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Measurement systems for determining formwork pressure of highly-flowable

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Article  in  Materials and Structures · January 2008

DOI: 10.1617/s11527-006-9216-7

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Materials and Structures (2008) 41:37–46
DOI 10.1617/s11527-006-9216-7
O R I G I N A L A RT I C L E
Measurement systems for determining formwork pressure
of highly-flowable concrete
Kamal H. Khayat Æ Joseph J. Assaad
Received: 3 February 2006 / Accepted: 28 November 2006 / Published online: 30 January 2007

RILEM 2007
Abstract This paper offers recommendations
regarding test set-ups and measurement systems
that can be used for laboratory evaluation and
field testing of lateral pressure exerted by flow-
able concrete and self-consolidating concrete
(SCC). Test results indicate that pressure sensors
placed flush with the inner surface of the form-
work can be used to assess the lateral pressure
exerted by plastic concrete. The pore-water
pressure resulting from the fluid phase of concrete
can be evaluated using pore-water pressure sen-
sors similar to the ones employed in soil mechan-
ics. The sensors can be attached at different
heights onto rigid formwork system to monitor
changes in pressure with time.
Sono-tubes made of cardboard are found not to
be suitable for monitoring concrete pressure
variations because of their flexibility which leads
to erroneous values. A pressure column was
developed to evaluate lateral pressure and its
variations with time exerted by fresh SCC for
heights of up to 10 m. Another system consisting
K. H. Khayat (&)
Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC,
Canada J1K 2R1
e-mail: Kamal.Khayat@USherbrooke.ca
J. J. Assaad
Holderchem Building Chemicals S.A.L, P.O. Box
40206, Baabda, Lebanon
of strain gages welded onto steel anchored bars
inserted in the formwork was tested and com-
pared to the pressure transducers system.
Résumé Ce papier présente des recommanda-
tions concernant les dispositifs expérimentaux et
systèmes de mesure qui peuvent être utilisés en
laboratoire et sur chantier pour évaluer les
pressions latérales développées par les bétons
fluides et bétons auto-plaçants (BAP) contre les
coffrages. Les résultats obtenus montrent que les
capteurs de pression placés ‘‘flush’’ sur la partie
interne du coffrage peuvent mesurer adéquate-
ment les pressions latérales. Les pressions inters-
titielles résultant de la partie fluide du béton
peuvent être déterminées avec des capteurs util-
isés normalement en mécanique des sols. Ces
capteurs doivent être fixées à différentes hauteurs
sur des coffrages rigides.
Des problèmes de mesures des pressions laté-
rales sont apparus lors de l’utilisation des sono-
tubes fabriqués en carton à cause de leur
flexibilité. Un tube fonctionnant sous pression
d’air a été développé permettant la simulation
des pressions des BAP résultant des coffrages de
hauteur d’environ 10 m. Un autre système de
mesure des pressions latérales à l’aide de jauges
de déformation a été utilisé et comparé aux
capteurs de pression.
38
Keywords Formwork Pressure
Pore water

