZZLES.
FUEL INJECTOR (OR ATOMISER)

The purpose of the fuel injector is to inject a small volume of fuel in a fine spray
and to assist in bringing each droplet into contact with sufficient oxygen to give quick
and complete combustion.
Fig. shows C. A. V. fuel injector. It consists of a needle valve which is pressed
on its seating in the nozzle by a plunger or spindle. A compression spring controls the
pressure upon the plunger by which the needle valve opens. A nozzle is attached to
the body of the injector by a cap nut. The fuel enters the nozzle through drillings in the
injector body. The fuel may pass from a gallery down the sides of the lower parts of the
needle valve, or it may enter an annular groove in the nozzle and then pass through
drillings to a point just above the nozzle seat. The body or the nozzle holder provides
access for the fuel and an outlet for the fuel that leaks into the area occupied by the
spring.
22
When the needle valve is raised from its seat by the pressure of the fuel acting on the
conical or stepped face of the valve, the injection of the fuel takes place. When the
injection pressure falls below the spring pressure, the valve closes. This action tends to
set up an oscillation of the valve during each injection and consequently breaks the
fuel into small particles. Fuel leakage past the needle valve stem enters the upper
part of the injector and is returned to the pump suction chamber or to the fuel tank.
Fuel leakage provides lubrication also for the valve stem.
FUEL SYSTEM INJECTION NOZZLES AND NOZZLE HOLDERS

The performance of a modern high-speed oil engine depends largely upon the proper
functioning of its fuel injection system. For maximum efficiency in operation, it is
essential that the engine be not only provided with tile: in quantities exactly timed and
proportional to the amount of work it is required to do, but also that its t should receive
each charge of fuel in a condition such that it can be completely consumed, without
causing smoke in the exhaust. This is the function of the nozzle, which is held in
position in the cylinder head by the nozzle holder. As the nozzle may have to deal with
many hundreds of fuel charges per minute. With widely varying conditions of pressure
and temperature. The unerring precision necessary in the production of these parts
will be appreciated.
Operation. The injector (Nozzle holder and Nozzle) is a spring-loaded valve. The
nozzle valve and Seat are manufactured to close limits and are selectively fitted in the
factory. The nozzle uses a cone seat. The angle on the valve is slightly greater than the
angle formed in the body near the top of the valve cone; the valve is opened by oil
pressure and by spring force.
The injection process is as follows:
l. Spill cut-off is reached by the injection pump plunger.
2 Pressure of the fuel Oil in the delivery pipe rises rapidly.
3. Nozzle valve opens quickly.
4. Fuel oil is injected into the engine combustion chamber in a finely divided form.
5. Spill port open position is reached by the injection pump plunger.
6. Pressure of the fuel oil in the delivery pipe falls rapidly.
7. Nome valve closes quickly.
23
The injection process takes only a few milliseconds of time. Precise control is
necessary for a clear exhaust gas. For good combustion and a long nozzle life, the
valve must open quickly and when closed, should not allow oil to pass its seat. All
internally opening nozzle valves have leak off connection. Oil which lubricates the
nozzle valve, flows from the leak off pipe and it’ s then piped back to fuel tank. The
amount of oil flowing is small- an occasional drop only.
The type of nozzle to be used depends upon the particular requirements of the
engine combustion and the nozzles vary considerably in respect of diameter and length
of hole. Spray angle - valve l fit. It is absolutely essential that only the correct type of
nozzle is used.
TYPES OF NOZZLES
• Single hole nozzle. The single hole nozzle as shown in Fig. has one hole
drilled centrally through it to body which is closed by the nozzle valve. The
hole can be of any diameter from 0.2 mm upwards. A variation of this type,
shown in Fig. is known as the conical end nozzle. In this case, the single hole
is bored at an angle to the vertical center line of the valve as required.
24
• Multi-hole nozzle. Multi-hole nozzle as shown in Fig. Can have a varying
number of holes drilled in the bulbous end under the valve seating, their actual
number, size and disposition being dependent upon the requirements of the
engine concerned.
• Long stem nozzles for direct injection
engines where, owing to limited space
between the valves in the cylinder
head, it is not possible to provide
adequate cooling for the standard short
stem nozzle, an alternative form of
nozzle with a small diameter extension
has been developed.
• Pintle nozzles. In the ease of the pintle
nozzle shown in Fig. Which is designed
for use in engine combustion
chambers of the air cell, swirl chamber or pre- combustion type, the valve
stem is extended to form a pin or pintle which protrudes through the mouth
of the nozzle body. By modifying the size and shape of this pintle, sprays
varying from a hollow parallel-sided pencil form up to a hollow cone with an
angle of 60 0 or more can be provided.
Delay nozzles. Certain pre-combustion chamber engines, while requiring a pintle

