Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Influence of biodiesel blending on physicochemical properties and

importance of mathematical model for predicting the properties
of biodiesel blend
M.A. Wakil a,⇑, M.A. Kalam a, H.H. Masjuki a, A.E. Atabani b, I.M. Rizwanul Fattah a
a
Center for Energy Sciences, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes University, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The growing demand for green world serves as one of the most significant challenges of modernization.
Received 24 October 2014 Requirements like largest usage of energy for modern society as well as demand for friendly milieu create
Accepted 16 January 2015 a deep concern in field of research. Biofuels are placed at the peak of the research arena for their under-
Available online 6 February 2015
lying benefits as mentioned by multiple researches. Out of a number of vegetable oils, only a few are used
commercially for biodiesel production. Due to various limitations of edible oil, non-edible oils are becom-
Keywords: ing a profitable choice. Till today, very little percentage of biodiesel is used successfully in engine. The
Biodiesel
research is still continuing for improving the biodiesel usage level. Recently, it is found that the blended
Edible oil
Non-edible oil
biodiesel from more than one feedstock provides better performance in engine. This paper reviews the
Blending physicochemical properties of different biodiesel blends obtained from various feedstocks with a view
Physicochemical properties to properly understand the fuel quality. Moreover, a short description of each feedstock is given along
Mathematical modeling with graphical presentation of important properties for various blend percentages from B0 to B100.
Finally, mathematical model is formed for predicting various properties of biodiesel blend with the help
of different research data by using polynomial curve fitting method. The results obtained from a number
of literature based on this work shows that the heating value of biodiesel is about 11% lower than diesel
except coconut (14.5% lower) whereas kinematic viscosity is in the range of 4–5.4 mm2/s. Flash point of
all biodiesels are more than 150 °C, except neem and coconut. Cold flow properties of calophyllum, palm,
jatropha, moringa are inferior to others. This would help to determine important properties of biodiesel
blend for any percentage of biodiesel and to select the proper feedstock for better performance.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction conducted to find alternative to fossil fuels for eco-friendly

The primary catalyst of any country’s socio-economic devel-
opment is energy. However, through modernization the demand
of energy consumption is facing a serious threat due to the grad-
ual declination of fossil fuels. Various sectors for instance, indus-
try, transport, agriculture, domestic sector, etc. require energy
from sources like wood, coal, petroleum products, nuclear power,
solar, and wind [1]. Currently, more than 80% of energy demand
is catered by fossil fuels [2]. The deep concern about fossil fuels
is that it’s generation of toxic pollutants links to global warming,
climate change and even some impasse diseases [3]. To compete
with this critical situation, a good number of research have been
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 163269524.
E-mail addresses: wakil_01@yahoo.com (M.A. Wakil), kalam@um.edu.my (M.A.
Kalam).
condition.
Biodiesel is considered to be a notable option for at least com-
plementing conventional fuels [3]. Its production from renewable
sources such as vegetable oils and fats has been widely reviewed
[4–10]. It is advantageous over petroleum product because it is
safe in handling, biodegradable, non-toxic, has higher combustion
efficiency, higher cetane number, contains no sulfur, etc. [1,3,11–14].
In addition, it is advantageous for numerous social benefits like
rural revitalization, creation of new jobs and reduced global
warming [15].
Among the available sources of biodiesel, edible oils are domi-
nating in several countries as diesel substitute. For instance, canola
and soybean are used in USA, palm oil in Malaysia, rapeseed oil in
Europe etc. [12,14]. Currently, more than 95% of the world biodie-
sel comes from edible oil. In the year 2004–2007 the edible oil used
for biodiesel production was 6.6 million tons which would attri-
bute 34% of the increase in global consumption of biodiesel and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.01.043
0196-8904/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
52 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67

Nomenclature

APME Aphanamixis polystachya methyl ester SME Sesame methyl ester

CIME Calophyllum inophyllum methyl ester SFME Sterculia foetida methyl ester
COME Coconut methyl ester CB10 Calophyllum biodiesel (10% + Diesel 90%) blend
CME Canola methyl ester CoB Coconut biodiesel, diesel blend
CMME Croton megalocarpus methyl ester CrB Croton biodiesel, diesel blend
JCME Jatropha curcas methyl ester JB Jatropha biodiesel, diesel blend
MOME Moringa oleifera methyl ester CP Cloud point
NME Neem methyl ester PP Pour point
POME Palm methyl ester CFPP Cold filter plugging point
RBME Rice bran methyl ester

also lead to one third of the total projected growth of edible oils
between 2005 and 2017 [16]. This large usage of edible oils for bio-
diesel has caused a serious impact on food supply. It has the ability
to lead to starvation especially in developing countries and impose
antagonistic effect on environment [13]. The prominent solution is
to use second generation feedstocks (non-edible oils) which has
higher potential for biodiesel production [13] and can easily elim-
inate the food vs fuel concern. Another boosting feedstock is algae.
Although full scale commercialization from algae has not begun
yet, but it is expected to be rich in oil content (oil content in mic-
roalgae can exceed 80% of its weight of dry biomass) [3].
The use of vegetable oils started more than a century ago. Apart
from the remarkable advantages, biodiesel has couple of difficul-
ties to be used as a replacement of fossil fuels in engine such as
high viscosity and density and low volatility and heating value
[12]. These difficulties lead to problems in pumping, atomization,
gumming, injection fouling, piston ring sticking, etc. [1]. Another
serious threat for biodiesel industry is the cost of feedstock which
currently accounts for over 70–85% of biodiesel production cost
[13,17,18]. One solution to alleviate this problem is to use multiple
feedstocks of varying percentage. It will not only subside the cost
of production but also enhance product quality. Problems of using
edible oils can also be moderated by switching these with non-edi-
ble oils. It has been proven that biodiesel containing up to B5 will
have no notable difference in terms of power and fuel economy
when it is compared to diesel [19]. ASTM D7467 suggests blending
of 20% biodiesel with diesel. In 2014, the Chevy Cruze Clean Turbo
Diesel is directing the engine with rated B20 biodiesel compatibil-
ity [20]. Now-a-days research is going on to increase the use of bio-
diesel blending with diesel. Consequently, biodiesel blending
(biodiesel and diesel) bring a new topic in research arena. A num-
ber of researches have been undertaken already on biodiesel
blending [17,21–27]. Accordingly, it has become easier to have a
clear concept of the physicochemical properties of edible and
non-edible vegetable oils with varying blending percentages for a
better understanding on blend qualities. Survey of existing
literature shows that most of the studies focus on pure biodiesel
properties rather than properties of blending. Therefore, this
review aims firstly at focusing on the physicochemical properties
of edible and non-edible biodiesel and their blends with diesel
(B0–B100). Secondly, mathematical equation for various biodiesel
blends would be produced in order to predict the important prop-
erties of blended biodiesel for any percentage of biodiesel. Here, a
polynomial curve fitting method is used to generate the equation.
It is believed that such kind of studies will assist researchers for
further study about optimal usage of biodiesel.
2. Biodiesel feedstocks
Feedstock-related cost has been regarded as a primary obstacle
as it constitutes roughly around 60–90% of the total biodiesel pro-
duction cost [28]. Biodiesel can be produced from a wide variety of
oils. These include vegetable oils (edible and non-edible oils)
[13,29–34], food processing waste (waste cooking oils, animal fat
(tallow, lard, yellow grease, chicken fat) [28,35–37]), industrial res-
idues) [38], algae, halophytes (Salicomia bigelovii [39]), sewage
sludge [40], etc.
Globally, more than 350 oil-bearing crops have been identified
as potential biodiesel sources [12,13,29,41]. The regional climate
mainly affects the feedstock selection for biodiesel production
[13]. Table 1 presents some important oil bearing species
[1,2,8,13,14,16,29,42].
A concise description of some edible and non-edible oil plants
including their country of origin, oil content and their necessary
uses are portrayed in Table 2 with their fatty acid composition in
Table 3. The identification of plants and seeds of the selected oil
sources are shown in Fig. 1.
3. Characteristics of crude oils and biodiesels
Characterization of oil properties is necessary to research about
the processing of crude oil to biodiesel and afterwards to diesel
engine successfully. The physical and chemical properties of any
fuel are significant factors which help to decide whether the oil

Table 1
Oil species for biodiesel production.

Category Source of oil

Edible oil Sunflower, Rapeseed, Rice bran, Soybean, Coconut, Corn, Palm, Olive, Pistachia Palestine, Sesame seed, Peanut, Opium Poppy, Safflower oil, Amaranth,
apricot, argan, artichoke, avocado, babassu, bay laurel, beech nut, ben, Borneo tallow nut, carob pod (algaroba), cohune, coriander seed, false flax, grape
seed, hemp, kapok seed, lallemantia, lemon seed, macauba fruit (Acrocomia sclerocarpa), meadowfoam seed, mustard, okra seed (hibiscus seed), perilla
seed, pequi,(Caryocar brasiliensis seed), pine nut, poppy seed, prune kernel, quinoa, ramtil (Guizotia abyssinica seed or Nigerpea), rice bran, tallow, tea
(camellia), thistle (Silybum marianum seed), and wheat germ
Non-edible Jatropha, Karanjaor Pongamia, Neem, Jojoba, Cottonseed, Linseed, Mahua, Deccan hemp, Kusum, Orange, Rubbe rseed, Sea Mango, Karanja or Honge,
oil milk bush, Nagchampa, Rubber seed tree, Tobacco seed oil, Algae, Halophytes and Xylocarpus moluccensis
Waste or recycled oil
Animal fats Tallow, Yellow grease, chicken fat and by-products from fish oil, etc.
Table 2
Acknowledgement of some edible and non-edible oils.

