BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

YEAR: I
PART: II

Compiled by:
Er. Shiva Kafley
 2 COURSE CONTENT

1. Building sciences 7. Temporary Construction

2. Foundations and Basements 8. Cladding and External Finishing
3. Roofs 9. Internal Finishing
4. Staircases 10. Electrical Services

5. Doors and Windows 11. Water Supply and Drainage Services

6. Joints 12. Others Miscellaneous Services in

Building
 CHAPTER : 7
3
TEMPORARY CONSTRUCTION

1. Scaffolding: single and double scaffolds

2. Formwork for excavations and trenches

3. Formworks for reinforced concrete construction

4. Shoring: horizontal, slant and vertical shores

 4
TEMPORARY CONSTRUCTION
• Temporary construction works are the parts of the project required to enable the
permanent works to be built.
• Temporary structures are used to facilitate the construction of buildings, bridges, tunnels,
and other above and below ground facilities by providing access, support, and protection
for the facility under construction, as well as assuring the safety of workers and the
public. Temporary structures are either dismantled and removed when the permanent
works become self-supporting or completed, or they are incorporated into the finished
work. Temporary structures are also used in inspection, repair, and maintenance work.
 5 SCAFFOLDING

• Scaffolding is a temporary structure

on the outside of a building, made of
wooden planks and metal poles, used
by workmen while building,
repairing, or cleaning the building.

• This is temporary rigid structure for

the purpose of facilitating masons as
"platform to work" as the building
increases its height.
 6 SCAFFOLDING

• When the height above the floor level exceeds about

1.5m a temporary structure, usually of timber is erected
close to the work to provide a safe working platform
for the workers and to provide a limited space for the
storage of plant and building materials.

• The temporary framework is known as a scaffolding or

simply a scaffold and it is useful in construction,
demolition, maintenance or repair works.
7 SCAFFOLDING

• Scaffolding provides a temporary safe working platform for:

➢Erection

➢Maintenance

➢Construction

➢Repair

➢Access

➢Inspection, etc.
8 PART OF SCAFFOLDING

• Standard: Vertical post called standard are spaced at 2.4-3.0 m, supported on the
ground or embedded into the ground.

• Putlog: Transverse member supporting platform and resting on ledger is putlog. This
is normally 90cm in length and spaced at 1.2m to 1.5m.

• Ledger: Horizontal member firmly fixed in the standard and support putlog is called
ledger running parallel to the wall.

• Transoms: The putlogs whose both ends are supported on ledgers is called transoms.
9 PART OF SCAFFOLDING

• Bracing: Bracing members are tied diagonally to stiffen the scaffolding. Braces
are the poles tied by ropes.

• Boarding: The horizontal platform to support workmen and material supported

on putlogs is called boarding.

• Guard rail: This is a rail provided like a ledger at the working level.

• Toe board: These are boards, placed parallel to ledgers, supported on putlog to
give protection at the level of working platform.
10
11
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS

• Vertical post called standard are spaced at 2.4-3.0 m.

• Horizontal member supporting platform and resting on ledger is Putlog. This

is normally 90cm in length and spaced at 1.2m.

• Horizontal member firmly fixed in the standard and support putlog is called
ledger, vertically spaced at 1.2-1.5m

• Bracing members are tied diagonally to stiffen the scaffolding. Braces are the
poles tied by ropes.

• In brick layers scaffolding, the putlog is secured in the wall in one side.
12
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS

• In mason's scaffolding, the putlog is fixed on standards in both sides. This is

also called double scaffolding.

• The putlogs whose both ends are supported on ledgers is called transoms.

• The member used to bridge a wall opening; supports one end of putlog at the
opening is called Bridle.

• The horizontal platform to support workmen and material supported on

putlogs is called boarding.
13
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

1. Single Scaffolding or Brick-layers scaffolding

2. Double scaffolding or Masons scaffolding

3. Steel Scaffolding

4. Cantilever or Needle Scaffolding

5. Trestle Scaffolding

6. Suspended Scaffolding

7. Patented Scaffoldings

8. Gantries
 14
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

1. Single Scaffolding or Brick-layers scaffolding

• This consists of a single frame work of standards, ledgers, putlogs etc constructed
parallel to the wall at a distance of about 1.2 metres.