nozzle, demand different spray characteristics in order to obtain quieter running at
idling speeds. This is accomplished by modifying the design of the pintle so that rate of
sired is reduced at beginning of the delivery, the resultant effect being to reduce the
amount of fuel in the combustion chamber, when combustion commences, thus
diminishing "die knock”. The modified none is referred to a "delay" nozzle. It should be
noted, however, that this type of nozzle does not necessarily improve idling
in every pre- combust 1
chamber engine; and should
be selected only after
prolonged tests.
25
Pentax nozzle. The Pentax nozzle is a development of pintle type having an auxiliary
spray hole to assist easy starting under cold conditions as shown in Fig. At engine
starting Beds, the nozzle valve is not lifted sufficiently to clear the pinhole and the fuel
is discharged through auxiliary hole. At normal running speeds, however. When
pressures in the fuel system is higher. The nozzle valve is withdrawn from the pintle
hole allowing the bulk of the fuel to discharge through it.
DIESEL FUEL FILTERS:

Dirt carried in the fuel is recognized as prime source of trouble and inefficiency in
diesel engine operation, as it is the cause of wear in the fuel injection pump and
nozzles. The fuel injection pump is a sturdy, well designed piece of equipment that
will give trouble-free service for many thousands of hours running, provided the
fuel is clean, but if dirt, especially fine dust, is allowed to pass into the system in
the fuel, then wear follows with it irregular running and loss of power maintenance
costs will become heavy and engines will need frequent attention. Where
sedimentation in the supply tank can be efficiently carried out, this will greatly reduce
the amount of dirt carried in the fuel. Under working conditions. However, it is
absolutely essential that the fuel be properly filtered before entering the injection
pump.
Method of Operation. The fuel enters the filter bowl through the inlet connection, then
passes through the filter element and leaves the filter through the outlet orifice
completely clean. In multi- stage (dual) filters, the fuel Oil flows first through the
primary filter and then through the secondary micro filter before continuing to the fuel
injection pumps.
Prior to putting into operation or after cleaning and changing of the filter element
the filter mug flied with fuel oil through the filler plug orifice on the filter cover. After
filling the filler plug should immediately and the filter air vented.
26
The importance of care in replacing the element, avoiding getting din on clean side of
filter cannot be over-emphasized, as many complaints of fuel pump element Wear can
traced to lack of care in the servicing of filters. When choking takes place, this is
usually found to due to a waxy sludge which is deposited from the fuel. If filters are
found to choke in an unreasonably short t time this will probably point to an
unsatisfactory fuel supply or storage tank installation: and should be taken to find out
how and at what point an undue amount of impurities Can enter the system.
Paper elements are not intended to be cleaned and must discarded when choked. The
cost of replacement elements has been kept down to the lowest possible figure
compatible with Special care in manufacture; and compares more than favorably with
other ins efficient filtering elements. The number of filters used for any engine
installation will obviously depend the capacity of the particular engine and the
conditions of operation. In all cases, the main object is to provide the highest possible
degree of filtration consistent with long filter element life.
Due to the widely differing conditions of operation which have to cater for, precise
instructions for servicing intervals cannot be stated for paper elements: and operators
are advised to follow in the first place the recommendations laid down in the vehicle,
tractor or engine instruction book. The period at which it Will be found necessary to
change the filter clement will naturally vary according to the type of fuel used,
provision made for bulk storage, setting or pre filtering before filling the vehicle tank,
and the local conditions under which the engine concerned is working. This may easily
as short three months or as long as twelve, but it is not that it will
be outside these periods although
exceptional circumstances may
make it so.
The filter inserts should never be
cleaned. Every 5, 000 km 125 hours
operation. The filter bowls should
be drained to remove
sediments/ water. Since, filter inserts
attain maximum efficiency only
after a film of din has deposited on
the surface of the filter insert. The
stage I and stage II filter inserts
should never be replaced at the same
time. Sometimes. The filter gets
clogged in a very short time due to
asphaltence or waxy compounds
present in the fuel. In such cases, the filter insert has to be replaced.
27
EXPERIMENT NO: 6
AIM: TURBO CHARGER FUNCTION, TURBO CHARGED VS