Name of oil Characteristics Country of available Oil Yield of Uses Refs.

content plant seed
kg/ Kg/ha
tree
Aphanamixis polystachya Species in the family Meliaceae also known as pitraj tree. It is A widespread species found in Indo-China and 30– 25– Herbal medicine, potential for [43–47]
indigenous as evergreen tree mainly growing in the tropical area of western Malaysia. Indonesia, India, Bangladesh, 40% 40 biodiesel, The wood is used for
Asia. This deciduous, perennial tree grows to 20–30 m long. Flower etc. construction of ships, vehicles, posts
clusters occur in leaf axils, less than a foot long. Seeds are greyish and agricultural tools
brown. Flowering: May–September
Calophyllum inophyllum L. Known as penaga laut, non-edible oil seed tree belongs to Clusiaceae Native Australian tree, Found in tropical region 45– 25– 4680 For burning, timber, medicinal uses, [13,47–50]
family. It enables to tolerate harsh environmental conditions (acidity, of India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, etc. 70% 50 etc.
salinity, and drought), require little maintenance, 1000–4000 mm
rainfall is sufficient per year. It is non-invasive, fruits profusely
(3000–10,000 seeds tree1 season1). Duration of harvest is two
months, Flowering in March–May and fruiting in October–November

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67

Croton megalocarpus C. megalocarpus belongs to Euphorbiaceae family. It is a multipurpose The plant id indigenous to East Africa and 40– 50 5000– Rejuvenating chemical peels, pain [13,51–53]
tree of Mexican and Central American origin with height 15–40 m. It widely found in mountain of Tanzania, Kenya, 45% 10,000 relieving and anti-inflammatory
is capable to engender at the altitude of 1200 m and 2450 m Uganda, etc. drag, biodiesel production, etc.
respectively. It requires less water footprint and fertilization during
cultivation stage
Coconut Coconut is member of the family Arecaceae. Found throughout the Indigenous to Indo-pacific origin. Philippines, 60% Coconut oil is used for Skin [1,54]
tropic and sub-tropic area. It is familiar as large palm growing up to Indonesia, India, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Mexico, moisturizer, ingredient for soap, etc.
30 m tall with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long. On very fertile land a Brazil etc.
coconut tree can yield 75 fruits per year but often yield less than 30
mainly due to tough cultural practices. Coconut palms are growing in
more than 80 countries of the world with a total production of 61
million tons per year. Coconut trees are very hard to establish in dry
climates and cannot grow without frequent irrigation, in drought
conditions
Jatropha curcas J. curcas belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It grows throughout This plant is native to Mexico, Central America, 43– 0.5– 100– Bio-fuels, carbon dioxide [13,47,53,55–
most of the tropics and can survive on poor soil and drought Africa, India, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Argentina, and 59% 2.0 8000 sequestration, etc. 57]
condition. It is reported as wild, semi-arid-climates plant. It flowers in Paraguay
March–September and fruiting in April–May and October–November
of ellipsoidal green fruits. It produces seeds after 12 months and
reaches its maximum yield after 4–5 years.
Moringa oleifera Moringa oleifera is the most widely cultivated tree species in the Native to sub-Himalayan tracts of north-west 35– 3000 Moringa leaves uses as sources of [53,58–60]
family of Moringaceae grows throughout most of the tropics. It is India, Africa, Latin America, Pakistan, 45% food, as forage for livestock, etc.
drought tolerant and can survive in arid, harsh and infertile land. The Bangladesh, Afghanistan, etc.
tree can range from 5 to 10 m in height; sometimes can be even 15 m.
The plant starts bearing pods 6–8 months after planting
Neem Neem (Azadirachta indica), a tree of mahogany family Meliaceae. It is Native to Asian countries like India, Pakistan, 30– 20– Toiletries, pest control, cosmetics, [47,61,62]
fast growing evergreen tree and can reach a height of 15–20 m, rarely Bangladesh, etc. 39% 35 Pharmaceuticals, etc.
to 35–40 m. It is drought tolerant, thrives in area with sub-arid to
sub-humid condition with annual rainfall 400–1200 mm and hardly
below 400 mm. This is a typical tropical to subtropical tree can
tolerate high to high temperature but cannot tolerate temperature
below 4 °C. Duration of harvest is 2–3 months. Flowering starts in
March–April and fruiting in June–July. The white, hard inner shell of
the fruits enclose with one and rarely two or three seeds
Palm Palm oil tree belonging to the species namely, Elaeis guineensis. Oil Mostly available in South East Asia (Indonesia, 4000– Cooking ingredient, confectionery, [12,63–66]
palms are originally from Western Africa, but can flourish wherever Malaysia), Thailand, Brazil, Nigeria, Colombia, 5000 cosmetics, body products and
heat and rainfall are abundant. It is found to be a tropical perennial Ecuador, Costa Rica Venezuela, etc. (oil) cleaning agents

(continued on next page)

53
54 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67

is suitable for engine or unsuitable. Researchers have shown that

the properties of biodiesel vary significantly due their diverse fatty
acid composition which provides an obvious effect on engine per-

Popular ingredient in Japan, Also uses [1,18,67]

[68,69]
formance. Therefore, it is important to characterize biodiesels
Refs.

according to preset standard testing methods [13]. American

Standard Test Method (ASTM) and European (EN) standard have

as medicine, animal food, cosmetics,

Food, nutraceutical, Pharmaceutical

formulated the specification for biodiesel as shown in Table 4
[1,2,12,13,87,88]. Table 5 shows some selected properties of crude
edible and non-edible oils. It is seen that the heating value of crude
oils vary in the range of 38,500–40,000 kJ/kg. The maximum kine-
matic viscosity was reported for Calophyllum inophyllum
(55.478 mm2/s) and rice bran (52.225 mm2/s). Among these feed-
shoes cream, etc.

stocks Moringa oleifera contains highest oxidation stability

(41.75 h at 110 °C) while the maximum acid value was in C. ino-
industry
phyllum (41.74 mg KOH/g oil).
Uses

On the other hand, except coconut (38,300 kJ/kg) the heating

value of other edible and non-edible methyl esters are almost
kg/ Kg/ha
content plant seed

440

above 39,500 kJ/kg as shown in Table 6. Coconut possesses the

Yield of

lowest kinematic viscosity (3.1435 mm2/s). However, according

tree

to data found from various researches, all feedstocks indicated in

this study have satisfied ASTM limit for viscosity. It is found that
32%

China, Sudan, Burma, Tunisia, Egypt, Thailand, 63%

16–

Originated from Africa and Turkey, Also in India, 57–

Neem and coconut have lower flash point rather than other feed-
Oil

stock. Cetane number varies from 45 to 75.

Mexico, Guatemala, Afghanistan, Pakistan,
However, rice can be grown practically

4. Impact of blending on physicochemical properties of

biodiesel
anywhere, even on a steep hill

Though biodiesel satisfy the ASTM and EN limits, it cannot be

used alone in diesel engine due to its high kinematic viscosity
and density and also lower oxidation stability and heating value.
Country of available

To improve those properties, it is blended with diesel. In this paper

Bangladesh, etc.

we carried out some work to review the variation of physicochem-

ical properties such as kinematic viscosity, calorific value, density,
flash point, cloud point, pour point, CFPP, and oxidation stability
with the varying blended percentage, B0 (Pure diesel)–B100 (Pure
biodiesel). The data were gathered from different resources as in
requires adequate moisture for germination and early growth. It is an
fourth year onward. Due to the reduction in fruit production it is right

Pedaliaceae family primarily found in tropical and subtropical areas. It

is very drought-tolerant, in part due to its extensive root system and
cultivated in the world which fed more than half of the people of the

presence of active lipase and high free fatty acid, about 60–70% of rice

annual plant growing 50–100 cm tall with opposite leaves 4–14 cm

world. Rice bran is a by-product of rice milling process. Due to the
height. Can be cultivated for 40–50 years. It carries fruits from the

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L) is an oil seed herbaceous crop of the

Refs. [18,51,100–115] and depicted in Figs. 2–9, respectively.

Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or

bran oil production is non-edible. Rice cultivation requires ample

long. The flowers are yellow, tubular with four-lobed mouth. The
Oryza glaberrima (African rice). Rice is the most important cereal

flower may vary in color with some being white, blue or purple
unbranched, single stemmed which can grow up to 20–30 m in

As biodiesel is completely miscible to diesel, biodiesel and die-

plant grows well in lowland with humid places. Identifies as

sel blend was prepared using a beaker glass on a volume basis and
the mixture was agitated with a shaker for about 15–30 min at
ambient temperature. The effects of blend on the important prop-
erties are discussed in the following sections.
choice to replanting for every 25 years rotation

4.1. Kinematic viscosity

Kinematic viscosity is the measure of resistance to fluid flow

over another due to internal friction. It is the most critical property
as it affects injection behavior [14]. Viscosity of vegetable oil is
typically ten times higher than petroleum based diesel [116]. High
viscosity leads to a poorer atomization and vaporization, formation
of shoots, etc. [13,14,117]. The data collected from various research
Characteristics

articles based on viscosity of many feedstocks at various blend

percentages are depicted in Fig. 2. It is seen from figure that at
water

any blend percentage, Calophyllum, Moringa, Neem and Rice bran

biodiesel blends show higher viscosity than other feedstocks
except that at lower blend percentages (below B30), the viscosity
variation are small. For instance, results for B20 show that the
average viscosity of each feedstock, APME = 3.657, CIME = 3.482,
COME = 3.54, CMME = 3.50, JCME = 3.74, MOME = 3.67,
Table 2 (continued)

NME = 3.81, POME = 3.54, RBME = 3.50, SME = 3.37 mm2/s respec-
Name of oil

tively. Average value of B100 for each feedstock biodiesel are

Rice bran

Sesame

APME = 4.46, CIME = 5.23, COME = 4.06, CMME = 4.376,

JCME = 4.57, MOME = 4.87, NME = 5.4, POME = 4.39, RBME = 4.82,
SME = 4.339 mm2/s respectively.
Table 3
Fatty acid composition of crude edible and non-edible oils.

Oil C8:0 C10:0 C12:0 C14:0 C16:0 C16:1 C17:0 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 C18:4 C20:0 C20:1 C22:0 C22:1 C24:0 C24:1
Aphanamixis polystachya N/D N/D N/D N/D 23.1 N/D N/D 12.8 21.5 29 13.6 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
(meliaceae) [13,70]
Calophyllum inophyllum L. [13] N/D N/D N/D 0.09 14.6, 17.9 2.5 N/D 19.96, 37.57, 42.7 26.33, 13.7 0.2, 2.1 N/D 0.94 0.72 N/D N/D 2.6 N/D
18.5
Croton megalocarpus [52] N/D N/D N/D 0.1 6.5 0.1 0.1 3.8 11.6 72.7 3.5, o.4 N/D N/D 0.9 N/D N/D N/D N/D