• The standards which are firmly secured in grounds are placed at 2 to 2.5m intervals.
• The standards are connected to each other by longitudinal members called ledgers at
every rise of 1.2 to 1.5m.
• Putlogs are placed with one end on the ledgers and other end in the hole left in the
wall at an interval of 1.2 to 1.5m.
 15
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

• In high scaffoldings cross braces are used to

stiffen the temporary structure.

• Brace consists of poles tied by rope lashings on

the standards.

• Widely used for brick masonry work.

 16
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

2. Double scaffolding or Masons scaffolding

• Since it is very difficult to provide holes in stone masonry to

provide bearing to support putlogs.

• In masons scaffolding two frames of ledgers and braces are

used. One is placed close to the wall (20 to 30 cm away from
wall) and the other at a distance of 1.5m from the first one.

• Putlogs are supported on both the frames.

 17

• Widely used for stone masonry wall.

• Rakers and cross braces are provided to

make the scaffolding more strong and stable.

• Such scaffolding is also called “ independent

scaffolding”
18
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

3. Steel Scaffolding

• A steel scaffolding is practically similar to that of timber scaffolding except

that wooden members are replaced by steel tubes and rope lashings are
replaced by steel couplets or fittings.

• It can be erected and dismantled rapidly.

• It has greater strength, durability and high fire resistance.

• Extensively used these days.

19
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING
 20
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

4. Cantilever or Needle Scaffolding

• When scaffolding is to be provided for a building on the side of
busy street where the construction of ordinary scaffold will
obstruct the traffic on road, needle scaffold is used.
• Cantilever or needle scaffold is used under the following
circumstances:
1. Ground is weak to support standards
2. Construction of upper part of wall to be carried out
3. It is required to keep the ground near wall free from traffic
 21
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

• The scaffolding is erected from window corners or string courses

by means of projecting needles.

• A needle is a timber beam which cantilevers out through the

holes cut in the walls.

• The needle is supported on sole piece and prevented from lifting

up by vertical struts wedged between needles and head piece.

• The cantilever part is supported by inclined strut which rests on

window sill.
 22
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

5. Trestle Scaffolding

• Such type of scaffolding is used for painting and repair works

inside the room up to a height of 5m.

• The working platform is supported on the top of movable

contrivances such as tripods, ladders, etc mounted on wheels.
 23
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

6. Suspended Scaffolding
• Used for light steel frame construction.
• Maintenance works such as painting, pointing and
distempering.
• Working platforms are usually suspended by means
of rope or chains.
• Sometimes mechanical arrangements also made for
convenient purposes to attain optimum level of
working.
 24
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

7. Patented Scaffolding

• These are extensively used and made of steel and are equipped
with special couplings, frames to adjust height, length and so on.
 25
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

8. Gantries
• Used for large scale construction industries to handle heavy appliances materials and other
purposes.

• Used for high rise constructions.

26
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

Platform

Putlog

Railing

Ledger
Standard

Wall

Bricklayers scaffolding Mason's scaffolding Steel scaffolding

27
TYPES OF SCAFFOLDING

Gantry Suspended scaffolding

Needle scaffolding
 28
FORMWORK
• Formwork or shuttering is a temporary construction used as
a mould for the structures in which concrete is placed,
hardens and matures.
• Material used for formwork:
➢ Wood
➢ Plywood
➢ Aluminum
➢ Steel
➢ Plastics etc.
• Timber is the most common material used for formwork.
• The disadvantage of wooden formwork is the possibility of
warping, swelling and shrinkage of the timber.
29
CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMWORK

1. They must be strong enough to carry the weight of wet concrete, resist the
impact due to consolidation, and carry the load of the workmen etc.
2. They should be braced rigidly to prevent slippage, sagging etc.
3. They should be such that erection and dismantling is easily accomplished.
4. The formwork should be watertight to prevent loss of fine materials,
especially cement slurry, through gaps, which, if found, should be closed
with clay/plaster of Paris, but which in practice are simply covered by
plastic/polythene sheets.
5. Formwork should be clean before pouring.
 30
CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMWORK

A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:

1. The material of the formwork should be cheap and it should be suitable for re-use several times.
2. It should be practically water proof so that it does not absorb water from concrete. Also, its
shrinkage and swelling should be minimum.
3. It should be strong enough to withstand all loads coming on it, such a dead load of concrete and
live load during its pouring, compaction and curing.
4. It should be stiff enough so that deflection is minimum.
5. It should be as be light as possible.
6. The surface of the formwork should be smooth, and it should afford easy stripping. All joints of
the formwork should be stiff so that lateral deformation under loads is minimum.
 31
FORMWORK FOR EXCAVATIONS AND TRENCHES

