Science Olympiad

Geologic Time Scale 2019

CENOZOIC MESOZOIC PALEOZOIC PRECAMBRIAN
Numeric Numeric Numeric Numeric
Period Epoch Period Epoch Period Epoch Eon
Age (Ma) Age (Ma) Age (Ma) Age (Ma)
Upper

PERMIAN
259.1
QUATERNARY

CRETACEOUS
Holocene Upper Middle
273.0
Lower
0.012 100.5 298.9
Upper PROTEROZOIC

Pennsylvanian
307.0

CARBONIFEROUS
Pleistocene Lower Middle
315.2
Lower
2.6 145.0 323.2
Upper

Mississippian
330.9 2500
Pliocene Upper Middle
Neogene

346.7
Lower
5.3 163.5 358.9
JURASSIC

Upper

DEVONIAN
382.7
Miocene Middle Middle ARCHEAN
393.3
Lower
23.0 174.1 419.2
Pridoli

SILURIAN
423.0
TERTIARY

Ludlow
Oligocene Lower 427.4
Wenlock
433.4 4000
Llandovery
33.9 201.3 443.8

Upper
ORDOVICIAN
Paleogene

Upper 458.4

Eocene Middle
237 470.0
TRIASSIC

Lower
56.0 Middle 485.4 HADEAN
Furongian
CAMBRIAN

247.2 497
Epoch 3
Paleocene 509
Lower Epoch 2
521
Terreneuvian
66.0 251.9 541.0 4600

Modified from the following: GSA Geologic Time Scale v. 5.0 and International Chronostratigraphic Chart v. 2018/08 **Explanation:
References: Divisions of geologic time are not to scale.
Cohen, K.M., Harper, D.A.T., Gibbard, P.L. 2018. ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart 2018/08. International Commission on
Stratigraphy, IUGS. www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale (visited: 2018/08/15) Ma – Millions of years ago
Walker, J.D., Geissman, J.W., Bowring, S.A., and Babcock, L.E., compilers. 2018. Geologic Time Scale v. 5.0: Geological Society of America. The Cenozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleozoic are the Eras of the Phanerozoic.
https://www.geosociety.org/GSA/Education_Careers/Geologic_Time_Scale/GSA/timescale/home.aspx (visited: 2018/08/15)
 Geology of
The Finger Lakes

Identification Cards of Fossils

Common to the Northeastern
United States
References:
Allmon, W. D. and R.M. Ross. 2002. Ithaca is Gorges: A Guide to the Geology of the Ithaca
Area. The Paleontological Research Institution: Ithaca, New York.
Edelstein, Karen. 1999. Lasting Impression: A Guide to Understanding Fossils in the
Northeastern United States. Cornell Cooperative Extension in collaboration with the
Paleontological Research Institution: Ithaca, New York.
Geologic Time
Scale
www.geology.com
Rocks of the Finger
Lakes
www.priweb.org
 Brachiopod
Type of rock it is found in:
shale, limestone, sandstone

Distinguishing feature: When it lived:

plane of symmetry across Early Cambrian
valves, not between valves
Habitat: shallow sea
Approximate size: 3-100mm

Interesting Facts:
Brachiopods have two shells, and look superficially like clams, but the
internal anatomy of brachiopods reveals that they are actually very
different.
Brachiopods are still alive in oceans today but are much less common.
 Shelled
Cephalopods
Type of rock it is found in:
shale, limestone Straight-shell Ammonoid
nautiloid
Distinguishing feature: When it lived:
either spiral or straight, internal
Middle Ordovician- Recent
molds show suture lines
(nautiloids), Devonian- Cretaceous
Approximate size: 3-60+ cm, (ammonoids)
nautiloids up to 4+ m, 1m Habitat: shallow sea
common

Interesting Fact:
Cephalopods are mollusks and today include squids, octopus and the
chambered nautilus.
 Clams
(bivalves)
Type of rock it is found in:
shale, limestone, sandstone
When it lived:
Distinguishing feature: each
valve asymmetrical, top and Middle Ordovician-Late Devonian
bottom symmetrical
Approximate size: 1-10 cm Habitat: shallow sea

Interesting Facts:
Clams are mollusks with two shells.
Class are common in the Devonian, but not as abundant or
diverse as they are now on ocean beaches.
 Corals
Type of rock it is found in:
Rugose (horn) Honeycomb coral
shale, limestone
corals
Distinguishing feature: often When it lived:
cone shaped, septa or tabulae Middle Ordovician-Recent
often visible

Approximate size: 1-10 cm, but Habitat: shallow sea

colonial corals get much larger

Interesting Facts:
Come in two kinds among Finger Lakes fossils: rugose or
“horn” corals, and tabulate or “honeycomb” corals.
Both of these kinds of corals are extinct, but resemble
modern corals in some ways.
 Crinoids
Type of rock it is found in:
shale, limestone
Distinguishing feature: When it lived:
individual stem plates often found Cambrian -Recent
separately, stems
Approximate size: stem
segments up to 1 cm across, Habitat: shallow sea
stems up to 1m long

Interesting Facts:
Crinoids have a multi-armed head on a long, flexible stalk made of many
discs. The discs are often preserved as fossils.
Crinoids are not plants but are related to starfish and sea urchins.
 Snails
Type of rock it is found in:
shale, limestone