M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67

Coconut oil [1,11] N/D 14 51,48.8 18.5, 7.5, 7.8 0.1 3 5, 4.4 1, 0.8 0 65.7 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
19.9
Jatropha curcas[1,13,16] N/D 0.1 N/D 1.4, 0.1 12.6,15.6, 0.7, 0.1 5.5, 9.7, 39.1, 40.8, 41.6, 32.1, 0.2, 0.2 N/D 0.2, 0.4 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
15.1,14.2 0.9 7.1 44.7 31.4, 32.8
Moringa oleifera [70–72] N/D N/D N/D N/D 6.5, 7.8, 9.1 1.4, N/D 6.0, 5.5,2.7 72.2, 66.6, 1.0, 8.1, 0.7 0.2 N/D 4, 0.907, 2.0, 7.1 N/D N/D
2.1 79.4 5.8 5.8
Neem [3,11] N/D N/D N/D 0.2-0.26 13.6-16.2, N/D N/D 14.4-24.1 49.1-61.9, 2.3-15.8, 0.2 N/D 0.8-3.4 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
18.1 18.1 44.5 18.3
Palm [1,11,16] N/D N/D 0.1 1 42.8, 42.6 0.3 N/D 4.5, 4.4 40.5 10.2, 10.1 0.2 1.1 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
Rice bran [3,11,13,73] N/D N/D N/D 0.3, 0.8 12.5, 17.7 0.23 N/D 2.1, 2.2 47.5, 40.6 35.4,35.6 1.1, 1.8 N/D 0.2, 0.4– N/D 0.3 N/D 0.2, N/D
0.4–0.6, 11.7–16.5 1.7–2.5 39.2–43.7 26.4–35.1 0.6, 0.4–
0.9
Sesame [1] N/D N/D N/D N/D 13.1 N/D N/D 3.9 52.8 30.2 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
Stauntonia chinensis [28] N/D N/D N/D N/D 6.87 0.21 N/D 1.19 79.95 8.32 0.13 N/D 1.72 0.51 N/D N/D N/D N/D
Raphanus sativus [74] N/D N/D N/D N/D 6.13 0.05 N/D 1.68 23.87 13.46 10.34 N/D 0.68 8.58 1.64 31.76 0.61 1.26
Annona diversifolia [75] N/D N/D N/D N/D 16.40 N/D N/D 5.22 70.42 7.97 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
Syagrus coronate [76] 9.0 6.0 42.0 16.0 8.0 N/D N/D 4.0 12.0 3.0 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
Syagrus coronate [77] 6 6 37 11 8 N/D N/D 3 24 5 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
chufa sedge [78] N/D N/D N/D 0.1 13.1 2.1 N/D 2.8 61.6 17.2 1.4 N/D 0.7 N/D 0.2 N/D 0.8 N/D
Citrus reticulate [79] N/D N/D N/D N/D 26.90 N/D N/D 4.62 26.75 37.65 3.80 N/D 0.26 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
Phoenix dactylifera [80] N/D N/D 24 13 17.44 N/D N/D <0.3 36.8 7 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
Idesia polycarpa [81] N/D N/D N/D N/D 15.06 6.5 N/D 1.18 5.5 70.6 1.1 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
Calotropis gigantean [82] N/D N/D N/D N/D 15.5 0.3 N/D 10.5 31.1 36.3 0.8 N/D 0.6 N/D 0.1 N/D 0.4 N/D
Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) N/D N/D N/D N/D 20.96 ± 1.2 N/D N/D 20.29 ± 0.2 22.14 ± 0.7 27.47 ± 1.4 8.84 ± 2.2 N/D 0.29 ± 0.9 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
[83]
Fodder radish (Raphanus N/D N/D N/D N/D 7 N/D N/D 3.6 27.9 7.6 4.6 N/D 2.2 11.2 N/D 33.3 0.6 2.0
sativus L. var oleiferus)
[84,85]
Citrullus colocynthis [86] N/D N/D N/D 0.7 10.53 0.05 0.14 9.57 14.07 64.65 0.1 N/D 0.12 0.06 0.01 N/D N/D N/D

N/D  Not detected.

55
56 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67
Fig. 1. Some pictures of edible and non-edible plants and seed.
4.2. Density
The air–fuel ratio and energy content of the air fuel mixture
largely depend on fuel density within the combustion chamber
of diesel engine [14]. In general, density of biodiesel is slightly
higher than petro diesel and it is augmented by increasing biodie-
sel percentage in blends [12,14]. Fig. 3 shows density variations
with blend percentage variations. It is found that except Neem bio-
diesel (having higher density 0.891 g/cc at 40 °C) the density of
other feedstocks biodiesel are lower than 0.87 g/cc. Moreover, Rice
bran and Sesame biodiesels have the same trend of increasing den-
sity (0.849, 0.853, 0.857, and 0.86 at 50%, 60%, 70% and 80% blend
percentage). Except Aphanamixis, Calophyllum and Neem, density
of other biodiesel varies slightly with the rise of biodiesel percent-
ages in blend.
4.3. Calorific value
In general, biodiesel has lower calorific value than diesel
because of its higher oxygen content [12–14]. Among the data
presented in Fig. 4, it is found that only Aphanamixis (Pitraj) and
Coconut biodiesel contain significantly lower calorific value
(38,080 and 37,722 kJ/kg on an average) where the calorific value
of other biodiesels are nearly 40,000 kJ/kg. The heating value of
blended biodiesel is higher than biodiesel and slightly lower than
diesel. The heating value decreases marginally with the increasing
percentages of biodiesel in blend. With the rise of blend percentage
(for example, B20–B30–B40, etc.), calorific value decrease to about
250–400 kJ/kg except coconut biodiesel blend which decrease
quite higher (about 700 kJ/kg). Up to B60, Palm, Rice bran and Ses-
ame biodiesels have shown considerable heating value above
42,000 kJ/kg. This value is 7% lower than petro diesel where pure
biodiesel has normally 12% lower calorific value than diesel.
4.4. Flash point
Flash point is a measure of flammability of fuels which is inver-
sely proportional to volatility [12–14]. The biofuels specification
for flash point is meant to protect against contamination for highly
volatile matters. In general, biodiesel has higher flash point than
petro-diesel. The average flash point of pure biodiesel is almost
double than that of diesel. There is an increasing trend of flash
 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67 57

Xylocarpus moluccensis Manchurian apricot (Prunus mandshurica Skv.)

Siberian apricot (Prunus sibirica L.)

Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.)

Fig. 1 (continued)

Table 4
U.S. and European specification for biodiesel.

Property U.S. (ASTM D6751-08) Europe (EN 14214)

Test methods Limit Test methods Limit
Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C (mm2/s) D 445 1.9-6.0 EN ISO 3104 3.5-5.0
Density at 15 °C (kg/m3) D 1298 880 EN ISO 3675/12185 860-900
Calorific value (MJ/kg) – – EN14214 35
Flash point °C D 93 93 EN ISO 3679 101 min.
Pour point (°C) D 97 15 to 16 – –
Cloud point (°C) D 2500 3 to 12 – –
Cold filter plugging point (CFPP) (°C) ASTM Max + 5 EN 14214 –
Cetane number D 613 47 min EN ISO 5165 51 min
Oxidation stability at 110 °C (h) D 675 3 min EN 14112 6 min
Acid value (mg KOH/g) D 664 0.5 max EN 14104 0.5 max
Free glycerin (wt% max) D 6584 0.02 EN 14105 0.02
Total glycerin (wt% max) D 6584 0.24 EN 14105 0.25
Carbon residue (wt% max) D 4530 0.05 EN 10370 0.30e
Copper strip corrosion (3 h at 50 °C) D130 No. 3 (max.) EN 2160 No. 1
Iodine value (g/l2/100 g) max. – – EN 14111 120
Water and sediments (vol%, max) D 2709 0.05 EN 12937g 0.05
Total sulfur (ppm), max D 5453 15b EN 20846 10
Phosphorous (ppm), max D 4951 10 EN 14107 4
58 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67

Table 5
Properties of crude edible and non-edible oils.

Properties Aphanamixis Calophyllum Coconut [2] Croton Jatropha [2] Moringa Palm [2] Rice Sesame Neem [91]
polystachya [89] [2] [2] [2] bran [90]
[90]
1 Heating value (kJ/kg) 38729 38,511 37,806 39,331 38,961 39,762 39,867 39,548 39,386 32,000–
40,000[92]
2 Kinematic viscosity 35.093 55.478 27.64 29.844 48.095 43.468 41.932 52.225 34.087 35.83
(mm2/s) at 40 °C
3 Kinematic viscosity 7.2547 9.5608 5.9404 7.2891 9.1039 9.0256 8.496 10.393 7.6364 –
(mm2/s) at 100 °C
4 Viscosity Index (VI) 177.9 165.4 168.5 224.2 174.1 195.2 185.0 192.8 202.9 –
5 Density (kg/m3) at 0.9164 0.9249 0.9089 0.9100 0.9054 0.8971 0.8998 0.9069 0.9066 0.9200
40 °C
6 Flash point (°C) – 236.5 264.5 235.0 258.5 263.5 254.5 300.50 280.0 100
7 CFPP (°C) – 26 22 10 21 18 23 44 11[92]
8 Cloud point (°C) 5 8 17 – 9 ± 1[1] 10 23[93] 0 3 19
9 Pour point (°C) 4 8 19 – 4 ± 1[1] 11 12[93] 0 4 10
10 Refractory Index 1.4789 1.4784 1.4545 1.4741 1.4652 1.4661 1.4642 1.4718 1.4709 –
11 Oxidation stability (h 0.09 0.23 6.93 0.14 0.32 41.75 0.08 4.40 9.795 12.4 [92]
at 110 °C)
12 Acid value (mg KOH/ 26.7 41.74 11.6[3] 12.07 14.47[86] 8.62 18.5[95] 1.314 13.56 32.64 [3]
g oil) 3.343[94] 2.90[3] 7.40[93]
13 Transmission (%T) 61.6 34.7 91.2 87.5 61.8 69.2 63.2 87.10 78.4 –
14 Copper strip – 1a 1a 1a 1a 1a 1a 1a – –
corrosion 3 h at 50 °C
15 Absorbance (Abs) 0.209 0.46 0.04 0.058 0.209 0.16 0.199 0.06 0.106
16 MIU (wt%) [95] – – 2.74 – 0.16 0.30 0.03 2.74 – 2.16
17 FFA (wt%) [95] – – 0.07(Lauric 1.68[93] 1.17(Palmitic 0.21 0.54 0.05 – 2.14
acid) acid)
18 Sulfur (ppm) [95] – – 2.7 – 3.5 31.4 1.0 4.0 0[b][68] 1990
19 Phosphorous (ppm) – – 2.0 – 322.9 7.3 7.3 0.9 – 47.6
[95]

point for biodiesel blends as portrayed in Fig. 5. Calophyllum and
coconut biodiesel have shown considerably lower flash point
(122 and 139 °C on average) than other biodiesels (APME = 170,
CMME = 178, JCME = 166, MOME = 163, NME > 150 [118],
POME = 160, RBME = 185, SME = 186 °C on average). It is seen from
data that the variation of flash point basically occurs within the
range of 3–8 °C with the increase of blend B20. This trend is found
up to B60, but the variation is increased about 15–30 °C when bio-
diesel percentage increase above 60% in blend.
1 °C). Jatropha and croton show a moderate variation of 0–3 °C
and 3 to 0 °C, respectively.
Jatropha and Palm biodiesel have the same trend of CFPP
(Fig. 8). Coconut and Croton were found to have decreasing trends
of CFPP (5 to 4 °C), (5 to 6 °C) while Aphanamixis, Calophyllum,
Jatropha and Palm biodiesel have increasing trend with the
increase of biodiesel blends. The minimum CFPP was found at
90% biodiesel blend for Croton which is 6 °C and for Coconut at
90% and 100% blend (4 °C). Moreover, pure Moringa and Sesame
biodiesel show 2 °C and 3 °C respectively.