• This is the arrangement of timber planks

in the trenches to prevent collapsing of
sides when the depth of trench is large
and sub-soil is loose.
• Timbering is a term used to cover
temporary support to the sides of
excavations and is sometimes called
planking and strutting.
 32
FORMWORK FOR EXCAVATIONS AND TRENCHES

• Before a foundation can be laid it is necessary to excavate a trench of the required depth
and width. On small contracts this is still carried out by hand but on large works it may
be economic to use some form of mechanical trench digger.
• The sides of some excavations will need support to:
1. Protect the operatives while working in the excavation.
2. Keep the excavation open by acting as a retaining wall to the sides of the trench.
3. Protect the completed work from falling debris.
 33
FORMWORK FOR EXCAVATIONS AND TRENCHES

• The type and amount of timbering required will

depend upon the depth and nature of the
subsoil. Over a short period many soils may not
require any timbering but weather conditions,
depth, type of soil and duration of the
operations must all be taken into account and
each excavation must be assessed separately.
34
FORMWORK FOR EXCAVATIONS AND TRENCHES

Classification of soil for Timbering Purpose

1. Hard Soil: Rocks

2. Firm Soil: Dense gravel, compacted clay

3. Loose Dry Soil: Dry sand

4. Loose Water Logged Soil: Wet sand

35
FORMWORK FOR EXCAVATIONS AND TRENCHES

Parts of Timbering
1. Poling board: These are members placed vertically on the sides of the trenches
directly or after providing sheeting.
2. Waling pieces or Planks: These are the horizontal members placed next to the
earth or poling boards.
3. Sheeting: These are members similar in section to poling boards and placed
horizontally or vertically to form a continuous layer.
4. Struts: these are short length of timber which are used perpendicular to poling
boards and driven down between them at a minimum distance of 1.8 m c/c.
 36
FORMWORK FOR EXCAVATIONS AND TRENCHES

Methods (types) of timbering

1. Stay bracing: Only vertical board and strut are used. It may be of single or double layer.

2. Box sheeting: Poling board (Wales) placed on sides of trenches.

3. Vertical sheeting: Combination of above two methods.

4. Runners: Runners used in place of vertical sheeting.

5. Sheet piling: It is used to prevent soil to slip.

 37
FORMWORK FOR EXCAVATIONS AND TRENCHES

1. Stay bracing:
• Only vertical board and strut are used. It may be of single or
double layer.
• This method is used for supporting the sides or a bench
excavated in fairly firm soil, when the depth of excavation
does not exceed about 2 meters.
• The method consists of placing vertical sheets or polling
boards opposite each other against the two walls of the trench
and holding them in position by one or two rows of struts.
• The sheets are placed at an interval of 2 to 4 meters and
generally, they extend to the full height of the trench.
• The polling boards may have width of about 200 mm and
thickness of 40 to 50 mm.
 38
FORMWORK FOR EXCAVATIONS AND TRENCHES

2. Box sheeting:
• Poling board (Wales) placed on sides of trenches.
• This method is adopted in loose soils, when the depth of
excavation does not exceed 4 meters.
• The method consists of vertical sheets placed very near to
each other (sometimes touching each other) and keeping
them in position by longitudinal rows (usually two) of wales.
• Struts are then provided across the wales.
 39
FORMWORK FOR EXCAVATIONS AND TRENCHES

3. Vertical sheeting:
• This system is adopted for deep trenches (up to 10 m depth)
in soft ground.
• The method is similar to the box sheeting except that the
excavation is carried out in stages and at the end of each
stage, an offset is provided, so that the width of the trench
goes on decreasing as the depth increases.
• Each stage is limited to about 3 m in height and the offset
may vary from 25 to 50 cm per stage.
• For each stage, separate vertical sheeting, supported by
horizontal wailings and struts are provided.
 40
FORMWORK FOR EXCAVATIONS AND TRENCHES