Distinguishing feature:
When it lived:
spiral shell, pointed tip or flat
Ordovician-Recent
Approximate size: 1-30 cm Habitat: shallow sea

Interesting Facts:
Fossil snails, like their modern cousins, crawled around the
bottom scraping algae and other small food particles from
rocks and plants.
 Trilobite
Type of rock it is found in:
shale, limestone
Approximate size: 1-50 cm, most
Distinguishing feature: under 10 cm
Head or tail sections often found
separately, compound eyes When it lived: Cambrian -Recent
often visible, three-lobed body
with horizontal ribbing, Habitat: shallow sea
sometimes enrolled

Interesting Facts:
Trilobites are an extinct group of animals related to living horseshoe crabs
and lobsters.
 The Fossil Record
Pamela J. W. Gore
Georgia Perimeter College, Fall 1995

http://facstaff.gpc.edu/~pgore/geology/geo102/fossils.htm

Modified for Science Olympiad Fossils Event by Gary Vorwald, January 2009.

The Record of Life on Earth

The organisms which inhabited the Earth are sometimes preserved in the rock as
fossils. In addition, the presence of organisms can be recorded through marks
they leave in sediment as a result of their activities such as tracks, trails,
footprints, burrows, or feces (coprolites). Geologists call these features trace
fossils. The study of trace fossils is called ichnology.

What types of life exist (or have existed)?

We group organisms based on their similarities into taxonomic groups or taxa.

Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

There are five kingdoms of organisms:

1. Animalia (animals)
2. Plantae (plants)
3. Monera (bacteria and blue-green algae)
4. Fungi (mushrooms, fungus)
5. Protoctista - formerly Protista (single-celled organisms)

Organisms from all 5 kingdoms are known as fossils.

However, the Science Olympiad Fossils event will concentrate on Animals

and Plants. A few organisms from the other kingdoms, such as Foraminifera
(Protoctista) and Stromatolites (Monera) are included.
How do organisms get preserved as fossils?

Most fossils are the hard parts of organisms:

• bones
• teeth
• shells
• wood

Soft parts are rarely preserved:

• skin
• muscle
• internal organs

To be preserved, an organism must be in an environment where it is protected

from oxidation and bacterial decay.

1. Must be rapidly buried by sediment

2. Must be shielded from oxygen (anaerobic or anoxic conditions)

Some rocks are made up almost entirely of an accumulation of organic remains

or shells or other hard parts of organisms (coquina, fossiliferous limestone,
chalk, diatomite, coal).

In which environments are fossils most readily

preserved?

Environments covered by water; particularly environments with a high

sedimentation rate or waters that lack oxygen.

Examples: swamps, deep lakes, tar pits, oxygen-minimum zone in the oceans.
What are the major animal groups?

Animals can be grouped into the invertebrates (animals without backbones) and
the vertebrates.

There are more than 20 invertebrate Phyla, but the chief ones that are preserved
as fossils include:

1. Phylum Porifera - the sponges

2. Phylum Cnidaria (formerly Coelenterata) - the corals and jellyfish
3. Phylum Bryozoa - the colonial moss animals
4. Phylum Brachiopoda - the brachiopods or lamp shells
5. Phylum Arthropoda - the insects, crabs, shrimp, lobsters, trilobites and
eurypterids
6. Phylum Mollusca - the clams, snails, octopus, squid, nautilus, and
ammonites
7. Phylum Echinodermata - the starfish, sand dollars, sea urchins,
crinoids, and blastoids

The vertebrates belong to Phylum Chordata (referring to the nerve chord that
extends down the center of the spine).

What can these fossils tell us about the past?

The study of the interaction of ancient organisms with their environment is called
paleoecology. In large part, paleoecology depends on comparisons of ancient
organisms with living organisms. We use modern analogs to help us interpret
something about the way in which the fossils lived and related to their
environment.

Fundamental concepts of ecology and paleoecology: Ecosystem - the organisms

and their environment - the entire system of physical, chemical, and biological
factors influencing organisms

Habitat - the environment in which the organism lives

Community - the association of several species of organisms in a particular

habitat (the living part of the ecosystem)

Niche - the way in which the organism lives - its role or lifestyle.
Some organisms live on the land, and some live in the
water.

1. Land-dwellers are called terrestrial organisms

2. Water-dwellers are called aquatic organisms
1. Marine (inhabit saline sea water) - salinity of sea water is about 34
- 36 parts per thousand total dissolved solids, or about 3.5% salt.
2. Non-marine (inhabit freshwater) - salinity of freshwater is about 1
part per thousand total dissolved solids, or about 0.1% salt.
Includes rivers, freshwater lakes, springs, caves, wells,
groundwater.
3. Brackish (inhabit water of intermediate salinity) - brackish water is
a mixture of fresh water and sea water, and may be found in bays,
deltas, lagoons, estuaries, harbors, etc.
4. Hypersaline - water of very high salinity, such as the Great Salt
Lake, Dead Sea, and some tropical bays and lagoons with high
evaporation rates. Very few fossils lived in this environment.

Marine organisms inhabit the pelagic realm - all of the water overlying the
ocean floor. It can be divided into:

• neritic zone (shallow marine) - overlying the continental shelves - from

the low tide line to approximately 200 m (600 ft)
• oceanic zone - the deep ocean.

