WTM 516 - Wood Physics and Mechanics (Lecture - Guide - Slides)

WTM 516 - Wood Physics and Mechanics
Part 1 : Wood Physics
Lecture Presentations
Dr. Anteneh Tesfaye Tekleyohannes
Spring 2019
Content
Physics & wood physics
Wood properties
• Appearance
• Density, specific gravity and porosity
Thermodynamics of water
Moisture in wood
Mass transfer in wood
WTM 516 ‐ Wood Physics and Mechanics, Part 1 : Wood Physics
Physics and Wood Physics
Physics:
• Physics is the study of the basic principles that govern the physical world
around us
• The subject matter of physics includes heat, light and other radiation, sound,
electricity, magnetism, the structure of atoms and mechanics
• A fundamental scientific discipline which has as its main goal to understand
how the universe behaves
Wood physics
• So, what could be wood physics?
Wood properties
Wood properties can be classified as
• Anatomical
• Physical
• Mechanical (Nonphysical)
• Chemical
Wood physics deals with physical properties of wood and their
interaction with various forms of matter and energy
All the properties of wood are important, because separately or in
combination they determine performance and utility of products
made from it
Appearance of wood
Wood is often aesthetically pleasing and possesses attractive
appearance
Appearance is one of the factors that determines use of for various
purposes
The decorative appearance of wood is due to its
• Texture
• Figure
• Color
• In many instances, to combinations of three
Appearance of wood
Texture
• It is determined by the size and arrangements of cells
• It may be classified as fine, even and coarse textured
Figure
• Figure is defined as the ornamental markings seen on the cut surface of
timber formed by the structural features of the wood
• It has four important structural features to which its existence is attributed
 Grain
 Growth rings
 Rays
 Knots
Appearance of wood
Grain
• It is a description for the vertical
orientation of arrangement of cells and
their deviation from it
• Straight, spiral and interlocked grain are
the most commonly known of its
occurrence
Appearance of wood
Growth rings
• Formations of ring like ribbons due to
the nature of distribution of cell types
within one growth period
• Determined by the relative uniformity
and proportion of earlywood and
latewood
• On the radial face, the growth rings will
be vertical and parallel to one another
• On the tangential face, a most pleasing
series of concentric arcs is produced as
successive growth layers are intersected
Appearance of wood
• Rays
• When the surface of the plank coincides
with the longitudinal radial plane, these
rays can be seen as sinuous light‐colored
ribbons running across the grain
Appearance of wood
• Knots
• Knots, though troublesome from
the mechanical aspects of timber
utilization, can be regarded as a
decorative feature
• Burls from cluster of fine knots are
highly prized for decorative work
Appearance of wood
Color
• In the absence of extractives, timber tends to be a rather pale straw color
• Color is often a result of deposition of extractives as is the case with
heartwood
• The heartwood may be yellow (e.g. boxwood), orange (e.g. Opepe), red (e.g.
Mahogany), purple (e.g. Purpleheart), brown (e.g. African walnut), green (e.g.
greenheart) or black (e.g. Ebony)
Wood Appearance and density
Density, specific gravity and porosity
• Weight of a piece of wood is the sum of cell‐wall substances,
extractives in porous structure of wood and moisture in cell wall and
lumens
• Density is usually determined as extractive free

where both the mass m and volume v must be determined at the same
moisture content (0%, 12% and green moisture content)
• If weight of a piece of wood at 0% moisture content is known then
the weight at any moisture content is given by
𝑚 𝑚 1 0.01𝜇
where mx is the mass of timber at moisture content x, m0 is the mass of timber at zero moisture
content, and μ is the percentage moisture content
• Similarly, volume of at any moisture content, given its volume at 0% is
given by
𝑉 𝑉 1 0.001𝑆
where vx is the volume of timber at moisture content x, v0 is the volume of timber at zero