4. Runner:
• This system is used in extremely loose and soft
ground, which needs immediate support as excavation
progresses.
• The system is similar to vertical sheeting of box
system, except that in the place of vertical sheeting,
runners, made of long thick wooden sheets or planks
with iron shoe at the ends, are provided.
• Wales and struts are provided as usual.
• These runners are driven about 30 cm in advance of
the progress of the work, by hammering.
 41
FORMWORK FOR EXCAVATIONS AND TRENCHES

5. Sheet piling:
• This method is adopted when
(i) Soil to be excavated is soft or loose,
(ii) Depth of excavation is large,
(iii) Width of trench is also large and,
(iv) There is sub-soil water.
• Sheet piles are designed to resist lateral earth pressure. These are
driven in the ground by mechanical means (pile driving equipment).
• They can be used for excavating to a very large depth.
42
PRECAUTIONS IN TIMBERING OF TRENCHES

• Possibility of slip of earth

• Testing of timbering elements
• Safety of adjacent structure
• Traffic in the surrounding
• Provision of ladders
• Safety helmet
• Supervision
• First aid box
• Fencing and light
 43
FORMWORKS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

• Formworks for in situ concrete work may be described as a

mould or box into which wet concrete can be poured and
compacted so that it will flow and finally set to the inner
profile of box or mould.

• Formwork or shuttering is a temporary construction used as a

mould for the structure, in which concrete is placed and in
which it hardens and matures.

• Cost of formwork range between 25-40% of cost of concrete.

44
FORMWORK FOR RCC CONSTRUCTION

Principal requirements
• Cheap and easily available material
• Sufficiently rigid
• Strong enough to resist loads
• Easy to strip and erect
• Strong base support
• Stiff and strong joints
• Water proofing avoiding absorption of moisture content
 45
FORMWORK FOR RCC CONSTRUCTION

Terminology
• Sheathing: Vertical or horizontal timber plank used
in column, beam or slab .
• Yokes: Bracing members to tie up sheathing.
• Wedges: Wooden piece used to tighten various
elements of framework.
• Cleats: Wooden piece fixed to the sides of beam.
• Joists/ Battens: Wooden member supporting decking
46
FORMWORK FOR RCC CONSTRUCTION

Terminology

• Ledgers: Horizontal wooden pieces nailed to cleats and form bearing of joists.

• Bottom Sheathing: Bottom plank of beam (thicker).

• Head tree: Horizontal member connected at top of vertical posts through inclined
cleats or beams.
47
FORMWORK FOR RCC CONSTRUCTION

Batten
Ledger
Sheathing
Side yoke Support for ledger
Wedge
Head tree
End yoke Bracing
Bolt
Sheathing Post

Formwork for column Wedge

Sole plate
48
FORMWORK FOR RCC CONSTRUCTION

➢ Application of formwork for different construction members

1. Wall Footing
2. Columns
3. RCC beams
4. RCC staircases and slabs
5. Canopy and chajjas
6. Shell roof structure
 49
FORMWORK FOR SLAB AND BEAM

• It consists of sole plates, wedges, vertical

posts, head tree, planks, battens, ledgers.
• Beam formwork rests on head tree.
• Slab formwork rests on battens and joints.
• If props heights are more than 8 feet
provide horizontal bracing.
50
FORMWORK FOR SLAB AND BEAM
 51
FORMWORK FOR COLUMN

• It consists of side and end

planks, yoke, nut bolts.
• Two end and two side
planks are joined by the
yokes and bolts.
 52
FORMWORK FOR STAIRCASE

• It consists of vertical and inclined posts, inclined members, wooden planks or

sheeting, stringer, riser planks.
 53
FORMWORK FOR WALL

• It consists of timber sheeting, vertical posts,

horizontal members, rakers, stakes, wedges.
 54
SHORING

• Shoring is the temporary structure required

supporting an unsafe structure.
• It may be used in all cases of strengthening
any parts of the building and to give support
to the building at risk.
• Shoring may be of timber, steel or both.
55
SHORING

Causes for structure to be unsafe:

Necessity of Shoring:
➢ Occurrence of unequal settlement of foundation and cracks need to be repaired.
➢ Dismantling adjacent structure.
➢ Bulging out of walls.
➢ Addition and alternation of different parts of the building.
➢ When openings are to be made or enlarged in the wall.
56
SHORING

Objectives of shoring
➢To give support to walls, which are at risk.
➢To give support to adjacent building during demolition works.
➢To support upper part of wall during formation of large opening.
➢ To give support to floor or roof to enable a support wall to be removed and replaced
by a beam.
 57
SHORING