Near the shore, organisms inhabit the littoral environment (the shoreline or
tidal zone), which can be divided into:

1. supratidal (above the normal high tide line - usually high and dry)
2. intertidal (between the high and low tide lines - alternately wet and dry)
3. subtidal (below normal low tide line - usually under water)

Terrestrial organisms may inhabit one of the following environments:

1. Lacustrine - lakes and ponds

2. Fluvial - rivers and streams
3. Paludal - swamps
4. Eolian (or aeolian) - deserts
Modes of life

Aquatic animals may have varying modes of life:

• planktonic - small plants and animals that float, drift, or swim weakly
o phytoplankton - plants and plant-like plankton, such as diatoms
and coccolithophores
o zooplankton - animals and animal-like plankton, such as
foraminifera and radiolaria
• nektonic - swimming animals that live within the water column
• benthonic or benthic - bottom dwellers, whch may be either:
o infaunal - living beneath the sediment surface
o epifaunal - living on top of the sediment surface

Bottom dwellers capable of movement are called vagile or vagrant.

Bottom dwellers which do not move are called sessile.

Nutrition

Methods of obtaining nutrients:

1. Primary Producers - produce their own food through photosynthesis,

and supply food and energy for other organisms.

The groups that are producers include plants, algae, blue-green algae, and
some protests. Stromatolites are some of the earliest producers that are
found as fossils.

2. Consumers - cannot produce their own food and must eat.

1. Herbivores – consumers (heterotrophs) that eat plants
2. Carnivores – consumers (heterotrophs) that eat herbivores and
other carnivores. One species eating another is called predation.
3. Other feeding modes which may fit into the above categories:
1. Parasites - derive nutrition from other organisms without
killing them
2. Scavengers - derive nutrition from dead organisms
3. Suspension feeders - filter small food particles from the
water
4. Deposit feeders or detritus feeders - injest sediment and
extract small food particles
5. Grazers - scrape food from the substrate
6. Decomposers and Transformers - bacteria which break
down organic matter converting it into a form which can be
utilized by other organisms (nutrients)
o Index Fossil: A good index fossil is one with four characteristics: it is distinctive,
widespread, abundant, and limited in geologic time. Any type of organism can be
distinctive, but not so many are widespread. Other major index fossils are small or
microscopic, part of the floating plankton in the world ocean. These are handy
because of their small size. They can be found even in small bits of rock, such as
wellbore cuttings. Because their tiny bodies rained down all over the ocean, they
can be found in all kinds of rocks. For terrestrial rocks, which form on land,
regional or continental index fossils may include small rodents that evolve
quickly, as well as larger animals that have wide geographic ranges. Index fossils
are used in the formal architecture of geologic time for defining the ages, epochs,
periods, and eras of the geologic time scale. Some of the boundaries of these
subdivisions are defined by mass extinction events, like the Permian-Triassic
extinction. The evidence for these events is found in the fossil record wherever
there is a disappearance of major groups of species within a geologically short
amount of time.
o Burgess Shale: This site is high in the Canadian Rockies within Yoho National
Park near the town of Field, British Columbia, Canada. The Burgess Shale fossils
are about 505 million years old, some 20 million years younger than those from
Chengjiang. he Burgess Shale was science's first glimpse of the Cambrian
Explosion in the fossil record. The Burgess Shale comprises shale, limestone and
siltstone and extends in a large area in outcrops of the Stephen Formation that
exhibite different faunal mixes.
o Beecher’s Trilobite Bed: Beecher's Trilobite Beds is a Konservat-Lagerstätten of
Late Ordovician (Caradoc) age located within the Frankfort Shale in Cleveland's
Glen, Rome, Oneida Co., New York, USA.[1][2] Only 3-4 centimeters thick,
Beecher's Trilobite Beds have yielded numerous exceptionally preserved trilobites
with the ventral anatomy and soft tissue intact, the soft tissue preserved by pyrite
replacement.[2][3] Pyritization allows the use of X-rays to study fine detail of
preserved soft body parts still within the host rock
o Mazon Creek: One of the best records of late Paleozoic ecosystems, the Mazon
Creek Lagerstätte is world famous for its striking flora and fauna preserved within
siderite concretions. The late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) Mazon Creek
Lagerstätte, Illinois, USA, is exceptional for the diversity and abundance of
preserved fauna and flora found within siderite concretions.
o Ghost Ranch: a noted New Mexico fossil bed, which produced specimens like
the Coelophysis bauri specimen
o Solnhofen Limestone: Today, in the state of Bavaria, in region between
Nuremberg and Munich, these carbonate muds form a type of fine-grained, flat-
cleaving limestone (known as Plattenkalk in German) that has been quarried since
the Stone Age for roof and floor tiles, and more recently for lithography. These
rocks -- known as the Solnhofen or Solenhofen Limestone, after the small town of
Solnhofen -- are also famous for their fossils. Although relatively rare, fossils
from the Solnhofen Limestone may show exquisite detail, and often include
fragile or soft-bodied organisms that usually leave no fossils at all, or only
fragmentary ones.
o Yixian Formation (Liaoning): The Yixian Formation is a geological
formation in Jinzhou, Liaoning, People's Republic of China, that spans 11 million
years during the early Cretaceous period. It is known for its fossils, and is mainly
comprised of basalts interspersed with siliciclastic sediments.[1]
o Green River Formation: One of the most important fossil sites for
understanding the Eocene is found at Green River, located in western Colorado,
eastern Utah and southwestern Wyoming in the United States.
o La Brea Tar Pits: For these are the La Brea tar pits, containing one of the
richest, best preserved, and best studied assemblages of Pleistocene vertebrates,
including at least 59 species of mammal and over 135 species of bird. The tar pit
fossils bear eloquent witness to life in southern California from 40,000 to 8,000
years ago; aside from vertebrates, they include plants, mollusks, and insects --
over 660 species of organisms in all. It is in California.
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and details about the fossils. For details on 2010 2009
each of the taxa on the identification list Question Marathon Threads