moisture content, and sv is the percentage volumetric shrinkage/expansion
Consequently, density of wood at any moisture content, given oven
dry weight, volume, shrinkage and swelling value is given by
𝑚 𝑚 1 0.01𝜇 1 0.01𝜇
𝜌 𝜌
𝑉 𝑉 1 0.01𝑆 1 0.01𝑆
• As a very approximate rule of thumb, the density of timber increases by approximately 0.5%
for each 1.0% increase in moisture content up to FSP
• Density increases, slightly and curvilinearly, up to FSP as both total mass and volume increase
• Above FSP, density increases rapidly and curvilinearly with increasing moisture content
because (the volume remains constant above this value and the mass increases)
• Density widely varies from species to species: Light as Balsa (176kg/m3) and more heavier
than Lignum vitae (1230kg/m3)
Specific gravity
• It is usually designated as G and is given by
𝐺
where ρt is the density of timber, and ρw is the density of water at 4°C= 1000
g/cm3
• Specific gravity of wood depends on moisture content
• When G is calculated oven dry mass is used
• G in green condition is termed as basic specific gravity
• G at any moisture content is given by
𝐺
where m0 is the oven‐dry mass of timber, Vμ is the volume of timber at moisture content μ,
ρw is the density of water
• Density and specific gravity are directly related
𝜌 𝐺· 1 0.001𝜇 𝜌
where ρ is the density at moisture content μ, G is the specific gravity at moisture content μ,
and ρw is the density of water
• Density and specific gravity numerically equal to each other at 0%
moisture content
Density of the dry cell wall
• Density of the actual cell wall material remains constant for all timbers with a
value of approximately 1500 kg/m3 (1.5g/cm3) when measured by volume
displacement methods.
• Cell wall density can be measured by optical techniques as well as by volume
displacement
Porosity
• The porosity (p) of timber is defined as the fractional void volume and is
expressed mathematically as
𝑝 1 𝑉
where Vf is the volume fraction of cell wall substance
WTM 516 ‐ Wood Physics and Mechanics, Part 1 : Wood
• Given both the density of the cell wall substance and the moisture
content of the timber are known, the volume fraction of the cell wall
substance can be determined as
.
𝑉 𝐺· ·𝜌
where G is the specific gravity at moisture content μ, Gs is the specific gravity of
bound water at moisture content μ, μ is the moisture content less than 25%,
and ρc is the density of cell wall material
Thermodynamics of water
Laws of thermodynamics: There are 3 (4) laws to thermodynamics,
and they are some of the most important laws in all of physics
• 0th law of thermodynamics – If two thermodynamic systems are each in
thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
• 1st law of thermodynamics – energy is conserved; it can neither be created
nor destroyed, just changed from one for to another
• 2nd law of thermodynamics – The entropy of an isolated system not in
equilibrium will tend to increase over time, approaching a maximum value at
equilibrium
• 3rd law of thermodynamics – As temperature approaches absolute zero, the
entropy of a system approaches a constant minimum (0 Kelvin)
Physics
Moisture in wood & dimensional movement
Timber in an unstressed state may undergo dimensional changes following
variations in its moisture content
Timber is hygroscopic, that is it will absorb moisture from the atmosphere
if it is dry and correspondingly yield moisture to the atmosphere when wet
Timber continues to lose moisture to the environment or gain moisture
until it attains equilibrium with the environment at given temperature and
relative humidity
• Its weight remains relatively constant for prolonged time
• This constant state of moisture content is termed as equilibrium moisture content
(EMC) for that temperature and relative humidity
• Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial vapor pressure in the air to the
saturated vapor pressure, expressed as a percentage
• Relative humidity is defined
as the ratio of the partial
vapor pressure in the air to
the saturated vapor
pressure, expressed as a
percentage
Measurement of relative humidity
• There are several methods of humidity measurement
• Sling psychrometer or wet‐ and dry‐bulb thermometer
• consists of two thermometers: one with a dry bulb for measuring the ambient room
temperature and the other with a wet bulb covered by a wick dipped in distilled water
• Air circulation of at least 3 m/s must be achieved by manual rotation of the instrument or by a
fan blowing on a stationary wet bulb, resulting in evaporative cooling.
Control of relative humidity
• The relative humidity within a room or chamber may be controlled by:
• Regulating the dry‐bulb temperature by thermostatically operated heating or cooling
devices
• Controlling the dew point or wet‐bulb temperature thermostatically to maintain the
desired relative humidity.
• By the use of saturated salt solutions
Equilibrium moisture
content of wood
Generally, EMC of wood at
given temperature and
relative humidity varies
from species to species,
within the cross section of
the same wood from pith to
bark, along the height of the
tree from butt to top
Determination of moisture content
• Its described on the basis of oven dry weight as follow
𝜇 · 100 %
where minit is the initial mass of timber sample (grams), mod is the mass of