Pressure sensors
Self-consolidating concrete
1 Review of methods of formwork pressure
measurements
Formwork systems used in casting wall and
column elements can contribute up to 40% of
the overall cost of construction of the concrete
structure [1]. The use of a reliable and accurate
measuring system to evaluate lateral pressure
exerted on the formwork by the plastic concrete is
essential for the proper design of the formwork,
from both economic and safety points of view.
A number of systems have been employed to
determine the maximum lateral pressure devel-
oped by plastic concrete and its variation with
time. For example, Shunk (from Rodin [1])
inserted a 230-mm diameter cylinder fitted with
a freely moving piston into wood formwork to
monitor form pressure. By means of weighted
lever arm, the load required to prevent the piston
from moving under the applied concrete pressure
could be determined. However, it was noticed
that the piston had to move in and out about
6 mm prior to registering any appreciable mea-
surements. Such large imprecision can reduce the
reliability of the system [1]. McDaniel et al. (from
CIRIA [2]) used a pressure gage consisting of a
small flexible German-silver diaphragm acting
upon a reservoir containing mercury to measure
form pressure. The reservoir is connected to a
glass tube, and the pressure is indicated by the
position of the mercury in the tube. No informa-
tion was given regarding the accuracy of this
system under the applied concrete pressure.
In experiments carried out by Roby [3], con-
crete lateral pressure was measured by determin-
ing the deflection of a steel plate extending
through the full width of the formwork and resting
on movable edges 700 mm apart. The 10-mm thick
steel plate located near the bottom of the form-
work was 150 mm in width. By means of pivoted
bar connected to a lever to yield a ratio of 10:1, the
deflection at the center of the plate was deter-
mined using a graduated scale of 0.4-mm incre-
ments. Using a magnifying glass, Roby [3]
Materials and Structures (2008) 41:37–46
reported that it was possible to read a deflection
within 0.1 mm, which corresponds to a plate
deflection of 0.01 mm. The thickness of the timber
sheathing above and below the steel plate was
designed to yield the same deflection under the
applied load as that of the steel plate [3]. Similarly,
Macklin (from Rodin [1]) determined the con-
crete pressure developed against the formwork by
measuring the deflection of wood sheathing. The
deflection of the sheathing relative to the support-
ing studs was measured by means of a dial-type
micrometer mounted on a bridge arrangement.
Metal disk type pressure sensors were used by
the California Highways Division (from Ritchie
[4]) to measure concrete lateral pressure. A sheet-
rubber diaphragm was clamped to one side of the
sensors in a manner similar to that of a drum
head. The shallow space between the rubber
diaphragm and the disk was filled with liquid
which would operate as an ordinary pressure gage
mounted on the back of the disk. Pressure sensors
measuring 150 or 300 mm in diameter were
inserted into the formwork with the rubber
diaphragm flush with the inside surface of the
wall. Special care was taken to extract all air from
the pressure sensors. No indication was given
regarding volume changes that could occur in the
sensors when the concrete pressure is applied.
During the restoration of the upstream surface
of the Barker Dam, Davis et al. (from Rodin [1])
attached strain gages to 25-mm diameter steel bars
anchored to the face of the existing dam. Electric-
resistance strain gages were accurately welded to
the anchored bars. In general, the strain gages were
found to provide adequate means of monitoring
concrete lateral pressure following calculation of
stress that can be deducted from the measured
deformation [1]. Strain gages were also used in the
Cambridge-Type load cells that were employed by
Gardner [5] to determine lateral pressure devel-
oped by fresh concrete. The total load capacity of
the selected cells was around 2500 N.
With the increasing use of the self-consoli-
dating concrete (SCC), both in cast-in-place and
pre-stressed concrete applications, there is a
need to properly measure and predict the
maximum formwork pressure exerted by such
concrete and its variation with time. A number
of investigations have been carried out recently
Materials and Structures (2008) 41:37–46
to evaluate the lateral pressure of highly flow-
able concrete. The GTM Construction Company
in France used two different systems to monitor
the pressure of SCC [6]. The principle of the
first system consisted of pouring water into a
system made of stiff pipes and rubber bags to
monitor the pressure directly using a manome-
ter. The second system consisted of using
electronic pressure sensors of 200-mm in diam-
eter that allow instantaneous pressure measure-
ments. The tested SCC mixtures had slump flow
values varying from 700 to 880 mm and were
placed at casting rates ranging from 10 to
150 m/h. Different formwork dimensions were
used (length 1.25–2.5 m, height 2.8–5.6 m, and
width 0.25–0.40 m). The results showed that the
two measuring systems can lead to similar
pressure values that were quite close to the
corresponding hydrostatic pressure of the con-
crete [6]. This was mainly related to the
excessively high casting rate of the SCC. It is
important to note that the placement rates of
SCC employed for casting wall elements for
residential or commercial type of construction
can be limited to 4 m/h [7]. In some construc-
tion and repair operations of column elements
or bridge pier abutment wall sections, the
casting rate of SCC can approach 10 m/h given
the limited width of the cast section. Higher
casting rates are not typically encountered in
cast-in-place types of construction, other than
relatively small sections such as columns.
The NCC AB Company used hydraulic jacks
attached to various elevations on the formwork to
measure the lateral pressure developed by SCC
[6]. Tested mixtures were prepared with 0.55
water-to-cementitious materials ratio (w/cm) and
had slump flow values ranging from 620 to
780 mm. Different techniques were used for
casting the SCC; this included casting from the
top of the formwork with buckets or pumping
from the bottom. The casting rates varied from 6
to 120 m/h. The tested SCC developed lateral
pressure values lower than the maximum hydro-
static pressure [6]. For example, the pressures
measured at 550 mm from the bottom were 59%
(64 kPa) and 29% (50 kPa) of the hydrostatic
pressure for the experimental wall sections mea-
suring 5.3 and 8 m in height, respectively.
39
This paper describes the systems used by the
authors to monitor lateral pressure and pore-
water pressure variations of highly flowable con-
crete and SCC. These experimental set-ups can be
used to measure pressure variations during the
plastic stage of cement hydration and up to the
early stage of hardening. These methods are
discussed in this paper, and their advantages and
limitations are highlighted.
2 Research significance
Appropriate assessment of lateral pressure exerted
by highly flowable concrete is essential for the safe
design and economic construction of formwork
systems. This paper presents some recommenda-
tions necessary to develop a reliable and accurate
measuring system that can be used for the evalu-
ation and field testing of lateral pressure and pore-
water pressure and their variations in time. Such
information can be useful by engineers and con-
tractors involved in the design and construction of
concrete structures made with SCC.
3 Sensors for monitoring lateral and pore-water
pressures
3.1 Sensors for lateral pressure determination
The lateral pressure exerted by plastic concrete
can be measured using Flush Diaphragm Millivolt
Output Type pressure sensors, shown in Fig. 1.
Such sensors function using semiconductor gages
with bending beams that are operable over a
temperature range of –50 to +100C. The sensors
are connected to a data-acquisition system of
relatively low scanning voltage (for example,
5 mV). Pressure sensors with maximum capacities
of 50 to more than 500 kPa can be used, depend-
ing on the expected lateral pressure developed by
the concrete. The diameters of these sensors can
range from 20 to 100 mm. In general, the diameter
should be greater than the maximum aggregate
size used in the concrete to prevent any interfer-
ence during measurement. In the case of the
experimental program carried out by the authors,
the diameter of the pressure sensors was 20 mm
compared to 10 mm maximum aggregate size.
40 Materials and Structures (2008) 41:37–46