NATURALLY ASPIRATED ENGINE. EXPLAIN TYPES OF
TURBO-CHARGING SYSTEM. EXPLAIN EACH TYPE OF
TURBO-CHARGER. TURBO-CHARGING SYSTEM USED IN
GSRTC BUS/PASSENGER VEHICLE.
● Turbo charger function

A turbocharger known as a turbo, is a turbine- driven, forced induction device
that increases an internal combustion engine’s efficiency and power output by
forcing extra compressed air into the combustion chamber.
Turbocharger is powered by a turbine driven by the engine's exhaust gas.
● Turbo charged vs naturally aspirated engine

In naturally aspirated piston engines, intake gases are drawn or pushed into the
engine by atmospheric pressure filling the volumetric cavity caused by the
downward stroke of the piston. which creates a low- pressure area, the amount of
air inspired compared with turbocharger is less because of that engine obtain low
volumetric efficiency. The objective of a turbocharger is to improve an engine's
volumetric efficiency by increasing density of the intake gas allowing more power
per engine cycle.
The turbocharger's compressor draws in ambient air and compresses it before it

enters into the intake manifold at increased pressure. This results in a greater mass
of air entering the cylinders on each intake stroke. The power needed to spin the
centrifugal compressor is derived from the kinetic energy of the engine's exhaust
gases.
A reduced density of intake air is caused by the loss of atmospheric density seen
with elevated altitudes. Thus, a natural use of the turbocharger is with aircraft
engines. As an aircraft climbs to higher altitudes, the pressure of the surrounding air
quickly falls off. At 5 ,500 m, the air is at half the pressure of sea level, which
means that the engine produces less than half- power at this altitude. In aircraft
engines, turbocharging is commonly used to maintain manifold pressure as altitude
increases. to compensate for lower-density air at higher altitude. Since
atmospheric pressure reduces as the aircraft climbs, power
28
drops as a function of altitude in normally aspirated engines. Systems that use a
turbocharger to maintain an engine's sea-level power output are called turbo-
normalized systems. Generally, a turbo- normalized system attempts to maintain
a manifold pressure of 100 kPa.
● Explain types of turbocharging system
1. Single turbo
The simplest, and still most common, type of turbo is the
single-turbocharger set-up. Because of its relative simplicity. But it has
problems of turbo lag. turbo lag is the time required to change power output
in response to a throttle change, noticed as a hesitation or slowed throttle
response when accelerating as compared to a naturally aspirated engine.
2. Twin- turbo
Twin-turbo or bi- turbo designs have two separate
turbochargers operating in either a sequence or in parallel. In a parallel
configuration, both turbochargers are fed one-half of the engine's exhaust. In
a sequential setup one turbocharger runs at low speeds and the second turns
on at a predetermined engine speed or load. Sequential turbochargers further
reduce turbo lag, but require an intricate set of pipes to properly feed both
turbochargers.
Two-stage variable twin-turbos employ a small

turbocharger at low speeds and a large one at higher speeds. They are
connected in a series so that boost pressure from one turbocharger is
multiplied by another, hence the name 2- stage. The distribution of exhaust
gas is continuously variable, so the transition from using the small
turbocharger to the large one can be done incrementally. Twin
turbochargers are primarily used in Diesel engines.
3. Twin scroll
Twin-scroll or divided turbochargers have two exhaust gas
inlets and two nozzles, a smaller sharper angled one for quick response
and a larger less angled one for peak performance.
29
With high- performance camshaft timing, exhaust valves in
different cylinders can be open at the same time, overlapping at the end of the
power stroke in one cylinder and the end of exhaust stroke in another. In twin-
scroll designs, the exhaust manifold physically separates the channels for
cylinders that can interfere with each other, so that the pulsating exhaust gasses
flow through separate spirals.
4. Variable-geometry turbocharger (VGT)