4.5. Cloud point (CP), pour point (PP), and cold filter plugging point
(CFPP)
These properties are considered to be cold flow properties as
they establish the limit for the use of fuels under cold weather con-
ditions [2,13,14,119,120]. The cloud point is the lowest tempera-
ture at which smallest observable cluster of wax crystal first
appears [120]. Pour point is the lowest temperature at which the
wax becomes semisolid and loses its flow characteristics. Cold fil-
ter plugging point is an estimation of lowest temperature at which
fuel will provide a trouble free flow in certain fuel systems
[13,120]. In general, biodiesel has higher CP and PP than diesel.
The CP and PP of biodiesel feedstock largely depends on fatty acid
composition [12,13]. The freezing point of biodiesel increases with
the increase of carbon atoms in carbon chain and decrease with
double bonds [29,121]. It is found from Fig. 6 that Moringa and
Palm have rising trend of cloud point while Croton gives the
reverse trend. Maximum cloud point is noted on Moringa (19 °C)
and it varies from 8 to 19 °C for the blends. The minimum cloud
point is observed on croton (4 °C).
The minimum pour point was observed for Coconut at 20% bio-
diesel blend (15 °C) and it increases with blend percentages as
shown in Fig. 7. While the highest pour point was found for Morin-
ga 19 °C, sesame biodiesel has a little variation in pour point (0–
4.6. Oxidation stability
Oxidation stability is a prominent parameter that assesses the
fuels quality. Oxidation stability of biodiesel is generally influenced
by some factors such as presence of air, heat, traces of metal, per-
oxides, light and fatty acid composition [12]. The presence of dou-
ble bonds in biodiesel results in a high level of reactivity with
oxygen, especially when placed in direct contact with air, sunlight
or water [122–124] which afterwards affects engine adversely.
From Fig. 9, it is clear that with the rise of blend percentages the
oxidation stability is waning. Moringa biodiesel has the best stabil-
ity (26.2 h at 110 °C) than other feedstocks at B100 and 88.84 h,
71.27 h and 64.25 h for B40, B60 and B80 respectively, the reverse
results were found for Calophyllum biodiesel (0.09 h at 110 °C). On
the other hand, Coconut biodiesel also has a good oxidation stabil-
ity (113.06, 85.88, 64.54, 56.55, 41.05, 32.08, 23.23, 5.12) for B20,
B30, B50, B60, B70, B80, B90, B100 respectively. On the other hand,
Croton, Sesame and Rice bran biodiesel give moderate stability.
5. Mathematical modeling for predicting the important
properties of biodiesel and its blend
The prediction of important physical and chemical properties of
biodiesel and its blends (weather with diesel or biodiesel) is a very
 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67 59

important factor in the design of fuel spray, atomization and
combustion and emission system for diesel engines. It is also a
highly demanding parameter because research is going on with
various feedstocks for biodiesel production. These equations would
help to predict the property at any percentages of biodiesel in
biodiesel–diesel blend. Recently, several studies have been
conducted to examine the physical and chemical properties of
biodiesel–diesel blends. The following paragraph will summarize
the most important works done in this aspect.
Saxena et al. [14] reviewed various methods for the prediction
of important thermophysical properties such as cetane number,
kinematic viscosity, density, higher heating value, flash point,
cloud point pour point, cold filter plugging point and vapor pres-
sure for various biodiesel feedstocks.
Sivaramakrishnan and Ravikumar [125] developed an equation
to calculate cetane number of various vegetable oils and their bio-
diesel from their viscosity, density, flash point and higher calorific
value. They concluded that this equation gives an accuracy of 90%.
Atabani et al. [2] discussed the concept of biodiesel–biodiesel
blending to improve the properties of some feedstocks. For
instance, blending of Sterculia feotida methyl ester (SFME) and
coconut methyl ester (CoME) improves the viscosity of (SFME)
from 6.3717 mm2/s to 5.3349 mm2/s (3:1), 4.4912 mm2/s (1:1)
and 3.879 mm2/s (1:3) respectively. Similar work was conducted
on the effect of biodiesel–biodiesel blending on cloud point, pour
point and cold filter plugging point. The properties at different bio-
diesel–biodiesel blends percentages were estimated using the
polynomial curve fitting method. This paper concludes that blend-
ing of edible and non-edible biodiesel feedstocks could be consid-
ered as an approach to improve the properties of the final product.
Moser [17] indicated that the fuel properties of Soybean methyl
ester were improved by blending with Canola, Palm and Sunflower
methyl esters to satisfy the IV (<120) and OSI (>6 h) specifications
contained within EN 14214. The CFPP of Palm methyl ester was
improved by up to 15 °C through blending with Canola methyl
ester. Statistically significant relationships were elucidated

Table 6
Properties of edible and non-edible methyl esters.

Properties Aphanamixis Calophyllum Coconut Croton [2] Jatropha Moringa Palm Rice Sesame Neem [91]
polystachya [89] [2] [2] [2] [2] [2] bran [90]
[90]
1 Heating value (kJ/kg) 39,960 39,513 38,300 39,786 39,738 40,115 40,009 39,957 39,996 39,810
2 Kinematic viscosity 4.7177 5.5377 3.1435 4.0707 4.9476 5.0735 4.6889 5.3657 4.3989 3.70
(mm2/s) at 40 °C
3 Kinematic viscosity 1.8239 1.998 1.3116 1.6781 1.8557 1.9108 1.7921 1.9609 1.7236 –
(mm2/s) at 100 °C
4 Viscosity Index (VI) 220.7 183.2 230.8 276.3 194.6 206.7 203.6 187 229.0 –
5 Density (kg/m3) at 0.8735 0.8776 0.8605 0.8704 0.8742 0.8597 0.8591 0.8681 0.8848 0.8680
40 °C
6 Flash point (°C) 188.5 162.5 118.5 164.0 186.5 176.0 214.5 174.50 208.5 76, 120[92]
7 CFPP (°C) 5 11 1 4 10 18 12 1 11[96]
8 Cloud point (°C) 8 12 1 3 10 21 13 0 1, 6[68] 9[92],
14.4[96]
9 Pour point (°C) 8 13 4 2 10 19 15 3 1, 14[68] 2[92]
10 Cetane no. – 57.3[13] 59[1] 46.6[52] 55.4[97], 67.07[71] 52[1] 73.6[13] 50.48[68] 48–53[92]
57.1[13]
11 Refractory Index at 25 – 1.4574 1.4357 1.4569 1.4513 1.4494 1.4468 1.4541 – –
(°C)
12 Oxidation stability (h 0.16 6.12 8.01 0.71 4.84 12.64 23.56 1.61 1.14 7.1
at 110 °C)
13 Acid value (mg KOH/g) 0.448 0.30 0.106 0.16[94], 0.156 0.185 0.046 0.586 0.3[67] 0.649[96]
[96] 0.2[98]
14 Free glycerin (%mass) – – 0.025 0.019[51] 0.006 0.001 0.003 0.001 – 0.02[92]
[96]
15 Total glycerin (%mass) – – 0.065 0.22[51] 0.10 0.067 0.068 0.083 – 0.158[96],
[96] 0.26[92]
16 Sulfur (ppm) [96] – 4.11 0.94 – 3.84 9.9 1.81 6.0 0.0[68] 473.8[96]
17 Carbon residue [96] – – 0.01 – 0.026 0.033 0.01 0.047 0.6214[68] 0.105[96]

Properties Stauntonia chinensis Raphanus sativus Annona diversifolia Manchurian apricot Siberian apricot
[28] [74] [75] [99] [99]
1 Heating value (kJ/kg) N/D N/D 36.3 N/D N/D
2 Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s) at 40 °C 4.48 N/D 4.451 4.32 4.34
3 Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s) at N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
100 °C
4 Viscosity Index (VI) N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
5 Density (kg/m3) at 40 °C N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
6 Flash point (°C) 167 N/D N/D 180 175
7 CFPP (°C) -9 6 N/D -15 -14
8 Cloud point (°C) N/D N/D 0 N/D N/D
9 Pour point (°C) N/D N/D -9 N/D N/D
10 Cetane no. 52.1 N/D 44.7 49.7 49.2
11 Refractory Index at 25 (°C) N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D
12 Oxidation stability (h at 110 °C) 2 N/D N/D 2.9 2.7
13 Acid value (mg KOH/g) 0.12 0.082 0.5 N/D N/D
14 Free glycerin (%mass) 0.003 0.000 N/D 0.015 0.017
15 Total glycerin (%mass) 0.14 0.108 N/D 0.16 0.14
16 Sulfur (ppm) 5 (mg/kg) 0.79 (mg/kg) N/D 4.5 (mg/kg) 4.7 (mg/kg)
17 Carbon residue 0.05 N/D N/D N/D N/D
60 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67

Fig. 2. Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C (mm2/s).

Fig. 3. Density at 40 °C.

Fig. 4. Calorific value.

between oxidation stability and iodine value, oxidation stability
and saturated fatty acid methyl ester (Sunflower methyl ester)
content, oxidation stability and CFPP, CFPP and iodine value, and
CFPP and Sunflower methyl ester content. However, the only prac-
tically significant relationship was that of CFPP vs. Sunflower
methyl ester content when Sunflower methyl ester content was
greater than 12 wt%.
Oghenejoboh and Umukoro [126] indicated that blending of
biodiesel from some feedstocks such as palm, palm kernel, Jatro-
pha and rubber oils with diesel has resulted in an increase in the
calorific value, decrease in density, cloud point, pour point, kine-
matic viscosity and flash point of biodiesel. The same work was
done by Krishna [127] to improve the cold flow properties of
biodiesel.
Sivaramakrishnan and Ravikumar [128] developed an equation
to predict the higher heating value of biodiesel based on its kine-
matic viscosity, flash point and density with 0.949 accuracy.
A review on the physical and chemical properties and the fatty
acid composition of 26 biodiesel feedstocks (including of 22 edible
and non-edible oils and four animal fats) was conducted by
 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67 61

Fig. 5. Flash point.

Fig. 6. Cloud point.

Fig. 7. Pour point.