(which is much of what will be tested) and 2021

examples of what sort of information to
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include in a binder, see Fossils/Fossil List.
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Official Resources

Division B
Contents [hide]  www.soinc.org/fossils-b
Website

1 Fossil Formation
Division C
1.1 Fossil Environments www.soinc.org/fossils-c
Website

2 Sedimentary Rocks Division B Results

3 Modes of Life
1st Solon Middle School
4 Fossils and Time
2nd Jeffrey Trail Middle School
4.1 Geologic Time
3rd Daniel Wright Junior High School
4.1.1 Paleozoic Era
Division C Results
4.1.2 Mesozoic Era
1st Solon High School
4.1.3 Cenozoic Era
2nd Pioneer High School
4.1.4 New System for Geologic Time
3rd Troy High School
4.2 Index Fossils
4.3 Relative Dating
4.4 Absolute Dating
5 Fossil Symmetry
6 Lagerstätten
6.1 Burgess Shale
6.2 Beecher's Trilobite Bed
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 6.3 Mazon Creek
6.4 Ghost Ranch
6.5 Solnhofen Limestone
6.6 Yixian Formation (Liaoning)
6.7 Green River Formation
6.8 La Brea Tar Pits
7 Competition Tips
7.1 Making a Binder
7.2 Available Field Guides
7.3 Day of the Event
7.4 How the Event is Run
8 Sample Questions
9 Links

Fossil Formation
There are several ways that fossils can form, ranging from the organism being replaced by
minerals to the organism getting trapped in amber. This section explains the different types of
fossils.

Mummification : This rare form of preservation preserves life form with some tissue or skin
intact. Specimens that are preserved this way are very fragile. Natural mummification
usually happens in dry and cold places where preservation happens quickly and effectively.
Mummification is not truly fossilization.
External Molds : These are imprints of the organism embedded in rocks.
Casts : These are formed when external molds are filled with sediment.
Internal molds : These occur when sediment fills the shell of a deceased organism such as
a bivalve or a gastropod. These remain after the organism's remains decompose to show
the internal features of the organism

Petrification/Petrifaction/Silicification : These occur when minerals slowly replace the

various organic tissues of an organism. The most common mineral to cause petrification is
silicon, but other minerals also work.
Carbonization/Coalification : These occur when over time all parts of the original
organism except the carbon are removed from the fossil over time. The remaining carbon
is the same carbon that the organism was made of.
Recrystallization : This occurs when original minerals in the fossil over time revert into
more stable minerals, such as an apatite shell recrystallizing into the more
thermodynamically stable calcite.
Replacement : This occurs when the hard parts of the organism are replaced with minerals
over time.
Trace fossils: Trace fossils are fossils that are not part of the organism. These include
footprints, burrows, eggshells, and coprolite (fossilized excrement). They give insight into
an organism's behavior.

Actual remains : These are much rarer than other fossil types. These are still intact parts of
the organism. Actual remains can be seen preserved in ice, tar, or amber. A good example
is mammoth hair, which is often frozen and still preserved.
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 Tar : When organisms become trapped in tar, due to the oxygen deprived environment, it
allows for the rapid burial of body parts which are well preserved. A good example is the
La Brea tar pits in Los Angeles.

Fossils almost always form in sedimentary rocks. The extreme heat and pressure needed to
form igneous or metamorphic rock often destroys or warps the organism.

When an organism dies, if the conditions are right, it becomes covered in sediments, which,
after being subjected to pressure, becomes rock. This takes a very long time, and the actual
organism decomposes by then. A soft organism like a worm or jellyfish usually does not get
fossilized because it decomposes too fast. Only the hard parts like skeletons and teeth remain
long enough to keep the imprint in the rock while the rock is forming.

Fossil Environments

Fossils form (for the most part) in bodies of water, because sedimentation occurs. Fossilization
needs to occur in places where the dead organism will not be disturbed, so a place in the
ocean devoid of wave activity is required. Most of these marine fossils do not form in the far
depths of the sea known as the Abyssal Zone because the sediment at the bottom of the
Abyssal zone is generally dragged into the mantle of the Earth, as opposed to rising to the
land.

Sedimentary Rocks
As said above, fossils usually form in water because sedimentation occurs. Here are some of
the common sedimentary rocks that fossils can be found in:

Sandstones/Siltstones : These rocks can usually be found in off-shore deposits or beaches.