Types of shoring
1. Raking shoring (slant or slope shore)
2. Dead shoring (vertical shore)
3. Flying shoring (horizontal shoring)
 58

1. Raking shoring (slant or slope shore)

➢In this method, inclined members known as rakers are
used to give lateral supports to walls.
➢A raking shore consists of the following components:
• Rakers or inclined member
• Wall plate
• Needles
• Cleats
• Bracing
• Sole plate
 59
1. Raking shoring (slant or slope shore)
• These consists of inclined members called Rakers placed with one end resting against defective wall, the other
upon the ground
• In this shores “Rakers” are provided to give a temporary support to the external walls from the ground.
• Raking shores are recommended when modification in the adjoining walls is to be performed.
• The loads are transmitted onto an inclined timber platform on the ground by means of sloping struts or Rakers.
• Inclination of the Rakers must be between 40° to 70° to the horizontal. The top raker should not be inclined
steeper than 75 degree.
• It consists of Rakers, needles, cleats, braces, wall plates and sole plates.
• Wall plates 20 to 25 cm wide and 5 to 7.5 cm thick is placed vertically along the face of the wall and is
secured by needles of 10x7.5 cm section and secured by sole plates and cleats.
• Rakers are interconnected by struts to prevent their buckling and secured by the sole plate and by cleats.
• For buildings four or more storied, additional supporting members called riders are provided. The Rakers rest
on the wall plates hooked on the wall. It is strengthened by wedges, needles and cleats. If longer length of the
wall needs support, shoring may be spaced at 3 to 4.5m spacing, depending upon requirements.
 60

2. Dead shoring (vertical shore)

• Dead shore is the system of shoring which is used to
render vertical support to walls and roofs, floors, etc
when the lower part of a wall has been removed for the
purpose of providing an opening in the wall or to
rebuild a defective load bearing wall in a structure.
• The dead shore consists of an arrangement of beams
and posts which are required to support the weight of
the structure above and transfer same to the ground on
firm foundation below.
61 2. Dead shoring (vertical shore)

• Such type of shoring consists of vertical members known as “dead shores” supporting temporarily the
walls, roofs and floors etc. by providing horizontal members known as “Needles”. Needle transfer the
load of the walls etc. to the dead shores.
• It is prescribed to render vertical support to walls, roofs and floors, where the lower part of the load
bearing wall is to be removed. The shores support the dead load which acts vertically downwards. The
simplest type of dead shore consists of beam or needle, head plate, shore legs and adjustments.
• The needle is injected into the wall and rests on shore legs. The load is transmitted to the shore legs,
which rest on a solid surface. Needles are placed at the distance 1.2 - 1.8 m c/c. To prevent from lateral
displacement, sleepers and bracings are also provided.
• Dead shores helps to provide a large openings in the existing walls (door, windows, shop fronts, etc.)
 62

3. Flying shoring (horizontal shoring)

• Flying shores is a system of providing
temporary supports to the party walls of the
two buildings where the intermediate
building is to be pulled down and rebuilt.
All types of arrangements of supporting the
unsafe structure in which the shores do not
reach the ground come under this category.
 63
3. Flying shoring (horizontal shoring)

• Horizontal supports are provided for supporting temporarily the parallel walls of the two adjacent buildings
which may tend to collapse or damage when one of the intermediate building has to be pulled down or rebuilt.
• It is similar to raking shore, however more advantageous as clear working space on the ground is achieved.
When a unit of a row house is being demolished, flying shores support the walls of the adjoining buildings
and takes temporarily the position of dismantling buildings.
• For 9m span or less single horizontal shore used, known as Flying Shore. For larger span two horizontal
shores are provided known as Double Flying Shore. In such case both the horizontal shores should be
symmetrically placed w.r.t floor levels.
• Flying shores consist of wall plates, needles, cleats, horizontal shores and inclined struts. The arrangement is
similar to raking shores. Extra straining still is provided strengthen the horizontal members. Load in this
system is carried by the adjacent walls.
64
SHORING
Wall
Wall Plate
Cleat
Needle Flying shore

Brace Straining Sill

Cleat Raking Shore Needle Beam

Dead Shore
Hoop iron Wedge
GL Sole piece

Iron hoop
Needle Top of the Raker
65

Thank You