Giakoumis [129]. The author derived an excellent correlation X 254  D  Ai 

between iodine number and the degree of unsaturation. Besides, a
small statistical correlation (R2 > 0.60) was also established for
cetane number, density, pour point, carbon content, number of car-
bon atoms, stoichiometric air–fuel ratio and T90 distillate
temperature.
Kalayasiri et al. [130] developed 2 empirical equations to pre-
dict the saponification number and iodine value of biodiesel based
on its fatty acid composition.
X 560  Ai 
SN ¼
MW i
IV ¼ ð2Þ
MW i
where SN  the saponification number, Ai  the percentage of each
component, D  the number of double bond, MWi  the molecular
mass of each component and IV  the iodine value.
Krisnangkura [131] illustrated a simple method to estimate the
cetane number of biodiesel which is based on their saponification
and iodine numbers. The range of the calculated values covers all
ð1Þ the cetane numbers of vegetable oil methyl esters determined
experimentally. When it was applied to individual fatty acid methyl
62 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67

Fig. 8. Cold filter plugging point (CFPP).

Fig. 9. Oxidation stability (h at 110 °C).

Table 7
Mathematical equation for predicting properties for various biodiesel blends.

Biodiesel blends Property Mathematical equation R2 Variable Ref.

Biodiesel-diesel blending
APME + Diesel Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C y = 6E05x2 + 0.0169x + 3.3722 0.9947 x is the dependent variable; x  biodiesel% [113]
Density at 40 °C y = 2E07x2 + 0.0005x + 0.8298 1
Flash point y = 0.0137x2  0.6219x + 89.225 0.9683
Calorific value y = 0.2778x2  41.011x + 45,223 0.9898
CFPP y = 0.0004x2 + 0.0566x  5.3142 0.9161
Cloud point y = 9E05x2 + 0.1131x  4.3545 0.978
Pour point y = 0.0008x2 + 0.1681x  4.4431 0.9893
CIME + Diesel Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C y = 7E05x2 + 0.0141x + 3.191 0.9989
Density at 40 °C y = 2E07x2 + 0.0004x + 0.8348 0.9998
Flash point y = 0.0048x2 + 0.0445x + 69.912 0.9948
Calorific value y = 0.0869x2  69.155x + 45,336 0.9989
CFPP y = 0.0017x2  0.167x + 7.3147 0.5621
Cloud point y = 0.0007x2  0.0629x + 8.3846 0.8207
Pour point y = 0.0003x2 + 0.1194x  0.1888 0.9606
COME + Diesel Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C y = 2E05x2 + 0.0045x + 3.3625 0.9075
Density at 40 °C y = 9E08x2 + 0.0003x + 0.8351 0.9994
Flash point y = 0.008x2  0.1823x + 73.239 0.9655
Calorific value y = 0.008x2  74.066x + 45,292 0.9994
CFPP y = 0.0017x2 + 0.0494x + 6.1818 0.9536
Cloud point y = 0.001x2 + 0.0153x + 7.5524 0.9083
Pour point y = 0.0031x2  0.3092x  2.007 0.4009
CMME + Diesel Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C y = 4E05x2 + 0.0044x + 3.3503 0.919
Density at 40 °C y = 1E08x2 + 0.0004x + 0.8271 0.9997
Flash point y = 0.0118x2  0.2759x + 79.312 0.9293
Calorific value y = 0.0362x2  61.61x + 45,377 0.9968
CFPP y = 0.0018x2 + 0.0532x + 6.1469 0.8972
Cloud point y = 0.0009x2  0.0374x + 7.0699 0.9609
Pour point y = 0.002x2 + 0.1696x  1.3706 0.7637
JME + Diesel Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C y = 5E05x2 + 0.0059x + 3.4774 0.8463
Density at 40 °C y = 2E07x2 + 0.0004x + 0.8274 0.9997
 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67 63

Table 7 (continued)

Biodiesel blends Property Mathematical equation R2 Variable Ref.

2
Flash point y = 0.0085x + 0.081x + 74.015 0.9808
Calorific value y = 0.176x2  68.831x + 45,205 0.9869
CFPP y = 0.0007x2 + 0.0719x + 4.6853 0.9709
Cloud point y = 0.0008x2  0.09x + 6.7238 0.2857
Pour point y = 0.0004x2 + 0.013x  1.0594 0.8353
MOME + Diesel Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C y = 3E05x2 + 0.0192x + 3.2815 0.9919
Density at 40 °C y = 1E07x2 + 0.0003x + 0.8272 0.9994
Flash point y = 0.0075x2 + 0.0604x + 74.8 0.9464
Calorific value y = 0.0444x2  56.284x + 45,223 0.9901
CFPP y = 0.0006x2  0.1293x + 4.3843 0.9361
Cloud point y = 8E05x2 + 0.1146x + 6.6224 0.9606
Pour point y = 0.0013x2 + 0.316x + 0.042 0.9869
NME + Diesel Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C y = 0.0002x2 + 0.0423x + 2.9568 0.9559
Density at 40 °C y = 6E07x2 + 0.0005x + 0.8374 0.9993
Flash point N/D
Calorific value y = 0.5887x2  118.16x + 46,138 0.994
CFPP N/D
Cloud point N/D
Pour point N/D
POME + Diesel Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C y = 7E05x2 + 0.0042x + 3.3741 0.8893
Density at 40 °C y = 1E07x2 + 0.0002x + 0.8351 0.998
Flash point y = 0.0098x2  0.2335x + 77.701 0.9305
Calorific value y = 0.1495x2  62.708x + 45,106 0.9696
CFPP y = 0.0022x2  0.1529x + 6.007 0.8763
Cloud point y = 0.0023x2  0.1882x + 8.7622 0.7907
Pour point y = 0.0006x2 + 0.0578x  1.3692 0.9076
RBME + Diesel Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C y = 4E05x2 + 0.0237x + 3.0904 0.9599
Density at 40 °C y = 7E08x2 + 0.0004x + 0.8319 0.9999
Flash point y = 0.0165x2  0.6966x + 80.524 0.9521
Calorific value y = 0.1462x2  63.082x + 45,358 0.9849
CFPP y = 0.0007x2  0.0947x + 4.4311 0.932
Cloud point N/D
Pour point N/D
SME + Diesel Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C y = 2E05x2 + 0.0102x + 3.1682 0.9983
Density at 40 °C y = 3E08x2 + 0.0003x + 0.8319 0.9999
Flash point y = 0.0168x2  0.7353x + 81.618 0.9438
Calorific value y = 0.0635x2  59.489x + 45,381 0.9989
CFPP y = 0.0007x2  0.0049x + 4.2296 0.9854
Cloud point y = 0.0008x2 + 0.0137x + 5.2554 0.7033
Pour point y = 0.0018x2 + 0.145x  0.2907 0.6526
CIME + Diesel Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C y = 0.1664x + 2.8361 0.9978 [101]
Density at 40 °C y = 3.9209x + 825.46 0.9998
Flash point y = 0.6678 x2  1.0049x + 71.355 0.9965
Calorific value y = 0.5934x + 45.848 0.9994

Biodiesel-biodiesel blending
SFME-POME Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C y = 0.5159x2  1.1195 + 6.3599 0.9908 x  POME% [2]
SFME-COME y = 0.9533 x2  4.1182x + 6.3457 0.9981 x  COME%
POME-CME Cloud point y = 3.4286x2  20.629x + 13.429 0.9704 x  CME%
JCME-CME y = 1.1429x2  12.857x + 10.457 0.979
CIME-CME y = 3.4286x2  12.171x + 12.171 0.9867
POME-CME Pour point y = 2.2857x2  20.114x + 14.114 0.9784
JCME-CME y = 13.714x2  6.2857x + 10.286 0.9785
CIME-CME y = 13.714x2  8.6857x + 13.286 0.9972
POME-CME Cold filter plugging point y = 6.8571x2  15.543x + 11.943 0.9843
JCME-CME y = 6.8571x2  14.743x + 10.543 0.9639
CIME-CME y = 5.7143x2  16.286x + 11.486 0.9918

N/D  Not determined.

esters from C8 to C24, a straight line parallel to that of Klopfenstein 5.95%, 2.57%, 0.11% and 0.21% for the cetane number, kinematic
was obtained. The developed equation was as follows: viscosity, density, and higher heating value were found. Those
    derived equations were as follows:
5458
CN ¼ 46:3 þ  ð0:225  IVÞ ð3Þ
SN ;i ¼ 7:8 þ 0:302  M i  20  N ð4Þ

where CN  the cetane number, SN  the saponification number,

and IV  the iodine value. lnðni Þ ¼ 12:503 þ 2:496  lnðMi Þ  0:178  N ð5Þ
Ramírez-Verduzco et al. [132] attempted to develop 4 empirical
correlations that can be used estimate the cetane number, kine- 4:9
Pi ¼ 0:8463 þ  0:0118  N ð6Þ
matic viscosity, density and higher heating value of biodiesels Mi
based on their molecular weight and degree of unsaturation. The
estimated values were found to be in a good agreement with the 1794
di ¼ 46:19   0:21  N ð7Þ
experimental values and an average absolute deviation (AAD) of Mi
64 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67

Table 8
Mathematical equation for predicting properties for various biodiesel feedstocks.

Biodiesel blends Property Mathematical equation R2 Ref.

2
CMME Flash point (FP) vs. kinematic viscosity (KV) FP = 183.95  (KV) + 1221.6  (KV) + 2099.5 0.9534 [113]
CIME FP = 0.4884  (KV)2 + 5.1448  (KV) + 47.913 0.9887
COME FP = 33.934  (KV)2 + 188.35  (KV) + 325.3 0.9933
POME FP = 74.797  (KV)2 + 517.44  (KV) + 968.12 0.9569
MOME FP = 13.79  (KV)2 + 73.438  (KV) + 164.68 0.9724
CMME Calorific value (CV) vs. kinematic viscosity (KV) CV = 2410.4  (KV)2 + 10, 323  (KV) + 37.233 0.9891
CIME CV = 560.27  (KV)2  7392.4  (KV) + 63. 326 0.9975
COME CV = 33.934  (KV)2  188.35  (KV) + 325.3 0.9933
POME 1413.7  (KV)2 + 15, 028  (KV) + 79.180 0.996
MOME 3063.7  (KV) + 55. 367 0.9912

Various biodiesel Higher heating value (HHV) vs. Kinematic viscosity (KV) HHV = 0.4625  (KV) + 39.450 0.9677 [134]
Feedstocks Kinematic viscosity (KV) vs. Density (DN) KV = –16.155  (DN) + 930.78 0.9902
Kinematic viscosity (KV) vs. Flash point (FP) KV = 22.981  (FP) + 346.79 0.9819
Higher heating value (HHV) vs. Density (DN) HHV = –0.0259  (DN) + 63.776 0.7982
Higher heating value (HHV) vs. Flash point (FP) HHV = 0.021  (FP) + 32.12 0.9530
Density (DN) vs Kinematic viscosity (KV) DN = 15.77  (KV) + 929.59 0.9724 [135]
Flash point (FP) vs. Kinematic viscosity (KV) FP = 12.36  (KV) + 176.3 0.964
Density (DN) vs. Flash point (FP) FP = 1.46  (DN)  1099.9 0.91
Density (DN) vs. Calorific value (CV) CV = 0.0207  (DN) + 23.28 0.9568