They commonly preserve water ripples, tracks, petrified wood, dinosaur bones and hard-
shelled invertebrates.
Conglomerates : Fossilized bones and teeth, as well as amphibian and reptile fossils, can
be found in conglomerates.
Shale : Probably the most common fossil preserving rock, shales can contain fossils that are
perfectly preserved. They can contain vertebrates, invertebrates, or plants.

Limestones : Also a very fossiliferous rock, these represent both shallow and deep tropical
seas. Invertebrate fossils, as well as remains of armored fish and shark teeth, can be found
in limestones.
Coal/Coal Shales : Plants, fish, insects, marine invertebrates, and even dinosaur footprints
can be found in coal deposits.

Students may be expected to identify sedimentary rocks. Here are some identification tips:

Coquina: Looks like chewed up oatmeal.

Diatomite: Similar to chalk limestone, but less chalky and lighter.
Dolostone: Usually a very light shade of pink.
Sandstone: Grainy and it does not have to be layered, though it commonly is.
Limestone Chalk: Looks and feels like chalk.
Fossiliferous Limestone: Has fossils that are relatively small, but does not have to be
covered with fossils.

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 Modes of Life
Different animals have different modes of life (these generally refer to oceanic dwellers, which
makes up a bulk of the list). The main modes of life are:

Pelagic : Free swimming, e.g. fish or scallops (scallops "swim" by flapping their shells).
Sessile : Rooted to the floor, e.g. crinoids (sea lilies) and sea anemones.
Benthic : Lives on the sea floor, e.g. crabs, lobsters, crinoids.

Vagrant : Free swimming, same as pelagic.

Motile : The opposite of sessile; moves around. Examples include anything that is
Pelagic/Vagrant, Benthic, or any other organism able to move around.
Coiled : The outsides of an organism coil around a center point.
Planktonic : Does not actually swim; floats and is carried along with the ocean's currents.

Fossils and Time

Fossils are an important part of Earth Science as they provide a look back into what life may
have been like many million years ago. Since environments can change significantly over long
periods of time, fossils are an important way to see how life may have existed in the past.

Geologic Time

Earth's history is broken up several ways. The largest section is the supereon . The only one is
the Precambrian, lasting from 4500-540 mya (million years ago). After this the next largest are
eons . There are four; the Hadean Eon (before 3800 mya), the Archean Eon (3800-2500 mya),
the Proterozoic Eon (2500-540 mya) and the Phanerozoic Eon (540 mya to present). Not much
is known about the Precambrian, because all of the life forms lacked hard shells or skeletons,
making preservation very unlikely. There are, however, fossils called stromatolites that show
indications of cyanobacteria. These are first found in the Archaean. It is possible that the first
lifeforms and self-replicating RNA strands emerged as early as the mid-Hadean. The
Phanerozoic Eon is when shelled invertebrates began to emerge, and the fossil record
expands.

The next largest sections are eras . Eras are divided based on the dominant life forms at that
time. The Paleozoic (meaning "ancient animals", from 540 mya to 248 mya) was dominated by
marine invertebrates. Reptiles dominated the Mesozoic (middle animals) Era (from 248 mya to
65 mya), and mammals dominate the Cenozoic Era (65 mya to present, meaning "recent
animals"). We are living in the Cenozoic Era now.

The next breakdown are periods . Each era is broken down into periods, except for the
Archaean and Hadean Eons, which are only divided into eras. Periods are broken down into
Epochs starting after the beginning of the Phanerozoic Eon. All epochs are then further
divided into Ages, which can, though rarely are, divided into Chron. All divisions of time may
be distinguished from each other by certain species that lived only in that period, called index
fossils. This method is called biogeochronology. These divisions all have counterparts in
chronostratigraphy, as Eon/Eonthem, Erathem/Era, System/Period, Series/Epoch, Stage/Age,
and Chronozone/Chron.

Paleozoic Era

The periods of the Paleozoic:

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 Cambrian : (541.0 mya to 485.4 mya) The first period, when marine invertebrates start to
emerge. Part of the Age of Invertebrates.
Ordovician : (485.4 mya to 443.8 mya) Primitive fish start to form. Index fossil is the
trilobite genus Cryptolithus. Part of the Age of Invertebrates.
Silurian : (443.8 mya to 419.2 mya) Early land animals began to emerge. Part of the Age of
Fishes.

Devonian : (419.2 mya to 358.9 mya) First forests and amphibians form. Index fossils
include Mucrospirifer (brachiopod genus) and Phacops (trilobite genus). Part of the Age of
Fishes.
Carboniferous : 358.9 mya to 298.9 mya Contains both the Mississippian and
Pennsylvanian Periods. Part of the Age of Amphibians.
Mississippian: (358.9 mya to 323.2 mya) Widespread shallow seas form.
Pennsylvanian: ( 323.2 mya to 298.9 mya) Coal-bearing rocks form.
Permian : (298.9 mya to 251.9 mya) Earliest gymnosperms (cone-bearing trees). Part of the
Age of Amphibians.
Mesozoic Era

During the Mesozoic periods, dinosaurs dominated. This entire era is known as the Age of
Reptiles.

Triassic : (251.9 mya to 201.3 mya) First dinosaurs and earliest mammals.

Jurassic : (201.3 mya to 145 mya) Earliest birds.

