Light: Particle or Wave?

Diffraction of light played an important historical role.

 1818: French Academy held a science competition on

[ight nature
 Fresnel proposed the diffraction of light.
 One judge, Poisson, knew light was made of particles,
and thought Fresnel’s ideas ridiculous; he argued that
if Fresnel ideas were correct, one would see a bright
spot in the middle of the shadow of a disk.
 Another judge, Arago, decided to actually do the
experiment…
Conclusion (at the time): Light must be a wave, since
particles don’t diffract! Why ?
 Lecture 2: Interference of light
P

y
S3

d
S2

S1
L
Incident wave
(wavelength l)
 SUPERIMPOSITION of several coherent wave  interference
monochromatic light (wave of wavelength λ)
 Two-Slit Interference of Light: Young Interference
 Phasors
 Interference in thin film, Newton rings, Michenson interferometer
 Multiple-Slit Interference
 1. Huygen’s principle
All points on wavefront are point
Wavefro
sources for ‘spherical secondary nt at Wavefron
wavelets’ with speed, frequency t=0 t at time
t
equal to initial wave.
What happens when a plane wave meets a small aperture?
Answer: The result depends on the ratio of the wavelength l to
the size of the aperture a :

The transmitted wave is still

concentrated in the forward
l << a
direction, and at near distances
wavefronts have the shape of the
aperture.

Similar to a wave from a point source.

l >> a
“Diffraction”: Interference of
waves from objects or apertures
2. Interference Condition ?

(a) The sources must be coherent (i.e., they must maintain a

constant phase relationship with one another).
(b) The sources must be monochromatic (i.e., of a single wavelength).
(c) The linear superposition principle is applicable.

Coherent wave ?
How to make coherent light ? Reflection and refraction of a light
using Huygens principle

Optical path length (OPL):

In a medium of refractive index, n, for a path of physical length d

If the refractive index varies along the path, the OPL is given by
 It’s just like sound waves!
l
Observer
r1
Sound d

Observer
l
S1

Light d

S2

If y01 = y02 = Icost, y at observer will be y1 + y2 =2 Icos 2p(r1-r2)/l

for the observer distance is >> d.
In both cases, I = 4 I1cos2(f/2) with f = 2p(d/l), d = r2 - r1
Optical path difference (OPD) δ is place a critical factor
 Simple formula for the path difference, d ,
when the observer is far from sources.
 Assume 2 sources radiating in phase:

Observer

q
r
s1

d Normal to d
s2 When observer distance >> slit spacing
q
d (r >> d) :
d = dsinq
d d
f = 2p(d/l) = 2p(d sinq/l)
 3. Two-Slit Interference q

Basic result: Constructive 2l/d

Interference
r l/d y
d = dsinq = ml
q
Destructive d 0
m = 0, ±1, ±2,... I
Interference
d = dsinq = (m + 1/2)l -l/d

Usually we care about the linear y = L tanq

(as opposed to angular) L
displacement y of the pattern:

“lines” of m=2
constructive m=1
interference:
q m=0
q = sin-1(ml/d)
m=-1

m=-2
Two-Slit Interference, small angles:
The slit-spacing d is often large compared to l, so that q is small.
Then we can use the small angle approximations to simplify our results:
For small angles: (q << 1 radian)

sin q  q  tan q (only in radians!) y = L tan q  L q (in radians)

Y  Lq
Constructive
Interference:
q  m(l/d) y  m(l/d)L 2lL/d

m = 0, ±1, ±2,... lL/d

q
d 0
I
Destructive -lL/d
Interference:
L
q  (m + 1/2)(l/d) y  (m + 1/2)(l/d)L
 Phasors
 We now want to introduce a new way of solving interference
problems, using phasors to represent the interfering amplitudes
(this will make it easier to solve other problems later on).

A 
Represent a wave by a A1 A = A1 cos   A1 cos 
vector with magnitude
 f = 2 A1 cos 
(A1) and direction (f).
One wave has f = 0. A1
f
Now  = f/2 A = 2 A1 cos 
2
To get the intensity, we simply square this amplitude:

f  f  where I1= A12 is the intensity

I = 4 A1 cos  
2 2
I = 4 I1 cos  
2

2 2 when only one slit is open

This is identical to our previous result !

More generally, if the phasors have C Here f is
different amplitudes A and B, B
f the external
angle.
C2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos f A
 Exercise 3: 2-slit interference
A laser of wavelength 633 nm is S1
incident on two slits separated Dy
by 0.125 mm.
S2

I
1. What is the spacing Dy between fringe maxima on a screen 2m away?
a. 1 mm b. 1 mm c. 1 cm

2. If we increase the spacing between the slits, what will happen to Dy?
a. decrease b. stay the same c. increase

3. If we instead use a green laser (smaller l), Dy will?

a. decrease b. stay the same c. increase
 exercise 3: 2-slit interference
A laser of wavelength 633 nm is S1
incident on two slits separated Dy
by 0.125 mm.
S2

1. What is the spacing Dy between fringe maxima on a screen 2m away?

a. 1 mm b. 1 mm c. 1 cm

2. If we increase the spacing between the slits, what will happen to Dy?
a. decrease b. stay the same c. increase
Since Dy ~ 1/d, the spacing decreases. Note: This is a general phenomenon
– the “far-field” interference pattern varies inversely with slit dimensions.
3. If we instead use a green laser (smaller l), Dy will?
a. decrease b. stay the same c. increase
Since Dy ~ l, the spacing decreases.
 Interference of white light
Y  Lq

2lL/d

lL/d

q m = 0,
d 0
I
±1,
-lL/d

±2,...
L

Explain the colorful rainbow pattern ?

l є (0.4-0.8)
Hind: y  m(l/d)L y є (? - ?)
m = 1, 2
Change phace due to reflection
Lloyd rule

Interference in thin film

 Interference in thin film
The optical path difference δ (OPD) between
the two waves is the following:
If n1 > n2

Where,

Using Snell's Law,

Interference will be constructive if the OPD is equal

to an integer multiple of the wavelength of light, λ .