timber sample after oven‐drying at 105°C (grams) and μ is the moisture content
of timber sample (%)
The measurement is done after removing extractives using the basic
gravimetric technique for given temperature and relative humidity
Fiber saturation point
• Fiber saturation point (FSP) can be regarded as the EMC of wood at 100%
relative humidity
• There are more than nine differing methods of determining the FSP and the
value obtained in each differs from the other
• How is water vapor adsorbed into the cell wall and its components?
• There are several theories attempting to explain and predict the way vapor
molecules are attached to cell wall and its components
• Molecular layering and clustering are the dominant ones
• Important physical theories/models :
• Brunauer‐Emmet‐Teller (BET) (1938)
• Hailwood and Horrobin (H‐H) (1946)
• Guggenheim‐Anderson‐de Boer (GAB) (1966)
• The Brunauer‐Emmet‐Teller (BET) theory (1938)
V C  h 1  ( n  1 )  h n  n  h ( n1 )
 
Vm ( 1  h ) 1  ( C  1 )  h  C  h ( n1 )
where Vm [cm3 /mol] represents the total volume of water in the monolayer, V

[cm3 /mol] is the total volume of water in all layers, h [kPa] is the vapor
pressure, C is the BET constant and n is the number of layers
• Hailwood and Horrobin (1946)
K a K  a  K 1  2  ( K  a ) 2 K 1  K 2  ....
c 
( 1  K  a ) 1  K  a  K 1  K  K 2  ( K  a ) 2  .....
in which c [g /mol] is the mole fraction of water on the basis of net weight of
polymer, Ki is a corresponding equilibrium empirical constant between the
different phases of water and the variable a is the dimensionless water activity.
The first and second functional terms of equation represent the fraction of
dissolved water and that of the polyhydrates respectively
• Guggenheim‐Anderson‐de Boer (GAB) (1966)
𝑀 ·𝐶·𝐾·𝑎
𝑀
1 𝐾·𝑎 · 1 𝐾·𝑎 𝐶·𝐾·𝑎
• Adsorption‐desorption
hysteresis curve for
spruce at 250C
• Type II, III and VI are indicators of
nonporosity or macroporosity
• Type IV and V show presence of
mesoporosity
• The shape of isotherms further
indicates the prevailing type of
interaction between adsorbates and
adsorbents
• Type‐II and IV denote
strong adsorbate‐
adsorbent interaction
over type‐III and type‐V
• The last sorption
isotherm of type‐VI
shows a step wise
multilayer adsorption
with metastable phases
of equilibrium.
• Dimensions of wood are reduced when it is dried to lower moisture
content thereby causing shrinkage
• Shrinkage in wood is anisotropic (Has differing magnitude in three
dimensions or anatomical directions)
• Radial shrinkage is usually some 60–70% of the corresponding
magnitude of tangential direction
• Longitudinal shrinkage is always an order of magnitude less than
transversal directions
Differences in the degree of transverse shrinkage between tangential
and radial planes, are usually explained in the following
• The restricting effect of the rays on the radial plane
• The increased thickness of the middle lamella on the tangential plane
compared with the radial
• The difference in degree of lignification between the radial and tangential cell
walls
• The small difference in microfibrillar angle between the two walls
• The alternation of earlywood and latewood in the radial plane, which,
because of the greater shrinkage of latewood, induces the weaker earlywood
to shrink more tangentially than it would if isolated (the Mörath or
earlywood‐latewood interaction theory).
• How can we control and regulate shrinkage?
Mass transfer in wood
Water exists in wood in the following forms
• As water vapor adsorbed in cell wall
• As water vapor existing in cell lumens
• As bulk or capillary condensed liquid in cell lumens
Mass flow in timber can occur either as bulk flow through the
interconnected cell lumens or other voids, or by diffusion
Bulk flow is determined by permeability of given timber species
Diffusion is responsible for the transfer of water vapor through air in
the lumens and the movement of bound‐water within the cell wall
Mass flow in wood is studied as either in steady or unsteady‐state
Steady‐state flow
• The basic relationship is that the flux or rate of flow is proportional to the
pressure gradient
where the flux is the rate of flow per unit cross‐sectional area, the gradient is
the pressure difference per unit length causing flow, and k is a constant,
dependent on form of flow, such as permeability, diffusion or conductivity
Bulk flow and permeability
• Permeability is simply the quantitative expression of the bulk flow of fluids
through a porous material.
• Flow in the steady‐state condition is best described in terms of Darcy’s law.
Thus,
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
and for the flow of liquids this becomes
𝑘
∆
where k is the permeability (m2/ (Pa s)), Q is the volume rate of flow (m3/s), ΔP is the
pressure differential (atm), A is the cross‐sectional area of the specimen (m2), and L is the
length of the specimen in the direction of flow (m)
• Bulk flow and permeability
• Because of the change of pressure of a gas and hence its volumetric flow rate
as it moves through a porous medium, Darcy’s law for the flow of gases has
be modified as follows:
𝑄𝐿𝑃
𝑘
𝐴Δ𝑃𝑃
where kg is the gas permeability and Q, L, A and ΔP are as in previous equation,
P is the pressure at which Q is measured, and P ̅ is the mean gas pressure in the