Higher heating value (HHV) vs. Kinematic viscosity (KV), HHV = 0.4527  (KV)  0.0008  (DN)  0.0003  (FP) + 40.3667 0.949 [128]
Density (DN), Flash point (FP)

N/D  Not determined.

where ;i  the cetane number of the ith FAME, Mi  the molecular
weight of the ith FAME, N  the number of double bonds in a given
FAME, ni  the kinematic viscosity at 40 °C of the ith FAME in mm2/
s, Pi  the density at 20 °C of the ith FAME in g/cm3 and di  the
higher heating value of the ith FAME in MJ/kg.
Talebi et al. [133] developed a new software package (the Bio-
dieselAnalyzerÓ) that can predict 16 different properties of biodie-
sel based on the fatty acid methyl ester profile of the oil feedstock
used in making it.
The polynomial curve fitting method has been used in several
studies [2,101,113,134,135] to predict the properties of biodie-
sel–diesel blends. Mathematically, a polynomial of order k in X is
expressed in the form of:
of using single feedstock as biodiesel for better performance along
with some demerits of edible feedstock.
7. Recommendation
Based on the review work that is conducted in this paper, for
future work it can be recommended to investigate the optimization
of biodiesel blends (both biodiesel–diesel and biodiesel–biodiesel)
as different biodiesel feedstocks possess some superior qualities as
well as some inferior qualities. Moreover, in depth instrumental
analysis for instance, effect of temperature, reaction time and cat-
alyst type on biodiesel yield can help researchers to select more
potential candidate for biodiesel to be used commercially.

Y ¼ Co þ C1X þ C2X2 þ    þ CkXk

Acknowledgements
where X is the variable as a function of available data and Y is the
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Educa-
predicted value. Table 7 shows some examples of the generated
tion and University of Malaya, Malaysia for the financial assistance
equations for various biodiesel blends. Table 8 shows some mathe-
through High Impact Research Grant titled: Development of alter-
matical equations for predicting properties of various biodiesel
native and renewable energy carrier (DAREC) with Grant Number
feedstock.
UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/60.

