Schmalkalden University of Applied Sciences,

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Prof. U. Behn

Formulary – Optics & Lasers

Prof. Dr. U. Behn: 15.10.2019

1-dimensional monochromatic electromagnetic wave: 𝐸(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐸0 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜑0 ) (1)

2𝜋
With 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 (2), the circular frequency, 𝑘 = (3) the wave number, and 𝜑0 an initial phase
𝜆

𝑐 𝜆2
Coherence length LC: The average length of a wave train: 𝐿𝐶 = Δ𝑓 = Δ𝜆 (4)

Constructive interference: condition: Δ𝜑 = ±𝑚 ⋅ 2𝜋 (5) with m=0,1,2,3,… (integer) phase difference

Δ = ±𝑚 ∙ 𝜆 (6) path difference
Destructive interference: condition: Δ𝜑 = ±(2𝑚 + 1) ⋅ 𝜋 (7)
𝜆
Δ = ±(2𝑚 + 1) ⋅ (8)
2

𝑐0
Propagation velocity of light in transparent materials: 𝑐= (9) (n-refractive index of the material,
𝑛
1 1
c0 – vacuum speed of light) c= (10) with c 0 = (11)
 0 r  0 r  0  0

𝑐 = 𝜆 ⋅ 𝑓 (12)

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
Visibility (Fringe contrast) of an interferogram: 𝑉= (13)
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑐
Longitudinal modes of a laser: 𝑓𝑚 = 𝑚 ∙ (14) with m-integer, fm – frequency of a longitudinal
2𝐿
mode, L – optical length of the laser resonator

Dispersion:
An optical material shows the effect of dispersion if the speed of light in the material and consequently the refractive
dc dn
index of the material depend on the wavelength →  0 or 0
d d
dc dn
Normal dispersion: 0  0 (15)
d d

dc dn
Anomalous dispersion: 0  0 (16)
d d

The dispersion can be expressed by the slope of the n()-curve or for optical glasses by the Abbe-number

(17) or (18)

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where nd, nF, nC, ne, nF’, and nC’ are the refractive indices at the corresponding Fraunhofer’s wavelengths

Sellmeier’s Equation:

(19)

Sellmeier’s Coefficients:

Reflection, refraction, diffraction:

The reflected ray and the incident ray are in one plane.
Law of reflection: angle of incidence = reflection angle →  =   (20)

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 sin c1 n2
Law of refraction: = = (21)
sin  c 2 n1

Fig. 1 Refraction and total internal reflection (c1, n1, c2, n2 are
the propagation velocities and the refractive indices, respectively,
of material 1 and material 2)

Total internal reflection: Total internal reflection occurs if a light

ray is striking an interface between an optical dense material and an optical less dense material (see Fig. 1 n2>n1) and
if the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle c. In the case of total internal reflection the ray of light is re-
flected completely (R=1) and is not traversing into the optical less dense medium.

 n1 
Critical angle of total internal reflection (TIR):  C = arcsin  (22) see Fig. 1
 n2 

Propagation of light in step-index opti-

cal fibers:

Numerical aperture: 𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = 𝑛0 ⋅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑚 ) (23) , where n1 – refractive index core, n2 – refractive
index cladding, n0 – refractive index ambient medium (air), m – maximum angle of incidence to guide the light inside
the fiber

Normalized frequency (V-number): 𝑉 = 𝜋∙𝑑

𝜆
⋅ 𝑁𝐴 = 𝜋∙𝑑
𝜆
⋅ √𝑛21 − 𝑛22 (24) , with d – core diameter,  - wave-
length, n1 – refractive index core, n2 – refractive index cladding

𝑉2
Number of modes (multimode-fiber, for large N): 𝑁= (25)
2

Single-mode transmission: 𝑉 < 2.405 (26)

1 𝑃𝑖𝑛
Attenuation coefficient: 𝛼𝑑𝐵 = ⋅ 10 ⋅ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) (27), with L – length of the fiber, Pin and Pout – optical
𝐿 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
power at the input and the output of the fiber

Δ𝑡 𝑛1 𝑛1 −𝑛2 𝑛1 −𝑛2
Modal dispersion: = ∙( )≈ (28), with c0 – vacuum speed of light, L – fiber
𝐿 𝑐0 𝑛2 𝑐0
length

Material dispersion: Δ𝑡 = |𝐷𝜆 | ⋅ Δ𝜆 ⋅ 𝐿 (29),  - spectral broadening of the used light source,
and

𝜆0 𝑑2𝑛
𝐷𝜆 = − ⋅ (30), material dispersion coefficient.
𝑐0 𝑑𝜆20

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Polarization:

Malus’ Law: 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼0 ⋅ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 Θ (31), IT – transmitted intensity of linearly polarized light

through an ideal polarizer, I0 – incident intensity,  - angle between the polarization direction of the light and the ori-
entation of the polarizer.

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
Degree of polarization: 𝑃= (32), Imax – maximum transmitted intensity through the polar-
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
izer, Imin – minimum transmitted intensity through the polarizer

𝑛2
Brewsters’ angle: tan (𝜃𝐵 ) = (33), n1 – refractive index of medium 1, n2 – refractive index of
𝑛1
medium 2

Image Formation with Thin Lenses:

Principal Rays:
P-ray is parallel to the optical axis.
F-ray goes through a focal point.
M-ray (also called Chief-Ray (C-ray) goes through the middle of the lens, which is defined by the intersection of the
lens plane with the optical axis.