sample
Of all the numerous physical and mechanical properties of timber,
permeability is by far the most variable
• What is the benefit of
permeability?
• Measurement of permeability
Mass transfer in softwoods and
hardwoods
• Softwoods
• both tracheids and parenchyma cells
have closed ends and that movement
of liquids and gases must be by way
of the pits in the cell wall
• Three types of pit are present
• The first is the bordered pit which is
almost entirely restricted to the radial
walls of the tracheids, tending to be
located towards the ends of the cells
• The second type of pit is the ray or semi‐
bordered pit which interconnects the
vertical tracheid with the horizontal ray
parenchyma cell
• The third type is the simple pit between
adjacent parenchyma cells
Both longitudinal and tangential flow paths in softwoods are
predominantly by way of the bordered pits whereas the horizontally
aligned ray cells constitute the principal pathway for radial flow
Permeability is anisotropic and for most timbers longitudinal
permeability is about 10,000 times the transverse permeability
Permeability depends on
• Moisture content
• Earlywood and latewood
• Sapwood and heartwood
• Species
Hardwoods
• Longitudinal flow is via wholly or partially dissolved ends of vessels
• Radial flow is by way of rays
• Tangential flow needs adjacent cells (vessels, fibers and vertical parenchyma)
interconnecting pits
• Permeability is highest in the outer sapwood, decreasing inwards and
reducing markedly with the onset of heartwood formation as the cells
become blocked either by the deposition of gums or resins or tylosis
Moisture diffusion
• Flow of water vapor below FSP
• Moisture diffusion is another manifestation of flow, conforming with the
general relationship between flux and pressure
• The governing equation of diffusion is given by Fick’s first and second law
𝑑𝑐 1 𝑑𝑛
𝑑𝑛 · 𝑎 · 𝑑𝑡 · 𝐹
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
the quantity dn of a substance diffusing at constant temperature per unit time t through unit surface
area a is proportional to the concentration gradient dc/dx and the coefficient of diffusion (or
diffusivity) D (m2/s).
The ‘minus’ sign implies that diffusion occurs in the reverse direction to concentration gradient
vector, i.e. from the zone with a higher concentration to that with a lower concentration of the
diffusing element
• Moisture diffusion
• The total flux F of moisture diffusion through a plane surface under
isothermal conditions is given by
𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑐
𝐹 𝐷
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
where dm/dt is the flux (rate of mass transfer per unit area), dc/dx is the gradient of
moisture concentration (mass per unit volume) in the x direction, and D is the moisture
diffusion coefficient which is expressed in m2/s
Fick’s second law
• If the concentration gradient varies in time and the diffusion coefficient is
taken to be independent of concentration, the diffusion process is described
by Fick’s second law which can be derived from the first law:
𝑑𝑐 𝑑 𝑑𝑐
𝐷·
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
• Fick’s second law
• The diffusion equation can also be written in terms of percentage moisture
content M as
𝐹 𝐾
where the transport coefficient KM=D∙∂c/∂M. As the mass of water per unit
volume of wood c is ρM/100, it follows that KM=ρD/100, if ρ is the basic density
of the wood
Fick’s second law
• As moisture content and vapor pressure are related quantities, the latter can
be considered as the driving potential for moisture diffusion, so another form
of the diffusion equation is
𝐹 𝐾 ·
where F is again the rate of mass transfer per unit area, p is the vapor pressure
and
𝜕𝑐
𝐾 𝐷·
𝜕𝑝
Moisture diffusion
• The most important factors affecting the diffusion coefficient of water in timber are
temperature, moisture content and density of the timber
• Various alternative ways of expressing the potential that drives moisture through
wood have been proposed
• Percentage moisture content
• Relative vapor pressure
• Osmotic pressure
• Chemical potential
• Capillary pressure
• Spreading pressure.
• As with the use of the Darcy equation for permeability, so with the application of
Fick’s law for diffusion there appears to be a number of cases in which the law is not
upheld and the model fails to describe the experimental data
Moisture diffusion and measurement of its coefficient
• Practical significance of diffusion
• it governs drying of wood below the fiber saturation point
• Affects the day to day movement of wood through diurnal and seasonal changes in
climate
• It also governs the quantification of the rate of vapor transfer through a thin sheet such
as the sheathing used in timber‐frame construction
• We have steady and unsteady state diffusions
Measurement of diffusion coefficient (Cup
Method)
Method 1 (a) using one specimen. Gradient =
(M2‐M1)/L, where M1 , M2 = moisture contents
in equilibrium with the relative humidities at the
two surfaces, Hi and H2, M=(Ml +M2)/2
Method 2 (b) using two matched specimens.
Gradient=(M2‐M1)/L, where M1 , M2 =
moisture contents of the upper and lower
veneers, L=average thickness, M=(M1 +M2)/2
• Conditioning method 1
• Conditioning method 2
Variation of diffusion coefficient