Turbochargers use moveable vanes to adjust the air-flow to the
turbine, imitating a turbocharger of the optimal size throughout the power curve.
The vanes are placed just in front of the turbine like a set of slightly overlapping
walls. Their angle is adjusted by an actuator to block or increase air flow to the
turbine. This variability maintains a comparable exhaust velocity and back
pressure throughout the engine's rev range. The result is that the turbocharger
improves fuel efficiency without a noticeable level of turbocharger lag.
5. Electric turbocharger
An electric supercharger is a specific type of supercharger for
internal combustion engines that uses an electrically powered forced- air system
that contains an electric motor to pressurize the intake air. By pressurizing the air
available to the engine intake system, the air becomes denser, and is matched
with more fuel, producing the increased horsepower to the wheels.
Turbo-charging system used in GSRTC bus/passenger vehicle.
in GSRTC bus variable geometry turbocharger is used.
30
EXPERIMENT NO: 7
AIM: THE DETAILED STUDY OF MULTI FUEL ENGINES.
Multifuel engine
A multifuel engine is constructed so that its compression ratio permits firing the lowest
octane fuel of the various accepted alternative fuels. A strengthening of the engine is
necessary in order to meet these higher demands. Multifuel engines sometimes have
switch settings that are set manually to take different octanes, or types of fuel.
Multifuel, sometimes spelled multifuel, is any type of engine, boiler, or heater or
other fuel- burning device which is designed to burn multiple types of fuels in its
operation. One common application of multi fuel technology is in military settings,
where the normally- used diesel or gas turbine fuel might not be available during
combat operations for vehicles or heating units. Multifuel engines and boilers have
a long history, but the growing need to establish fuel sources other than petroleum for
transportation, heating, and other uses has led to increased development of multi fuel
technology for non-military use as well, leading to many flexible- fuel vehicle designs
in recent decades.
Modification required to convert diesel engine into multi fuel engine
There are usually two types of conversions - low speed (below 1000 RPM) and high
speed ( b e t w e e n 1200 and 1800 RPM).
Low and middle speed conversion
Gas is injected into the cylinder inlet manifold by individual gas electromagnetic
valves installed as close to the intake valves as possible. The valves are separately
timed and controlled by an injection control unit. This system interrupts the gas supply
to the cylinder during the long overlap of the intake and exhaust valves (just typical for
slow- speed and medium- speed engines – within the valve overlap cylinder
scavenging is performed). This avoids substantial gas losses and prevents dangerous
gas flow to the exhaust manifold.
● This conversion is adjusted for low speed engines up to 1000 RPM.
31
● System for conversion of industrial diesel engine to Bi- fuel operation by
substitution of 70 -90 % natural gas for diesel or HFO.
● Gas is injected directly before the intake valve by high speed
electromagnetic injector, one or two injector per each cylinder.
High speed conversion
Gas is mixed with air by a common mixer installed before turbocharger(s). Gas flow is
controlled by a throttle valve, which is electronically operated by the special control
system according to the required engine output and speed. In order to avoid knocking
of the engine, a knocking detector/ controller is installed, thus enabling engine
operation at the most efficient gas/diesel ratio.
● Suitable for all High- S p e e d engines, 1200 -1800 RPM.
● System for conversion of industrial diesel engine to Bi- fuel operation by
substitution of 50 -80 % natural gas for diesel.
● Gas and air are blended behind air filter before turbocharger by central
mixer.
Performance of multi fuel engine