Cretaceous : (145 mya to 66 mya) Flowering plants (angiosperms) develop.
Cenozoic Era

The periods in the Cenozoic differ from the other two eras by being broken down even further
in epochs. This entire era is known as the Age of Mammals.

Paleogene : (66.0 mya to 23.0 mya) Apes begin to appear. It is broken down into epochs:
Paleocene (66.0 mya to 56.0 mya) "Age of Birds", lasting through the Eocene.
Eocene: (56.0 mya to 33.9 mya) Further development of mammals. Giant birds rule the
land.
Oligocene: (33.9 mya to 23.0 mya) Rise of true carnivores.
Neogene : (23.0 mya to 2.6 mya) Mammals and birds continue to evolve into modern
forms. Early hominids appear.
Miocene: (23.0 mya to 5.3 mya) Grasses and grazing animals develop.
Pliocene: (5.3 mya to 2.6 mya) First modern animals.

Quaternary : (2.6 mya to present) Humans appear and develop. This is the period we are
still in today.
Pleistocene: (2.6 mya to 11,700 ya): The most recent period of repeated glaciations.
Holocene: (11,700 ya to present): The epoch in which we live today. The Holocene is
further divided into the Boreal Age, followed by the Atlantic Stage.
Anthropocene: A proposed epoch marking the beginning of human impact on the
Earth.

New System for Geologic Time

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 A new system of geologic time was devised early in 2007. It goes like this:

Cenozoic is broken into the Paleogene, Neogene, and Quaternary

Paleogene : Mammals develop from small creatures to diverse animals
Paleocene
Eocene
Oligocene
Neogene : Hominids develop, insects evolve into roughly modern forms
Miocene
Pliocene
Quaternary

Pleistocene
Holocene
Here is a basic overview of each time period that is specific enough for this event.
Another good geologic time chart that compares the length graphically for all divisions
of time.
As of the 2019 season, competitons are required to use the official Science Olympiad
geologic time scale.

Index Fossils

Index fossils are fossils of organisms that lived only in four periods. They developed near the
beginning of the period, and became extinct before the end. Note that this refers to genera
or species, not entire classes or families. Index fossils are extremely useful for dating rock.
They can not be used to tell absolute age (we need carbon-14 (or other isotope) testing for
that), but can be used for relative dating. By comparing two rock outcrops with the same
index fossil, we can conclude that they are roughly the same age, (give or take several million
years). To be an index fossil, the organism must have had a wide geographic range, because if
a fossil is found only on some barren outcrop in the desert, it can not be used to date rocks
from many miles away. It also helps to be fairly common - for instance, dinosaurs of North
America are not index fossils because of their rarity.

For example, Genus Mucrospirifer can be an index fossil for the Cambrian Period because they
only existed during that period. Therefore, if a rock is found with a Mucrospirifer in it, it can be
assumed that the rock is from the Devonian Period.

Relative Dating

Relative dating orders events in chronological order. It tells which events came first, but it
does not specify the exact date of which it occurred. There are different methods that are
used for relative dating: the principle of superposition, the principle of original horizontality,
the principle of cross-cutting relationships, and the principle of inclusions.

Principle of Superposition : If there are undisturbed layers of sedimentary rocks, then the
layers will be younger as they near the top. The oldest layers are on the bottom and the
youngest layers are on the top.
Principle of Original Horizontality : Rocks are originally layered horizontally. If there are
layers that are higher on one side than on the other, it is due to the tilting of rocks caused
by a geological event.

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 Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships : This principle states that a fracture or cut in a
rock caused by another rock (igneous intrusion) is always younger than the rock it cuts.
Principle of Inclusions : Fragments of one rock in another rock must be older than the rock
it is contained in.

Also, look: More Laws of Relative Dating

Absolute Dating

Absolute dating is similar to relative dating in that they both order events in chronological
order. However, unlike relative dating, absolute dating can determine the ages of rocks. There
are several methods that are used in absolute dating, including radiometric dating, half-life,
and carbon dating.

Half-life: The half-life of an isotope is how much time it takes for half the atoms in that
isotope to decay. After that many years, half the atoms in the isotope will decay. After that
many years again, half of that half (one-quarter of the whole or two half-lives) will decay.
After that many years again, half of the half of that half (one-eighth of the whole or three
half-lives) will decay. It will go on until the isotope decays to its daughter product. The
table below shows major radioactive isotopes and their half-life. (Ma = million years, Ga =
billion years)

Major Radioactive Isotopes

and Half-Lives
Isotope Half-Life

Carbon 14 5730 years

Potassium 40 1.25 Ga
Uranium 235 703.8 Ma
Uranium 238 4.468 Ga
Thorium 232 14.05 Ga
Rubidium 87 48.8 Ga
Samarium 147 106 Ga

Radiometric Dating : As time goes on, the amount of parent material in a rock decreases
as the amount of daughter product in the rock increases. Geologists can determine the
age of rocks by measuring the amount of parent and daughter material in the rock and
knowing the half-life of the parent rock. The formula is as follows:

xy = a

Where y = half-life, x = number of decays, and a = age

Fossil Symmetry
Most multicellular organisms display some form of symmetry. Humans are bilaterally
symmetrical because if a person was cut in half from the middle of the front of the head, all the
way down the middle, the two sides would look the same.