6. Conclusion References

In recent time, the research on biodiesel is reaching to the peak
because it is found as a good complementary substitute to diesel
than other sources. A number of research have been conducted
on biodiesel from different feedstock’s by various researchers and
some are still ongoing for a considerable level of usage. Accord-
ingly, this study highlighted the physicochemical properties under
various biodiesel–diesel blend. For clear understanding, a short
description on feedstock has been also carried out. A polynomial
curve fitting method is used to generate mathematical equation
for different biodiesel–diesel blend in order to predict the proper-
ties of any percentage of biodiesel in the blend. This would help the
researchers to optimize the blend percentage which is necessary to
meet the impending scarcity of petro-diesel. The other profitable
advantage would be the proper selection of combined feedstock
to improve the performance of engine relative to diesel without
any or little modification. This is necessary as there is the challenge
[1] Kumar N, Varun Chauhan SR. Performance and emission characteristics of
biodiesel from different origins: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2013;21:633–58.
[2] Atabani AE, Mahlia TMI, Masjuki HH, Badruddin Irfan Anjum, Yussof
Hafizuddin Wan, Chong WT, et al. A comparative evaluation of physical and
chemical properties of biodiesel synthesized from edible and non-edible oils
and study on the effect of biodiesel blending. Energy 2013;58:296–304.
[3] Aransiola EF, Ojumu TV, Oyekola OO, Madzimbamuto TF, Ikhu-Omoregbe
DIOA. Review of current technology for biodiesel production: state of the art.
Biomass Bioenergy 2014;61:276–97.
[4] You Q, Yin X, Zhao Y, Zhang Y. Biodiesel production from jatropha oil
catalyzed by immobilized Burkholderia cepacia lipase on modified attapulgite.
Bioresour Technol 2013;148:202–7.
[5] Rahimi M, Aghel B, Alitabar M, Sepahvand A, Ghasempour HR. Optimization
of biodiesel production from soybean oil in a microreactor. Energy Convers
Manage 2014;79:599–605.
[6] Nautiyal P, Subramanian KA, Dastidar MG. Production and characterization of
biodiesel from algae. Fuel Process Technol 2014;120:79–88.
[7] Widayat W, Wibowo ADK, Hadiyanto H. Study on production process of
biodiesel from rubber seed (Hevea Brasiliensis) by in situ (trans)esterification
method with acid catalyst. Energy Proc 2013;32:64–73.
 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67
[8] Banković-Ilić IB, Stojković IJ, Stamenković OS, Veljkovic VB, Hung YT. Waste
animal fats as feedstocks for biodiesel production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2014;32:238–54.
[9] Bello BZ, Nwokoagbara E, Wang M. Comparative techno-economic analysis of
biodiesel production from microalgae via transesterification methods. Comp
Aided Chem Eng 2012;30:132–6.
[10] Thliveros P, Kiran EU, Webb C. Microbial biodiesel production by direct
methanolysis of oleaginous biomass. Bioresour Technol 2014;157:181–7.
[11] Singh SP, Singh D. Biodiesel production through the use of different sources
and characterization of oils and their esters as the substitute of diesel: a
review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14:200–16.
[12] Silitonga AS, Masjuki HH, Mahlia TMI, Ong HC, Chong WT, Boosroh MH.
Overview properties of biodiesel diesel blends from edible and non-edible
feedstock. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;22:346–60.
[13] Atabani AE, Silitonga AS, Ong HC, Mahlia TMI, Masjuki HH, Badruddin IA, et al.
Non-edible vegetable oils: a critical evaluation of oil extraction, fatty acid
compositions, biodiesel production, characteristics, engine performance and
emissions production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;18:211–45.
[14] Saxena P, Jawale S, Joshipura MHA. Review on prediction of properties of
biodiesel and blends of biodiesel. Proc Eng 2013;51:395–402.
[15] Kiss Anton A, Dimian Alexandre C, Rothenberg AG. Biodiesel by catalytic
reactive distillation powered by metal oxides. Energy Fuels
2008;22:598–604.
[16] Balat M. Potential alternatives to edible oils for biodiesel production – a
review of current work. Energy Convers Manage 2011;52:1479–92.
[17] Moser Bryan R. Influence of blending canola, palm, soybean, and sunflower oil
methyl esters on fuel properties of biodiesel. Energy Fuels 2008;22:4301–6.
[18] Lin L, Ying D, Chaitep S, Vittayapadung S. Biodiesel production from crude rice
bran oil and properties as fuel. Appl Energy 2009;86:681–8.
[19] Mercedes-Benz. Biodiesel information for Mercedes-Benz vehicles; 2014
<http://www.mbusa.com/vcm/MB/DigitalAssets/pdfmb/serviceandparts/
biodiesel_Brochure5.pdf>.
[20] General Motors CO. Chevrolet Cruze 2.0L Clean Turbo Diesel; 2014 <http://
www.aera.org/EP/EPQ3-2013/files/inc/d9c0bbff42.pdf>.
[21] Serqueira DS, Fernandes DM, Cunha RR, Squissato AL, Santos DQ, Richter EM,
et al. Influence of blending soybean, sunflower, colza, corn, cottonseed, and
residual cooking oil methyl biodiesels on the oxidation stability. Fuel
2014;118:16–20.
[22] Sarin A, Arora R, Singh NP, Sarin R, Malhotra RK. Blends of biodiesels
synthesized from non-edible and edible oils: influence on the OS (oxidation
stability). Energy 2010;35:3449–53.
[23] Strömberg N, Eriksson H, Saramat A. Determination of phase separation
efficiency for biodiesel quality and blending. Fuel 2014;117:74–8.
[24] Beatrice C, Guido C, Napolitano P, Iorio SD, Giacomo ND. Assessment of
biodiesel blending detection capability of the on-board diagnostic of the last
generation automotive diesel engines. Fuel 2011;90:2039–44.
[25] Chen Y-H, Chen J-H, Chang C-Y, Chang C-C. Biodiesel production from Tung
(Vernicia montana) oil and its blending properties in different fatty acid
compositions. Bioresour Technol 2010;101:9521–6.
[26] Kousoulidou M, Ntziachristos L, Fontaras G, Martini G, Dilara P, Samaras Z.
Impact of biodiesel application at various blending ratios on passenger cars of
different fueling technologies. Fuel 2012;98:88–94.
[27] Gill SS, Tsolakis A, Herreros JM, York APE. Diesel emissions improvements
through the use of biodiesel or oxygenated blending components. Fuel
2012;95:578–86.
[28] Wang R, Sun L, Xie X, Ma L, Liu Z, Liu X, et al. Biodiesel production from
Stauntonia chinensis seed oil (waste from food processing): heterogeneous
catalysis by modified calcite, biodiesel purification, and fuel properties.
Indust Crops Prod 2014;62:8–13.
[29] Atabani AE, Silitonga AS, Badruddin IA, Mahlia TMI, Masjuki HH, Mekhilef SA.
Comprehensive review on biodiesel as an alternative energy resource and its
characteristics. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:2070–93.
[30] Ang GT, Tan KT, Lee KT, Mohamed AR. Biodiesel production via injection of
superheated methanol technology at atmospheric pressure. Energy Convers
Manage 2014;87:1231–8.
[31] López I, Quintana CE, Ruiz JJ, Cruz-Peragón F, Dorado MP. Effect of the use of
olive–pomace oil biodiesel/diesel fuel blends in a compression ignition
engine: preliminary exergy analysis. Energy Convers Manage
2014;85:227–33.
[32] Roy MM, Wang W, Alawi M. Performance and emissions of a diesel engine
fueled by biodiesel–diesel, biodiesel–diesel-additive and kerosene–biodiesel
blends. Energy Convers Manage 2014;84:164–73.
[33] wang R, Wu Y, Hang H, Liu Y, Xie T, Zhang K, et al. Orychophragmus violaceus
L., a marginal land-based plant for biodiesel feedstock: heterogeneous
catalysis, fuel properties, and potential. Energy Convers Manage
2014;84:497–502.
[34] Helwani Z, Aziz N, Bakar MZA, Mukhtar H, Kim J, Othman MR. Conversion of
Jatropha curcas oil into biodiesel using re-crystallized hydrotalcite. Energy
Convers Manage 2013;73:128–34.
[35] Leonard C. Not a tiger, but maybe a chicken in your tank; 2007.
[36] Costa JF, Almeida MF, Alvim-Ferraz MCM, Dias JM. Biodiesel production using
oil from fish canning industry wastes. Energy Convers Manage
2013;74:17–23.
[37] Nurfitri I, Maniam GP, Hindryawati N, Yusoff MM, Ganesan S. Potential of
feedstock and catalysts from waste in biodiesel preparation: a review. Energy
Convers Manage 2013;74:395–402.
65
[38] Hernándeza D, Astudillo L, Gutiérrez M, Tenreiro C, Retamal C, Rojas C.
Biodiesel production from an industrial residue: Alperujo. Indust Crops Prod
2014;52:495–8.
[39] Glenn EP, Brown J, O’Leary JW. Irrigating crops with seawater; 1998.
[40] Casey T. The smell of change is in the air with renewable biodiesel from
sewage; 2010.
[41] Atabani AE, Mahlia TMI, Anjum Badruddin Irfan, Masjuki HH, Chong WT, Lee
KT. Investigation of physical and chemical properties of potential edible and
non-edible feedstocks for biodiesel production, a comparative analysis.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;21:749–55.
[42] Gunawan S, Wasista HW, Kuswandi K, Widjaja A, Ju Y. The utilization of
Xylocarpus moluccensis seed oil as biodiesel feedstock in Indonesia. Indust
Crops Prod 2014;52:286–91.
[43] Ju Y-L, Vali SR. Rice bran oil as a potential resource for biodiesel: a review. J
Scient Indust Res 2005;64:866.
[44] Kumar N, Varun Chauhan SR. Performance and emission characteristics of
biodiesel from different origins: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2013;21:633–58.
[45] Wu HF, Zhang XP, Wang Y, Zhang Jing-Yi, Ma GX, Tian Y, et al. Four new
diterpenes from Aphanamixis polystachya. Fitoterapia 2013;90:126–31.
[46] Talukder FA, Howse PE. Efficacy of Pithraj (Aphanamixis polystachya) seed
extracts against stored product peasts. In: Proceedings of 6th international
working conference on stored-product protection, 01/1994. Australia; 1994.
p. 848–52.
[47] Gowda B. Agro forestry approach to sustainability in biofuel value chain;
2013.
[48] Hathurusingha S, Ashwath N, Midmore D. Periodic variation in kernel oil
content and fatty acid profiles of Calophyllum innophyllm L.: a potential
biodiesel feedstock in Australia. Biomass Bioenergy 2011;35:3448–52.
[49] Hathurusingha S, Ashwath N, Subedi P. Variation in oil content and fatty acid
profile of Calophyllum inophyllum L. with fruit maturity and its implications
on resultant biodiesel quality. Indust Crops Prod 2011;33:629–32.
[50] Ashrafur Rahman SM, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Abedin MJ, Sanjid A, Sajjad H.
Production of palm and Calophyllum inophyllum based biodiesel and
investigation of blend performance and exhaust emission in an unmodified
diesel engine at high idling conditions. Energy Convers Manage
2013;76:362–7.
[51] Kivevele TT, Kristóf L, Bereczky Á, Mbarawa MM. Engine performance,
exhaust emissions and combustion characteristics of a CI engine fuelled
with croton megalocarpus methyl ester with antioxidant. Fuel 2011;90:
2782–9.
[52] Kafuku G, Lam MK, Kansedo J, Lee KT, Mbarawa M. Croton megalocarpus oil: a
feasible non-edible oil source for biodiesel production. Bioresour Technol
2010;101:7000–4.
[53] Kibazohi O, Sangwan RS. Vegetable oil production potential from Jatropha
curcas, Croton megalocarpus, Aleurites moluccana, Moringa oleifera and Pachira
glabra: assessment of renewable energy resources for bio-energy production
in Africa. Biomass Bioenergy 2011;35:1352–6.
[54] Norulaini NAN, Setianto WB, Zaidul ISM, Nawi AH, Azizi CYM, Mohd Omar AK.
Effects of supercritical carbon dioxide extraction parameters on virgin
coconut oil yield and medium-chain triglyceride content. Food Chem
2009;116:193–7.
[55] Rodrigues J, Miranda I, Gominho J, Vasconcelos M, Barradas G, Pereira H,
et al. Variability in oil content and composition and storage stability of
seeds from Jatropha curcas L. grown in Mozambique. Indust Crops Prod
2013;50:828–37.
[56] Tikkoo A, Yadav SS, Kaushik N. Effect of irrigation, nitrogen and potassium on
seed yield and oil content of Jatropha curcas in coarse textured soils of
northwest India. Soil Till Res 2013;134:142–6.
[57] Jourabchi SA, Gan S, Ng HK. Pyrolysis of Jatropha curcas pressed cake for bio-
oil production in a fixed-bed system. Energy Convers Manage
2014;78:518–26.
[58] Zhao S, Zhang D. Supercritical fluid extraction and characterisation of Moringa
oleifera leaves oil. Sep Purif Technol 2013;118:497–502.
[59] Ayerza R. Seed and oil yields of Moringa oleifera variety Periyakalum-1
introduced for oil production in four ecosystems of South America. Indust
Crops Prod 2012;36:70–3.
[60] Mofijur M, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Atabani AE, Rizwanul Fattah IM, Mobarak
HM. Comparative evaluation of performance and emission characteristics of
Moringa oleifera and Palm oil based biodiesel in a diesel engine. Indust Crops
Prod 2014;53:78–84.
[61] Pillay AE, Elkadi M, Fok SC, Stephen S, Manuel J, Khan MZ, et al. Comparison of
trace metal profiles of neem biodiesel and commercial biofuels using high
performance ICP-MS. Fuel 2012;97:385–9.
[62] Nayan NK, Kumar S, Singh RK. Production of the liquid fuel by thermal
pyrolysis of neem seed. Fuel 2013;103:437–43.
[63] Hoong YB, Loh YF, Chuah LA, Juliwar I, Pizzi A, Paridah MT, et al. Development
a new method for pilot scale production of high grade oil palm plywood:
effect of resin content on the mechanical properties, bonding quality and
formaldehyde emission of palm plywood. Mater Des 2013;52:828–34.
[64] Ludin NA, Bakri MAM, Kamaruddin N, Sopian K, Deraman MS, Hamid NH,
et al. Malaysian oil palm plantation sector: exploiting renewable energy
toward sustainability production. J Clean Product 2014;65:9–15.