If n1 > n2 what happens ??? Remember Lloyd rule

 if the OPD is equal to an odd number
multiple of half of the wavelength of
light, λ, we have a dark fringe.

All the spots have the same intensity

have the same thickness of oil layer

If q = 0 OPD = mλ

if one of the two waves has half circle reflection phase shift, the condition
for constructive and deconstructive is reversed

Constructive: nd = (2m+1) λ/2

Deconstructive nd = mλ
Where n is refractive index, m = 0, 1,2,3,….
The difference in thickness between two consecutive ring Δd = λ/2n

(Newton Ring s and Michenson Interometer)

If n1 < n2 what is difference in conclusion ??

 Newton Rings

Newton Ring s

q =0 OPD = 2d + λ/2

Constructive: OPD = mλ

Deconstructive OPD = (2m+1) λ/2

Where m= 0, 1,2,3,….

What is Rm ?

What is Pattern of Newton

Rings in water or oil ?
 Michenson Interferometer

Constructive:

OPL = nd = mλ

Deconstructive :

OPL = nd = (2m+1) λ/2

Where n is refractive index,

m = 0, 1,2,3,…. the ring order
when mirror 1 moves a
distance d = λ/2n the patterns
shifts a ring

Formation of fringes in a Michelson interferometer

 Questions
 Is Young’s experiment an interference experiment or a diffraction
experiment, or both?
 What changes, if any, occur in the pattern of interference fringes if
the apparatus if Young’s experiment is placed under water?
 Do interference effects occur for sound waves?
Lecture 3: Diffraction & Spectroscopy` P

Incident Wave
(wavelength l) y

L
 Multi-Slit Interference P
What changes if we increase the number of
slits (e.g., N = 3, 4, …1000?) Incident wave
 First look at the “principle maxima”:
(wavelength l) y
 If slit 1 and 2 are in phase with
S3
each other, than slit 3 will also be
in phase. d
Conclusion: Position of “principle S2
interference maxima” are the same!
(i.e., d sinq = m l)
S1
L
• What about amplitude of
principle maxima? Draw
phasor diagram: For N slits
Atot = 3 A1
A1 A1 Itot = N2 I1
A1  Itot = 9 I1
 For other directions, simple geometry
can tell us the resultant amplitude A A1
Note: phasor
in terms of A1 and f. A f angle is with
respect to
 Use this to find interference minima… A1 adjacent slit!
f
A1
 General properties of N-Slit Interference
9I
9 1 16I1
16 25I
25 1
N=3 N=4 N=5
20

g(Ix) 5
10
h(I
x) I
h5( x)
10

00
0 f
0 0
0 0 00
10-2p 00 2p 10-2p 00 2p f 00 f
10-2p 2p
10 10
10
10-l/d 0x l/d q 10-l/d 0x l/d q q
10-l/d 0x l/d
10 10
10

• The positions of the principal maxima of the intensity patterns always

occur at f = 0, 2p, 4p, ... [f is the phase between adjacent slits]
(i.e., dsinq = ml, m = 0, 1, 2,…).

• The principal maxima become taller and narrower as N increases.

• The intensity of a principal maximum is equal to N2 times the maximum

intensity from one slit. The width of a principal maximum goes as 1/N.

• The # of zeroes between adjacent principal maxima is equal to N-1.

The # of secondary maxima between adjacent principal maxima is N-2.
 Exercise 4
I =?
1. In 2-slit interference, the first minimum 9I 9 1

corresponds to f = p. For 3-slits, we have

a secondary maximum at f = p (see g(Ix) 5
diagram). What is the intensity of this
secondary maximum? (Hint: Use phasors.)
00
0
10-2p 00 2p
(a) I1 (b) 1.5 I1 (c) 3 I1 fx
10
10 10

f =?
2. What value of f corresponds to the first zero
of the 3-slit interference pattern?
(a) f=p/2 (b) f=2p/3 (c) f=3p/4

3. What value of f corresponds to the first zero

of the 4-slit interference pattern?
(a) f=p/2 (b) f=2p/3 (c) f=3p/4
 Exercise 4 I =?
1. In 2-slit interference, the first minimum 9I
9 1

corresponds to f = p. For 3-slits, we have

a secondary maximum at f = p (see
g(Ix) 5
diagram). What is the intensity of this
secondary maximum? (Hint: Use phasors.)
00
(a) I1 (b) 1.5 I1 (c) 3 I1 0
10-2p 00 2p 10
10 fx 10

f =?
2. What value of f corresponds to the first zero
of the 3-slit interference pattern?
(a) f=p/2 (b) f=2p/3 (c) f=3p/4
f
f f=3p/4
A f=p/2 f=2p/3
A
No. A is not zero. Yes! Equilateral No, triangle does not close.
triangle gives A = 0.
 Exercise 4
I =?
2. What value of f corresponds to the first zero 9I1
of the 3-slit interference pattern?
(a) f=p/2 (b) f=2p/3 (c) f=3p/4 I

0
3. What value of f corresponds to the first zero -2p 0 2p
of the 4-slit interference pattern? f

(a) f=p/2 (b) f=2p/3 (c) f=3p/4 f =?

f
A
f f=3p/4
f=p/2 f=2p/3

Yes. Square No. With 4 slits we No. A  0

gives A = 0. start to “wrap
around” again (A =
A1)
For N slits the first zero is at 2p/N.