There are many types of symmetry but the main types are:

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 Bilateral Symmetry : Brachiopods are bilaterally symmetrical between each side of each
individual valve, and bivalves are bilaterally symmetrical between each valve.
Radial Symmetry : Imagine a sand dollar and put it in a circle - from the center of that
circle, all the surrounding parts are symmetrical. All echinodermata exhibit radial symmetry.
Pentamerism : A type of radial symmetry, think of a starfish. They generally have five arms
and a center point from which all these arms go out. Pentagonal symmetry, my friends. All
echinodermata exhibit this, some in variations.
Coiled symmetry : Gastropods exhibit it - their shells are coiled around a center point at
the apex.
Spherical symmetry : It is able to be cut into 2 identical halves through any cut that runs
through the organism's center

Lagerstätten
A Lagerstätte ("place of storage" in German) is a sedimentary deposit that contains fossils
preserved in excellent condition (sometimes even soft tissue fossils).

Distinguished into two kinds:

Konzentrate-Lagerstätten: (concentration Lagerstätten) Deposits with a certain

"concentration" of organic hard parts such as a bone bed, however, concentration
deposits such as reefs or oyster beds are not considered Lagerstätten.
Konservat-Lagerstätten: (conservation Lagerstätten) Deposits known for exceptional
preservation of fossils. These are crucial for understanding the history and evolution of life.
These are much more spectacular than the Konzentrate-Lagerstätten.

Burgess Shale

Located in the Canadian Rockies of British Columbia, Canada.

Famous for its incredible preservation of soft parts (estimated 98% are entirely soft-
bodied), and unique diversity.
508 million years old from the middle Cambrian period .
Discovered in 1909 by Charles Walcott.
The rock unit is black shale.

Beecher's Trilobite Bed

Located within the Frankfort Shale in Cleveland's Glen, Oneida County, New York, USA.
Although only 3-4 cm thick, it yields many well-preserved trilobites with soft tissue
preserved by pyrite replacement (unusual in the fossil record).
Formed during the Late Ordovician period .
Originally discovered in 1892 by William S. Valiant but excavated in 1893-1895 by Charles
Emerson Beecher.

Mazon Creek

Located near Morris, in Grundy County Illinois.

Preserved are a wide variety of fossils including amphibians, insects, fish, crustaceans,
eurypterids, jellyfish, snails, clams, and cephalopods.
Formed ~309 million years ago in the Carboniferous period .
Declared a National Historic Landmark in 1997.
Fossils preserved in ironstone concretions.
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 Ghost Ranch

Located near Abiquiú in Rio Arriba County, New Mexico.

Famous for its remarkable concentration of fossils, especially Coelophysis,with almost a
thousand preservations.
Formed during the Triassic period .
Declared a U.S. National Natural Landmark in 1975.

Solnhofen Limestone

Located in Bavaria, Germany.

Geographically known as the Altmühltal Formation .
Famous for detailed imprints of soft bodied organisms (like sea jellies) and being the the
place where Archaeopteryx was discovered.
Formed during the Jurassic period .

Yixian Formation (Liaoning)

Located in Jinzhou, Liaoning, China.

Famous for its well-preserved fossils, especially of feathered dinosaurs.
Formed during the early Cretaceous period spanning for 11 million years.
Mainly composed of basalts with siliciclastic sediments.

Green River Formation

Located along Green River spanning across Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah.
Famous for a wide variety of animals especially bony fish, bats, and a large number of
plants.
Thin layers of sediment deposit.
Formed during the Eocene Epoch .

La Brea Tar Pits

Located in Los Angeles, California.

Famous for the preserved animal bones found in the tar pits. Some of these animals
include Pleistocene mammoths, dire wolves, and Smilodons.
Formed during the Pleistocene Epoch .
Declared a U.S. National Natural Landmark in 1964.

Competition Tips
Create a binder with pages for each fossil, and all the information suggested. Identification can
be practiced in the Fossil ID game under the Question Marathons section of the forum. Take
practice tests on the test exchange to get familiar with where all the information is, add any
useful information from the tests, and also get familiar with the kinds of questions on the tests.
Put tabs in a field guide (if applicable) for each of the phyla, highlight specimens in the index,
mark the fossil info, and add some notes into the guide as well. Know the information
thoroughly and do not rely on the field guide or binder prior to competition.

For the 2019 season, a team can bring one magnifying glass, the Science Olympiad Official
Fossil List, and one 3-inch or smaller 3-ring binder. Information in the binder can be in any
form, which means that a field guide can be hole punched and placed inside the binder.

Making a Binder

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 Include information on all the genera, as well as any necessary information listed on the rule
page such as extinction events or geologic time. However, do not just copy and paste or print
pages off of Wikipedia- typing out information makes it easier to remember. It is also helpful to
have a "references section", as many stations have questions regarding the anatomy of
specific phyla, major mass extinctions, different sedimentary rocks, and methods of
fossilization. Having a timeline of the geologic time scale on hand can prove to be useful, as
well as diagrams of phyla and other things that could be asked about on the test. Try creating
a template for the genera, so it is not as hard to make sheets quickly for the binder. Print out
important pictures in color and print double sided, if possible. If printing double sided is not
an option, it is possible to put two sheets of paper in one sheet protector so space in the
binder is not wasted. Remember to tab and organize the binder so that it is easier to find the
information, as there is not much time to flip through during the competition. If done right,
the binder will be more valuable than the field guide. Use practice tests to gain familiarity with
the binder (as well as the field guide). Find more information on rules in the 2020 Science
Olympiad Rules Manual.