[65] Asadullah M, Ab Rasid NS, Kadir SASA, Azdarpour A. Production and detailed
characterization of bio-oil from fast pyrolysis of palm kernel shell. Biomass
Bioenergy 2013;59:316–24.
66 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67
[66] Lamba BY, Joshi G, Tiwari AK, Rawat DS, Mallick S. Effect of antioxidants on
physico-chemical properties of EURO-III HSD (high speed diesel) and Jatropha
biodiesel blends. Energy 2013;60:222–9.
[67] Danielski L, Zetzl C, Hense H, Brunner GA. Process line for the production of
raffinated rice oil from rice bran. J Supercrit Fluids 2005;34:133–41.
[68] Saydut A, Duz MZ, Kaya C, Kafadar AB, Hamamci C. Transesterified sesame
(Sesamum indicum L.) seed oil as a biodiesel fuel. Bioresour Technol
2008;99:6656–60.
[69] Mohamed NE, Wakwak MM. Effect of sesame seeds or oil supplementation to
the feed on some physiological parameters in Japanese Quail. J Radiat Res
Appl Sci 2014;7:101–9.
[70] Azam MM, Waris A, Nahar NM. Prospects and potential of fatty acid methyl
esters of some non-traditional seed oils for use as biodiesel in India. Biomass
Bioenergy 2005;29:293–302.
[71] Rashid U, Anwar F, Moser BR, Knothe G. Moringa oleifera oil: a possible source
of biodiesel. Bioresour Technol 2008;99:8175–9.
[72] Kafuku G, Mbarawa M. Alkaline catalyzed biodiesel production from Moringa
oleifera oil with optimized production parameters. Appl Energy
2010;87:2561–5.
[73] Antunes SA, Lanza M, Hense H. Rheological properties of rice bran (Oryza
sativa L.) oils processing and soapstock distillation residue. Indust Crops Prod
2013;46:111–6.
[74] Chammoun N, Geller DP, Das KC. Fuel properties, performance testing and
economic feasibility of Raphanus sativus (oilseed radish) biodiesel. Indust
Crops Prod. 2013;45:155–9.
[75] Reyes-Trejo B, Guerra-Ramírez D, Zuleta-Prada H, Cuevas-Sánchez JA, Reyes
L, Reyes-Chumacero A, et al. Annona diversifolia seed oil as a promising
non-edible feedstock for biodiesel production. Indust Crops Prod 2014;52:
400–4.
[76] da Silva de La Salles KT, Meneghetti SMP, Ferreira de La Salles WF, Meneghetti
MR, dos Santos ICF, da Silva JPV, et al. Characterization of Syagrus coronata
(Mart.) Becc. oil and properties of methyl esters for use as biodiesel. Indust
Crops Prod 2010;32:518–21.
[77] Moreira MAC, Arrúa MEP, Antunes AC, Fiuza TER, Costa BJ, Neto PHW, et al.
Characterization of Syagrus romanzoffiana oil aiming at biodiesel production.
Indust Crops Prod 2013;48:57–60.
[78] Makareviciene V, Gumbyte M, Yunik A, Kalenska S, Kalenskii V, Rachmetov D,
et al. Opportunities for the use of chufa sedge in biodiesel production. Indust
Crops Prod 2013;50:633–7.
[79] Rashid U, Ibrahim M, Yasin S, Yunus R, Taufiq-Yap YH, Knothe G. Biodiesel
from Citrus reticulata (mandarin orange) seed oil, a potential non-food
feedstock. Indust Crops Prod 2013;45:355–9.
[80] Amani MA, Davoudi MS, Tahvildari K, Nabavi SM, Davoudi MS. Biodiesel
production from Phoenix dactylifera as a new feedstock. Indust Crops Prod
2013;43:40–3.
[81] Yang FX, Su YQ, Li XH, Zhang Q, Sun RC. Preparation of biodiesel from Idesia
polycarpa var. vestita fruit oil. Indust Crops Prod 2009;29:622–8.
[82] Phoo ZWMM, Razon LF, Knothe G, Ilham Z, Goembira F, Madrazo CF, et al.
Evaluation of Indian milkweed (Calotropis gigantea) seed oil as alternative
feedstock for biodiesel. Indust Crops Prod 2014;54:226–32.
[83] Modiba E, Osifo P, Rutto H. Biodiesel production from baobab (Adansonia
digitata L.) seed kernel oil and its fuel properties. Indust Crops Prod
2014;59:50–4.
[84] Valle P, Velez A, Hegel P, Mabe G, Brignole EA. Biodiesel production using
supercritical alcohols with a non-edible vegetable oil in a batch reactor. J
Supercrit Fluids 2010;54:61–70.
[85] de Andrade Ávilaa RN, Sodré JR. Physical–chemical properties and thermal
behavior of fodder radish crude oil and biodiesel. Indust Crops Prod
2012;38:54–7.
[86] Elsheikh YA. Preparation of Citrullus colocynthis biodiesel via dual-step
catalyzed process using functionalized imidazolium and pyrazolium ionic
liquids for esterification step. Indust Crops Prod 2013;49:822–9.
[87] Olutoye MA, Hameed BH. Synthesis of fatty acid methyl ester from crude
jatropha (Jatropha curcas Linnaeus) oil using aluminium oxide modified Mg–
Zn heterogeneous catalyst. Bioresour Technol 2011;102:6392–8.
[88] Hoekman SK, Broch A, Robbins C, Ceniceros E, Natarajan M. Review of
biodiesel composition, properties, and specifications. Renew Sustain Energy
Rev 2012;16:143–69.
[89] Palash SM, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Atabani AE, Rizwanul Fattah IM, Sanjid A.
Biodiesel production, characterization, diesel engine performance, and
emission characteristics of methyl esters from Aphanamixis polystachya oil
of Bangladesh. Energy Convers Manage 2015;91:149–57.
[90] Wakil MA, Kalam MA, Masjuki HH, Fattah IMR, Masum BM. Evaluation of Rice
bran, Sesame and Moringa oils as feasible sources of biodiesel and the effect
of blending on their physicochemical properties. RSC Adv 2014:56984–91.
[91] Ragit SS, Mohapatra SK, Kundu K. Performance and emission evaluation of a
diesel engine fuelled with methyl ester of neem oil and filtered neem oil. J
Scient Indust Res 2010;69:62–6.
[92] Karmakar A, Karmakar S, Mukherjee S. Biodiesel production from neem
towards feedstock diversification: Indian perspective. Renew Sustain Energy
Rev 2012;16:1050–60.
[93] Guzman A, Torres JE, Prada LP, Nuñez ML. Hydroprocessing of crude palm oil
at pilot plant scale. Catal Today 2010;156:38–43.
[94] Kafuku G, Mbarawa M. Biodiesel production from Croton megalocarpus oil and
its process optimization. Fuel 2010;89:2556–60.
[95] Yusup S, Khan M. Basic properties of crude rubber seed oil and crude palm oil
blend as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production with enhanced cold
flow characteristics. Biomass Bioenergy 2010;34:1523–6.
[96] Sanford SD, White JM, Shah PS, Wee C, Valverde MA, Meier R. Feedstock and
biodiesel characteristics report. Renewable Energy Group; 2009.
[97] Wang R, Hanna MA, Zhou WW, Bhadury PS, Chen Q, Song BA, et al. Production
and selected fuel properties of biodiesel from promising non-edible oils:
Euphorbia lathyris L., Sapium sebiferum L. and Jatropha curcas L. Bioresour
Technol 2011;102:1194–9.
[98] Kivevele TT, Mbarawa MM, Bereczky A, Laza T, Madarasz J. Impact of
antioxidant additives on the oxidation stability of biodiesel produced from
Croton Megalocarpus oil. Fuel Process Technol 2011;92:1244–8.
[99] Wang L. Properties of Manchurian apricot (Prunus mandshurica Skv.) and
Siberian apricot (Prunus sibirica L.) seed kernel oils and evaluation as biodiesel
feedstocks. Indust Crops Prod 2013;50:838–43.
[100] Ferdous K, Deb A, Ferdous J, Rakib Uddin M, Khan MR, Islam MA. Aphanamixis
Polystachya: a potential non-edible source of biodiesel in Bangladesh. J Chem
Eng IEB 2013;28(December):45–9.
[101] Rizwanul Fattah IM, Kalam MA, Masjuki HH, Wakil MA. Biodiesel production,
characterization, engine performance, and emission characteristics of
Malaysian Alezandrian laurel oil. RSC Adv 2014;4:17787–96.
[102] Sahoo PK, Das LM. Process optimization for biodiesel production from
Jatropha, Karanja and Polanga oils. Fuel 2009;88:1588–94.
[103] Abedin MJ, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Sanjid A, Ashrafur Rahman SM, Rizwanul
Fattah IM. Performance, emissions, and heat losses of palm and jatropha
biodiesel blends in a diesel engine. Indust Crops Prod 2014;59:96–104.
[104] Rashid U, Anwar F, Ashraf M, Saleem M, Yusup S. Application of response
surface methodology for optimizing transesterification of Moringa oleifera oil:
biodiesel production. Energy Convers Manage 2011;52:3034–42.
[105] Mofijur M, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Atabani AE, Arbab MI, Cheng SF, et al.
Properties and use of Moringa oleifera biodiesel and diesel fuel blends in a
multi-cylinder diesel engine. Energy Convers Manage 2014;82:169–76.
[106] Elango T, Senthilkumar T. Effect of methyl esters of neem and diesel oil
blends on the combustion and emission characteristics of a C.I. engine. J Eng
Appl Sci 2010;5:80.
[107] Trakarnpruk W, Porntangjitlikit S. Palm oil biodiesel synthesized with
potassium loaded calcined hydrotalcite and effect of biodiesel blend on
elastomer properties. Renew Energy 2008;33:1558–63.
[108] Sanjid A, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Ashrafur Rahman SM, Abedin MJ, Palash
SM. Production of palm and jatropha based biodiesel and investigation of
palm–jatropha combined blend properties, performance, exhaust emission
and noise in an unmodified diesel engine. J Clean Prod 2014;65:295–303.
[109] Lin Y-C, Lee C-F, Fang T. Characterization of particle size distribution from
diesel engines fueled with palm–biodiesel blends and paraffinic fuel blends.
Atmos Environ 2008;42:1133–43.
[110] Gattamaneni LNR, Subramani S, Sanathanam S, Kuderu R. Combustion and
emission characteristics of diesel engine fuelled with rice bran oil methyl
ester and its diesel blends. Therm Sci 2008;12:139–50.
[111] Sinha S, Agarwal AK. Performance evaluation of a biodiesel (rice bran oil
methyl ester) fuelled transport diesel engine, SAE Technical Paper. 2005-01-
1730; 2005.
[112] Bhave Prof Nikhil A, Ugare Prof Vivek M, Andhare PAM. Performance and
emission studies of sesame oil methyl ester in compression ignition engine.
Int J Emerg Technol Adv Eng 2013;3:344–51.
[113] Atabani AE, Mofijur M, Masjuki HH, Badruddin IA, Kalam MA, Chong WT.
Effect of croton megalocarpus, Calophyllum inophyllum, Moringa oleifera, palm
and coconut biodiesel–diesel blending on their physico-chemical properties.
Indust Crops Prod 2014;60:130–7.
[114] Dhar A, Kevin R, Agarwal AK. Production of biodiesel from high-FFA neem oil
and its performance, emission and combustion characterization in a single
cylinder DICI engine. Fuel Process Technol 2012;97:118–29.
[115] How HG, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Teoh YH. An investigation of the engine
performance, emissions and combustion characteristics of coconut biodiesel
in a high-pressure common-rail diesel engine. Energy 2014;69:749–59.
[116] Loyola University of Chicago. Biodiesel labs teacher manual with student
documents; 2013.
[117] Yoon SH, Park SH, Lee CS. Experimental investigation on the fuel properties of
biodiesel and its blends at various temperatures. Energy Fuels
2008;22:652–6.
[118] Rao TV, Rao GP, Reddy KHC. Experimental Investigation of Pongamia,
Jatropha and Neem Methyl Esters as Biodiesel on C.I. Engine. Jord J Mech
Indust Eng 2008;2:117–22.
[119] Rajagopala K, Bindub C, Prasad RBN, Ahmad A. Cloud point of biodiesel and
blends. J Chem, Biol Phys Sci 2012;2:1998–2003.
[120] Pope DN, Hasan AR. Cold flow testing of biodiesel blends with additives great
lakes maritime research institute. University of Minnesota Duluth (USA);
2009.
[121] Kumar A, Sharma S. Potential non-edible oil resources as biodiesel feedstock:
an Indian perspective. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:1791–800.
[122] Kapilan N, Babu TPA, Reddy RP. Technical aspects of biodiesel and its
oxidation stability. Int J ChemTech Res 2009;1:278–82.
[123] Ezeanyanaso CS, Ajibola VI, Agbaji EB, Okonkwo EM, Okunola OJ, Alhassan Y.
Comparative studies of oxidative stability properties of biodiesel produced
from Azadirachta indica and Hevea brasiliensis seeds. Green J Agricult Sci
2012;2:195–206.
 M.A. Wakil et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 94 (2015) 51–67
[124] Kovač O, Sarvan V, Šikuljak D. Influence of biodiesel on the oxidation stability
of engine oils. GOMABN 2013;52:219–30.
[125] Sivaramakrishnan K, Ravikumar P. Determination of cetane number of
biodiesel and it’s influence on physical properties. Asian Research
Publishing Network (ARPN) 2012;7:205–11.
[126] Oghenejoboh KM, Umukoro PO. Comparative analysis of fuel characteristics
of bio-diesel produced from selected oil-bearing seeds in Nigeria. Eur J Sci Res
2011;58:238–46.
[127] Krishna CR, Butcher T, Mahajan D, Thomassen K, Brown C. Improving cold
flow properties of biodiesel; 2008.
[128] Sivaramakrishnan K, Ravikumar P. Determination of higher heating value of
biodiesels. Int J Eng Sci Technol (IJEST) 2011;3:7981–7.
[129] Giakoumis EG. A statistical investigation of biodiesel physical and chemical
properties, and their correlation with the degree of unsaturation. Renew
Energy 2013;50:858–78.
67
[130] Kalayasiri P, Jayashke N, Krisnangkura K. Survey of seed oils for use as diesel
fuels. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1996;73:471–4.
[131] Krisnangkura K. A simple method for estimation of Cetane index of vegetable
oil methyl esters. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1986;63:552–3.
[132] Ramírez-Verduzco LF, Rodríguez-Rodríguez JE, Jaramillo-Jacob AD. Predicting
cetane number, kinematic viscosity, density and higher heating value of
biodiesel from its fatty acid methyl ester composition. Fuel 2012;91:102–11.
[133] Talebi AF, Tabatabaei M, Chisti Y. BiodieselAnalyzerÓ: a user-friendly
software for predicting the properties of prospective biodiesel. Biofuel Res J
2014;1:55–7.
[134] Demirbas A. Relationships derived from physical properties of vegetable oil
and biodiesel fuels. Fuel 2008;87:1743–8.
[135] Rao GLN, Ramadhas AS, Nallusamy N, Sakthivel P. Relationships among the
physical properties of biodiesel and engine fuel system design requirement.
Int J Energy Environ 2010;1:919–26.