Basic Imaging Rules:

• A P-Ray is transformed into an F-Ray (going through F’) at the lens.
• A F-Ray, going through F, is transformed into a P-Ray at the lens.
• A M-Ray is not deviated at the lens.
Oblique Rays:

Fig. 2 Oblique rays (which are oblique to the optical axis but par-
allel to each other) intersect in the focal plane of the lens.

Conventions of Signs:

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Lensmaker’s equation:
For thin lenses, which are embedded in air, the lensmaker’s equation can be written in the following way:
1 1 1
𝑃= = (𝑛 − 1) ( + ) (34)
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2

Here P is the power of the lens, f the focal length, n the refractive index, and R 1 and R2 are the radii of the lens, respec-
tively, as shown in Fig. 5

Thin Lens Equation:

1 1 1 𝑠⋅𝑠′ 𝑦′ 𝑠′
= + (35) or 𝑓= (36) Magnification: 𝑚 = =− (37)
𝑓 𝑠 𝑠′ (𝑠+𝑠′ ) 𝑦 𝑠

Formulas for a system of 2 thin lenses:

Focal length of a system of 2 thin lenses:

1 1 1 e f1 ∙f2
= + − (38) or f = (f (39)
f f1 f2 f1 ∙f2 1 +f2 −e)

If both lenses are in direct contact to each other (That is e<<f1,f2)

1 1 1
= + (40)
f f1 f2

The location of the principal planes with respect to the lenses L1 and L2 can be given by the values h1 and h2, respec-
tively (see the figure above):

𝑓∙𝑒 𝑓∙𝑒
ℎ= (41) and ℎ′ = − (42), where f is the focal length of the system, e the distance be-
𝑓2 𝑓1
tween the 2 lenses, and f1 and f2 the focal lengths of the 2 lenses, respectively.

Sign Convention for h and h’:

• h>0 if H is right of L1
• h<0 if H is left of L1
• h’>0 if H’ is right of L2
• h’<0 if H’ is left of L2

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Transitions in a 2-energy-level system
with the energies E1 and E2:

d𝑁1
Absorption rate: = −𝐵12 ⋅ 𝑁1 ⋅ 𝑢(𝑓) (43) here N1 – Number of atoms in the
dt
lower energy level E1, B12- Einstein’s coefficient for absorption, u(f)-spectral density function (describing, how many
photons with the right energy in a unit volume)

d𝑁2
Stimulated emission rate: = −𝐵21 ⋅ 𝑁2 ⋅ 𝑢(𝑓) (44) here N2 – Number of atoms in the
dt
upper energy level E2, B21- Einstein’s coefficient for stimulated emission, u(f)-spectral density function (describing,
how many photons with the right energy in a unit volume)

d𝑁2
Spontaneous emission rate: = −𝐴21 ⋅ 𝑁2 (45) here N2 – Number of atoms in the upper en-
dt
ergy level E2, A21- Einstein’s coefficient for spontaneous emission

Laser formulas:

2(𝑘𝑡ℎ −𝛾)⋅𝐿
Threshold condition for laser operation: 𝑅 ∙𝑅 ∙𝑒
1 2 =1 (47) here R1 – reflectivity of
mirror 1, R2 -reflectivity of mirror 2, kth – threshold gain,  - loss coefficient including all losses inside the laser resona-
tor with exception of the reflection losses, L – resonator length.

𝐿
Stability criterion for stable laser operation: 0 ≤ 𝑔1 ∙ 𝑔2 ≤ 1 (48) with 𝑔1 = 1 − (49)
𝑅1
𝐿
and 𝑔2 = 1 − (50) here R1 – radius of curvature of mirror 1, R2 – radius of curvature of mirror 2, L – reso-
𝑅2
nator length

Pulsed laser formulas:

𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Average power: 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = (51)
𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Peak power: 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 = (52)
𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

2𝜋⋅𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

Quality factor: 𝑄= (53)
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

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Spatial coherence of a laser beam
(Beam quality):

−2𝑥2
Gaussian beam profile: 𝐼 (𝑥 ) = 𝐼0 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑤2 (54)

1⁄2
4∙𝜆⋅𝑧 2
Diameter of a Gaussian beam: 𝑑(𝑧) = 𝑑0 ⋅ [1 + ( ) ] (55) with d(z) – beam diameter at
𝜋⋅𝑑02
the position z, d0 – beam diameter at the waist position,  - laser wavelength, z – distance to the waist position

𝑑0 ⋅𝜃𝐷
Beam Parameter Product (BPP): 𝐵𝑃𝑃 = (56) with d0 -waist diameter, D – full divergence angle
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𝜆
Beam Parameter Product of a Gaussian beam: 𝐵𝑃𝑃𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠 = (56) with d0 -waist diameter, D –
𝜋
full divergence angle

𝐵𝑃𝑃𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑟
Beam quality factor M2 of a laser: 𝑀2 = (57) with d0 -waist diameter, D – full diver-
𝐵𝑃𝑃𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠
gence angle

2 1⁄2
𝑀2 ⋅4∙𝜆⋅𝑧
Diameter of a Non-Gaussian beam: 𝑑(𝑧) = 𝑑0 ⋅ [1 + ( ) ] (58) with d(z) – beam
𝜋⋅𝑑02
diameter at the position z, d0 – beam diameter at the waist position,  - laser wavelength, z – distance to the waist
position