and 200 mm in diameter. In this system, a PVC

Fig. 1 Photos of lateral pressure (left) and pore-water
pressure (right) sensors
3.2 Sensors for monitoring pore-water
pressure variations
The pore-water pressure resulting from the fluid
phase of the plastic concrete can be measured
using specialty sensors typically employed in soil
mechanics (Fig. 1). Such sensors can have pres-
sure capacities ranging from 50 to 500 kPa. A
special water-filtering device made of compacted
fiber is used to separate the cement paste from the
sensor measurement system. The sensors should
be calibrated using free head of water prior to use.
As in the case of the lateral pressure transducers,
pore-water pressure sensors should be aligned
flush with the inner surface of the formwork.
It is important to note that proper functioning
of pore-water pressure sensors necessitates con-
tinuous water saturation at the vicinity of the
transducer. Given the fact that the hardening
process of the concrete causes reduction in water
content in capillary pores, this can eventually lead
to interruption of the pore-water pressure mea-
surements. Therefore, negative depression values
limited to approximately –10 kPa can be mea-
sured with such type of sensors [7].
tube with smooth inner face is used to minimize
friction between the formwork and concrete that
can develop during casting, thus affecting the
resulting lateral pressure [5]. The 10-mm wall
thickness of the tube was found to be sufficiently
rigid to avoid any deflection caused by concrete
lateral pressure.
The casting procedure consists of discharging
continuously the SCC from the top at the
desired casting rate without any mechanical
consolidation. The casting was directly realized
after mixing, corresponding to approximately
5 min after the water and cement contact. It is
important to note that casting rates lower than
5 m/h may be difficult to achieve for continuous
placement, given that extended periods of time
that can change the concrete rheological char-
acteristics. For example, 7 min are necessary to
fill the 2800-mm high experimental column when
the casting rate is set at 25 m/h. Such period
is increased to 34 min when the casting rate is
5 m/h.
A typical diagram showing the variations of
lateral pressure with time after placement along
the 2800-mm experimental tube is given in Fig. 2.
The SCC mixture was prepared with 0.46 w/cm
and had an initial slump flow of 650 mm. Right
after casting, the lateral pressure exerted by the
concrete was 97% of the theoretical hydrostatic
pressure. Sharp reduction in the pressure enve-
lope took place after casting; a residual pressure
of approximately 60% of hydrostatic pressure was
obtained 3 h after casting.
3.0
0: T = 0 hr; slump flow = 660 mm
2.5 1: T = 1 hr; slump flow = 565 mm
Head of concrete (m)