• Longitudinal bound‐water
diffusion coefficient (DBL) of the
cell‐wall substance of Picea
sitchensis at 26.7 °C as a function
of the average moisture content.
(According to Stamm 1959)
 Variation of diffusion
coefficient
• Longitudinal and transverse
moisture diffusion coefficients
of wood with oven dry specific
gravity of 0.5,
Acoustic properties of wood
Wood is a unique material for musical instruments and acoustic
purposes
The highest possible increase in value in woodworking has without
doubt been reached in the violins manufactured by such Italian
masters as were
• Amati
• Guarneri
• Stradivarius
Many other musical instruments use wood
Wood and wood‐based materials are also good for noise reduction
All phenomena of vibrations and waves generated in elastic media
with a frequency between about 16 and 20000 Hz are called sound
Sound waves are characterized by the following properties:
• Wave length
• Amplitude
• Frequency
• Velocity
• There are certain frequencies to which the particular wood object
responds with maximum amplitude of vibration
• Resonant or natural frequencies of the piece
• In a solid body such as wood three kinds of vibratory resonant motion
are possible:
• Longitudinal resonant vibrations (axial stresses acting in a short column)
• Transverse resonant vibrations or flexural vibrations, corresponding to static
bending in a wooden beam
• Trusses, joists, beams, poles, sound‐radiating phenomena in the sounding boards of
pianos
• Torsional resonant vibrations
• Decisive for the internal stress
• The fundamental resonant frequency is the modulus of rigidity G of the wood
Sound Transmission in Wood
• In long solid rods, the thickness of which may be neglected compared with
the wave length in the case of the propagation of longitudinal waves along
the axis of the rod, the sound velocity v is
𝑣 where E = modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) in
kp/cm2 and ρ = density in kps2m‐4
• The propagation velocity of elastic torsional waves depends on the modulus
of rigidity G:
Hence 𝑣
Sound velocity
• The speed of sound is directly related to the modulus of elasticity and density
• It is roughly independent of wood species
• It varies with grain direction
• The speed of sound across the grain is only 20 to 30% that of the longitudinal
value
The impedance, Z of a material, is defined as the product of the
material’s speed of sound, c, and its density:
𝑧 𝑐𝜌 𝐸𝜌
• The sound radiation coefficient, R, of a material, is defined as the
ratio of the material’s speed of sound, c, to its density, ρ:
𝑅
• The loss coefficient, ƞ, measures the degree to which a material
dissipates vibrational energy by internal friction.
• Other measures of damping include the quality factor, Q, the logarithmic
decrement, δ, and the loss angle, ψ., these quantities are related as
𝜂 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜓 , for excitation near resonance and small damping
Sound Wave Resistance, Damping of Sound Radiation and Internal
Friction
𝐸
𝑤 𝜌·𝑣 𝜌 𝜌𝐸
𝜌
• The decay of the free vibrations of any plates is caused partly by damping due
to internal friction and partly by damping due to sound radiation
• Pitch and timbre of sound
• The pitch of sound of a musical instrument is determined by the spectrum of
frequencies it radiates and transmits into the air
• Each body has its own particular set of eigenfrequencies defined by
• The size of the vibrating body
• The material from which it is made and in the case of strings, on its tension
• The timbre and quality of the sound that a vibrating body produces is due to:
• The presence of eigenfrequencies, also termed overtones or upper partials, and their
relative strengths
• Overtones of a sounding body are excited depends on:
• What causes the body’s vibrations (hitting hard or soft , plucking …)
• The shape of the body and on the
• Material from which the body is made
• Wood for Sound (Ulrike G.
K. Wegst)
• plot of Young’s modulus, E,
against density, ρ, for woods
parallel to the grain. It
illustrates that Young’s
modulus and density are
almost linearly correlated
• Plot of the speed of sound,
c, against density, ρ,
allowing two additional
acoustical properties to be
read from this chart. Lines
of slope 1 represent the
sound radiation coefficient,
R=c/ρ. Lines of slope1
represent the product of
the two, the characteristic
impedance, z = cρ
• A material property chart
for woods, plotting the
sound radiation
coefficient, R, against the
loss coefficient, ƞ. Lines of
slope 1 represent the ratio
of the two, R/ ƞ, the peak
response of a sounding
body
• Plot of Young’s modulus
against the loss coefficient,
ƞ, revealing that these two
properties are not at all
correlated
Acoustics of Buildings
• Audible sound in air is
energy in motion
• The threshold of human
hearing is limited to an
energy of 10‐16 w/cm2
(equivalent to zero
decibels, db)
• The threshold of upper
limit, that is of pain, is 10‐
4 w/cm2 (120 decibels)
• Sound Transmission Loss for Various Type of Constructions
• The isolation of a kind of construction against transmission of sound is
characterized by an a average transmission loss figure D, measured in decibels
• D can be calculated from the sound pressures PI and P2 in the space before
and behind the wall or construction element as follows