Frequently referencing information specified in the rules is important for a successful

competition. Team members must also be able to identify fossils accurately, as a large portion
of the test revolves around it. Information about the phyla detailed on the Fossil List is
essential, though not all information specified in the rules will be tested. The event can be run
in many different ways, and expecting surprises will make the test less stressful.

However, do not try to cram information into the binder. The binder can be a valuable
resource, but a 3-inch binder is likely excessive. Having a larger binder does not mean that a
team is guaranteed to place, and it is more important to have information memorized than
needing to look in the binder. Still make sure that everything required for competition is
available, because spending time building the binder makes memorization easier.

The majority of the binder should still consist of pages on each taxa (order/class/phylum) on
the National Fossil list.

What is needed for each page:

Order

Fossil Range
Taxonomy
Mode of Life/Diet/Habitat/Distribution)
Anatomical features, size
Nicknames, common names
A picture (or many if there are various forms of the specimen)
Any other important/trivial info that should go under a misc. section (pop culture, etc)

Subphylum

The common anatomical features throughout the group

Distinctive features of the said group
Adaptations over time
The fossil range of the group
General habitats and common modes of life
Common names/Nicknames for group
Misc. info

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Phylum
 A broad range of info and less distinctive features
There are generally a few main features are shared in these large groups
Adaptations over time
Nicknames/Common names (Like Bryozoans are called Sea mats/Moss animals)
Misc. info

These pages should not be used for identification, and should only be looked at if the test
asks for information that is not memorized.

Many competitions also require labeling of some sorts, typically anatomical features of a
specific phylum, class, etc. It is helpful to be prepared for this and include diagrams of
anatomical features of specimen such as trilobites, Phylum Bryozoa, Phylum Crinoidea, etc.

Binders can be full of whatever is put into them. A great binder outweighs any guide, and
knowing where every single piece of information lies is a wonderful asset. This is typically one
of the more competitive events, so knowing the information well and thoroughly will be a
great advantage. Tabbing also makes it easy to find information. It is especially helpful to make
a binder or adapt an old one, because that is when information gets memorized.

Available Field Guides

There are 3 main fossil guides used for this event: Simon and Schuster's Guide to Fossils, the
Audubon Field Guide, and the Smithsonian (DK) Field Guide.

1. Audubon: It has almost all invertebrates on the list, which automatically puts it first. It
has very good information and has everything needed for ID purposes, but it is a bit
bulky and specimens are sometimes difficult to find.
2. Smithsonian: Very straight forward, not very bulky, but it does not have all of the
specimens on the list. It is much better organized than the Audubon and has better
pictures.
3. Simon and Schuster's: It does not have many of the samples, but it is the only guide of
the three that has information on dinosaurs. The guide has good general information,
but the organization is awkward and some of the fossil information is lacking.

Generally, the best choice as a field guide would be either Smithsonian or Audubon.
Smithsonian is better organized and has better pictures, but Audubon has better information.
Whichever field guide is chosen, remember to organize, tab, and add things into the field
guide to improve it and be able to find information more easily. It is recommended to tab
each phylum and group of fossils, as well as plants, trace fossils, and rocks.

Remember: all three books can be used for studying, taking notes, and preparing the binder.

For the 2019-2020 season, you are not allowed to remove material from your binder, so it is
not recommended to bring a field guide.

Day of the Event

If bringing a binder, make sure that everything is hole-punched and organized. It is also okay
to have pages in sheet protectors, which includes all notes, the fossil list, pictures, diagrams,
etc. If papers are stuffed into the side folders or just placed in, the proctors will remove them
and they will be unusable. Make sure to bring plenty of pencils, an eraser, and a magnifying
glass for live specimens.

How the Event is Run

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 Typically, the event is run in stations with a set time limit (generally from 7 to 9 minutes). Most
tests generally involve identifying a phylum and answering questions about its mode of
preservation. Some involve pictures of a phylum on the list or a picture of something else (like
sediment). Every test is different, so be prepared for surprises. There may not be much time
but every team has the same time limit, so just keep calm, do not rush, and do not waste time.
Having a partner is also helpful, as it is possible to have one partner write down the answers on
the answer sheet while another partner flips through the binder to confirm the answers.

Sample Questions

1. Identify the phylum and whether it is articulate or inarticulate

2. What time period was this phylum inclined to implement the pedicle?

3. What is the specimen shown above?

4. How are phylums like this one commonly used?

Links
2019 National Fossil List
http://www.fossilscentral.com
Palaeos has vast quantities on information on several taxa.
The standard resource for all SciOly events, though cross-check dates and taxonomic keys
with a field guide, CLICK TO SEE!
PaleoDB has a large amount of information on taxonomy of each specimen.
The Fossil Museum has a big list of fossils and lots of info.
Paleontology Portal, has a lot of great pictures!
Has accurate information on the taxonomy of plants
Fossils/Fossil List
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This page was last edited on 23 October 2020, at 14:29.

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