The performance of the dual fuel engines is determined by and affected by the amount
of natural gas and diesel. To obtain high mass alternative rate, the amount of pilot
diesel should be as little as possible. Too little pilot diesel, however should result in
unstable operation of engine. Under such conditions, the engine almost renders
unstable operation. The testing has confirmed that the dual fuel engine would exhibit
obvious detonation if higher mass alternative rate were used.
Fig 1 Shows, the overall arrangements of the engine fueled with diesel- natural gas.
32
Fig 2 Shows-the mass alternative rate and alternative efficiency at full loads at speed
of range from 1200 to 2000 RPM.
Fig 3 Shows the mass alternative rate and alternative efficiency at light loads at which
the dual fuel engine stably operates with min. gas at speed of the range from 1200 to
2650 RPM.
Conclusion
As described above, too low of an amount of diesel would result in irregular burning or
detonation. On the other hand, too little amount of natural gas will cause the misfire of
the gas. Air/ fuel ratio control in CNG- fueled engines is more critical and difficult
than that of gasoline engines. Converted CNG-fueled SI engine can perform well if
the combustion chamber is modified for natural gas utilization.
33

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MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT

THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT Ms. HITARTHI Y. BUCH WITH

FACULTY SIGNATURE HEAD OF DEPT.

INTERNAL EXAMINAR EXTERNAL EXAMINAR

2 Testing of Internal combustion 11 to 16

3 Study and Performance 17 to 20

4 Study and Performance 21 to 26

5 Study of MPFI and CRDI 27 to 35

6 Study of ignition , cooling, 36 to 46

7 Study of clutch and 47 to 57

8 Study of automotive brakes , 58 to 73

9 Study of Recent developments 74 to 85

M.E. in I.C. Engine & Automobile Semester-II 2019-20

One of the key problems

The three main roles of the piston rings are:

Figure 1.3 Five-bearing crankshaft for a four-cylinder engine

Figure 1.4 Camshaft with pushrods

• Valve seat: Valve head is sitting on

➢ Vibration dampers therefore have three

1. Drive member: bolted to crankshaft

AIM: Testing of Internal Combustion Engine as per IS Standers

• This standard will be complimentary to specification for performance required of

Volume flow rate of air, Qa = Cd × Ao × Vair

= 3.14× 0.082 ×0.11 ×1385.37/480

= 6.38× 10-3 m3/s

Figure 2.1 SFC Vs load

➢ Objective: To perform test on four stroke single cylinder petrol engine.

Fuel tank capacity 6.5 liter

Compression ratio 9:01

Max. Torque – (kg-m) 10.5 Nm @2600 RPM

Consumption of Fuel (S.F.C)- 220

Lub oil consumption-kg/hr. 0.008

Capacity of oil sump- Liter 0.58

Fuel consumption per minute, Qf = 10/t

Sr Dynamom Time for Air Load Engine speed

= 3.14× 0.082 ×0.11 ×1385.37/480

= 6.38× 10-3 m3/s

Sr Dynamomet B.P. Fuel Air Mass A/F B.S.F.C. Volumetr Engine

Figure 4.1 Graph of result

➢ Electronic fuel injection system:

➢ Port Injection: In this system, the

Figure 5.2 Port Injection System with an injector in its

Figure 5.3 Throttle Body Injection System

➢ The MPFI systems can also be classified as D-MPFI and L-MPFI.

Figure 5.4 D-MPFI system

Figure 5.5 L-MPFI system

I. Electronic control system:

Figure 5.6 Electronic control system

II. Fuel System:

III. Air induction system: It is shown in diagram on beside page.

Figure 5.7 CRDI System

2. Fuel Supply Pump:

4. The Common Rail:

8. Electronic Control Unit:

AIM: Study of Ignition, Cooling and Lubrication Systems.

➢ Classification of Ignition System:

a) Battery ignition system:

Figure 6.1 Battery ignition system

The primary circuit consists of the battery, ammeter, ignition switch,

b) Magneto ignition system:

Figure 6.2 Magneto ignition system

c) Electronic ignition system:

Figure 6. 3 Electronic ignition system