𝐷 20 · 𝑙𝑜𝑔 10 · 𝑙𝑜𝑔
where A = total sound absorption area of the room to be isolated, F = area
of the wall, transmitting the sound
Sound Transmission Loss for Various Type of Constructions
• The sound transmission loss D for single walls is governed by their weight and
by the frequency f
• Walls consisting of two or more elements which are airtight and not in direct
contact with each other provide efficient sound‐isolation
Sound Absorption
• Sound absorption requires soft, porous materials, such as carpets, heavy
fabrics, hair felt, isolation fiberboard, woodwool board, and acoustical tiles
Other application of acoustics in wood science (ultrasonic, stress‐
wave, and resonance)
• Detection of the slope of the grain with ultrasound
• Detection of reaction wood
• Detection of curly figures in trees
• Grading of logs
• The ultrasonic velocity method for grading lumber
• Stress‐wave grading technique for testing lumber
• Acoustic emission for monitoring technological processes
• Acoustic emission as a strength predictor in timber and large wood structures
• High‐power ultrasonic treatment for wood processing (Drying, defibering,
cutting, improvement of extraction and impregnation)
• The parameters that characterize an acoustic emission signal are:
mode of emission (continuous or burst), rate of emission, acoustic
event, accumulated activity, the threshold set at a selected
discriminatory level, the duration of the event, the ring‐down count,
the amplitude of the highest peak, the rise time, frequencies within
the emitted wave, energy as the area under the envelope of the
amplitude−time curve, cumulative energy recorded progressively
since the beginning of the test, energy rate, “take off” point, mean
square voltage, root mean square voltage, and signal level.
Thermal properties of wood
• Heat causes in materials a change in temperature and size
• This means linear and volumetric expansion/ contraction follow
• The elongation dl of a rod with the original length l1 by a change in
temperature dϑ may be computed as follows
𝑑𝑙 𝛼 · 𝑙 · 𝑑𝜗 where αth is the coefficient of thermal expansion
𝛼 ·
 Coefficients of linear
thermal expansion of
various woods per degree
centigrade
• The dimensional changes of
wood caused by differences
in temperature are small in
comparison to the
dimensional changes due to
swelling or shrinking
• Thermal expansion can be
neglected
• Expansion of yellow birch (ρ0 ~ 0.593
g/cm3) between ‐550C and + 550C in
the three structural directions
Specific heat of wood
• It is the ratio of its thermal capacity to that of water at 150C
𝑄
𝑐
𝑚 𝜗 𝜗
• It is Q calories of heat necessary to raise the temperature of m grams of wood
from ϑ1 to ϑ2°C
• The true specific heat c of wood at the temperature ϑ is given by
𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑐 0.266 0.00116𝜗
𝑔 𝐶
• The average specific heat cm for practical temperature range (0‐1000C)
•𝑐 · 𝑐𝑑𝜗
•𝑐 · 0.266 0.00116𝜗 𝑑𝜗 0.324
• The average specific heat is independent of both wood species and
specific gravity
• The average specific heat of wood varies considerably with moisture
content
.
• Specific heat at moisture content CM is given by 𝑐
• Assuming simple additive effect on wet weight and c0 is the average
specific heat of oven‐dry wood 𝑐 𝑀·𝑐 1 𝑀 ·𝑐
• Specific heat at moisture content CM is given by
.
𝑐
Thermal conductivity of wood
• Wood and other cellulosic materials are poor conductors of heat due to the
paucity of free electrons which are responsible for an easy transmission of
energy (such as in metals) and due to their porosity
• Wood and wood products are more appropriate as insulating materials
• It varies based on
• Grain direction
• Density
• Type and quantity of extractives
• Defects
• Particularly moisture content
• The thermal conductivity is thermal energy Q per unit time t which flows
through a thickness s of a substance with a surface area A under a steady‐
state temperature difference between faces of (ϑ1 – ϑ2)
·
• 𝜆
·
• Variation with moisture
• Moisture in wood increases its capacity to conduct heat
• Variation with specific gravity/
density:
• Relationship between thermal
conductivity and specific gravity of
wood species in the range of 0.11
to 0.76 g/cm3
• It varies based on grain direction, e.g. , thermal conductivity of the cell wall:
• Thermal conductivity of wood
• Variation based on moisture
content and density
• Diffusivity of wood, change of temperature in heated wood
• Heat conduction in wood is important for wood‐drying and wood‐preserving
• It is controlled by diffusivity (in determining heating time and temperature)
• where λ = thermal conductivity in kcal/mh°C, c = specific heat in kcal/kgOC,
and ρ = density in kg/m3
• Diffusivity of wood,
change of temperature in
heated wood
• Diffusivity perpendicular
to the grain as influenced
by density and moisture
content
• Diffusivity of wood, change of
temperature in heated wood
• Numerically computed
temperatures at the centers of
green round Southern pine
timbers of different sizes when
steamed at 1270C
• Radiation of heat with respect to wood
• The rate of emission E of radiant energy per unit area and unit time is determined by
Stefan’s and Boltzmann's law as follows
• ɛ = emissivity of the surface (0 for perfect reflector and 1 for blackbody; Cr = constant; T is in

Kelvin
• Radiation is entirely a surface phenomenon
• The darker and rougher a wood surface is, the greater is its absorption or emissive
power with respect to radiation
• There is no correlation between the amount of radiation and the density of the
wood
Electrical properties of wood
• Direct current properties
• Dry wood is an excellent
insulator
• However, the electrical
resistance of wood
drastically decreases as its
moisture content increases
• Fig ‐ Dependence of the
specific electrical resistance
(resistance in ohms per cm
of length per cm2 of cross‐
section, or ohm cm)on the
moisture content
• Below fiber saturation point (about 30%), many scholars had shown
that the curves show a linear relationship between the logarithm of
the electrical conductivity (reciprocal of resistivity) and the moisture
content of the wood
Where ϰ = conductivity in l/Ωcm, ϱ = resistivity in Ωcm, U = moisture content in

%, a and D are constants
• Above the fiber saturation point the relationship of the logarithm of
the conductivity to the moisture content is nonlinear
Physics
• For a change of moisture content from 0 to about 30%, a millionfold
increase of conductivity but less than a fiftyfold increase in
conductivity from this point (30%) to complete water saturation
• Dependence of DC resistance on direction of grain
• Studies show existence of less resistance to electric current passing along
the grain than to current directed across the grain
• Table: Electrical resistivity of woods as affected by grain orientation
• The resistivity along the grain is roughly half that perpendicular to the grain
• The resistivity in the radial direction is about equal or up to 10% less than that in the
tangential direction
• Dependence DC on temperature
• Logarithm of resistivity versus
reciprocal value of absolute
temperature for various moisture
contents of Engelmann spruce
• Alternating‐current properties of wood
• Resistivity: The high frequency resistivity of wood is very low in comparison to
the direct current resistivity
• Experiments showed that the transverse high‐frequency resistivity for oven‐dry wood yo
be 18x106 Ωcm at 2 megacycles per second (this is less than a billionth of the direct
current resistivity)
• The effect of moisture content on high‐frequency resistivity is very small compared to
the direct‐current resistivity
• Increasing the moisture content from 0 to about 30%, the AC resistivity decreases to a
value of about 10‐13, the DC resistivity only to about 10‐1
• Alternating current resistivity
and moisture
• Effect of moisture content and
grain orientation at different
frequencies on the specific high
frequency resistivity of wood
• Dielectric Constant
• If a piece of wood as a poor electrical conductor is placed between two
parallel plates (electrodes) in an alternating‐current circuit, the system of
electrodes and wood is equivalent to a condenser with the capacitance C, in
farads, in parallel with a resistance R, in ohms
• The current I in the system consists of two components: IC through the
condenser (capacitance) and IR through the resistance
• Alternating current causes the molecules in the wood to undergo cyclic
motions which also causes friction within the individual molecules and
between different molecules
• The friction induces heat which is dissipated
• The magnitude of the power P in the
circuit is
• cos ϕ is called "power factor" since it
expresses the ratio of the power
dissipated to the total power led into
the circuit
• The reactance Xc of the condenser can be expressed in terms of its
capacitance C and angular frequency w or frequency f in cycles per second
• The capacitance C of the condenser can be calculated as follows
• where A = area in cm2, d = thickness in cm, and ɛ = dielectric constant of the

dielectric material (wood) between the plates
• Dielectric constant
• Substituting the capacitance Eq in the reactance one
• Similarly, the specific alternating‐current conductivity ϰ is defined as follows
• The dielectric behavior of wood is characterized by its dielectric constant ɛ,
the specific conductivity ϰ, and the power loss factor tan δ
• Dielectric constant
• Variation with density
• Relationship between
dielectric constant and
specific gravity of
wood for different
moisture contents
• Variation with specific gravity
and moisture
• Combined influence of specific
gravity and moisture content of
wood on its dielectric constant
• Variation with specific gravity and
moisture content
• Effect of the moisture content of wood
below and above fiber saturation point on
the dielectric constant at high frequencies
• the moisture content of wood can be
measured fairly well by capacitance and
power‐factor meters only when the
specific gravity is taken into consideration
• Power factor
• It is the ratio of the electrical energy dissipated per cycle of oscillation in a
condenser, using the material as the dielectric, to the total electrical energy
stored in the condenser during the cycle
• Power factor
• Variation of the power factor on
frequency and dielectric constant
• Power factor and dielectric constant
of spruce wood, cellulose, lignin and
resin as a function of frequency
• Other properties of wood
• Magnetic slight resistivity
• Piezoelectric properties of wood
• The piezoelectric effect appears either directly as an electric polarization
• by application of mechanical stress or inversely as a mechanical strain by application of
an electric field
• the piezoelectric effect in wood is caused by the crystalline structure of the native
cellulose fibrils
• The intensity of piezoelectricity in wood depends on the degree of crystallinity and the
degree of orientation of crystallites
• piezoelectricity has potential to become a tool for nondestructive testing of local strain
in wood and of the internal influences, such as density, knots and other features, on a
dynamic system

WTM 516 - Wood Physics and Mechanics (Lecture - Guide - Slides)

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WTM 516 - Wood Physics and Mechanics (Lecture - Guide - Slides)

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WTM 516 - Wood Physics and Mechanics

Part 1 : Wood Physics

where vx is the volume of timber at moisture content x, v0 is the volume of timber at zero

where minit is the initial mass of timber sample (grams), mod is the mass of

where Vm [cm3 /mol] represents the total volume of water in the monolayer, V

• ɛ = emissivity of the surface (0 for perfect reflector and 1 for blackbody; Cr = constant; T is in

Where ϰ = conductivity in l/Ωcm, ϱ = resistivity in Ωcm, U = moisture content in

• where A = area in cm2, d = thickness in cm, and ɛ = dielectric constant of the

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