2: T = 2 hr; slump flow = 420 mm

2.0 3: T = 3 hr; slump = 185 mm

4 Test set-ups to monitor form pressure 1.5 Hydrostatic pressure

SCC made with:
1.0 450 kg/m³ of ternary
4.1 Set-ups to pressure evaluation during cement, 0.46 w/cm,
and sand-to-aggregate 3
the plastic stage of cement hydration 0.5
ratio of 0.47 0
0.0
In general, the test set-ups that are used for 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Developed lateral pressure (kPa)
laboratory investigation are limited in size. For
example, the experimental columns used by Fig. 2 Typical lateral pressure envelope determined on
Assaad [7] measured 2100 and 2800 mm in height the 2800-mm high experimental column
Materials and Structures (2008) 41:37–46 41

Fig. 3 Variations of 1.0 R = 1.0

relative pressure values Slump = 180 mm
with time of SCC

P (maximum) / P (hydrostatic)
mixtures made with 0.9
various sand-to-total
coarse aggregate ratios
0.8
(R)—slump values refer R = 0.75
to concrete consistency at Slump = 85 mm
the end of lateral pressure 0.7 R = 0.50
monitoring Slump = 115 mm

0.6
Mixtures made with
R = 0.40
450 kg/m³ of ternary
Slump = 110 mm
cement, 0.40 w/cm,
0.5
and various R values
R = 0.30 R = 0.36
Slump = 220 mm Slump = 160 mm
0.4
0 100 200 300 400
Time after casting (min)

This experimental column was employed by the cancellation of the pressure, which corresponds to
authors to evaluate the effect of a number of the initial set of concrete. For example, Assaad
mixture parameters and raw material properties [7] used an experimental column measuring
on the variation of formwork pressure of SCC, 1100 mm in height and 200 mm in diameter to
including the effect of coarse aggregate, binder, monitor pressure variations up to the hardening
and type and content of chemical admixtures. of the concrete. The PVC column was sliced
For example, Fig. 3 plots the variations of the vertically at one point to facilitate form removal,
maximum relative pressure values (P(maximum)/ and its inner face coated with formwork release
P(hydrostatic)) for SCC made with different sand- oil prior to each use.
to-total coarse aggregate ratios (R) [7]. The A typical example showing the variations of
mixtures had 650 ± 15 mm slump flow and were lateral pressure and pore-water pressure over
prepared with 0.40 w/cm. Concrete with low time that were determined using the 1100-mm
concentrations of coarse aggregate with R values high PVC column is given in Fig. 4. The tested
of 1.0 and 0.75 developed significantly higher SCC had 650 mm slump flow, 0.40 w/cm, and
initial relative pressure of 99% and 96%, respec- 0.43R. It is important to note that the lateral
tively. With the reduction of R values to 0.50 and pressure (r) of concrete represents the total
0.30, the initial relative pressure decreased to 92% horizontal pressure exerted against the formwork.
and 77%, respectively. Furthermore, the rate of
drop in pressure with time was shown to increase 25 29
with the reduction in R value. This was related to 20 28
Concrete temperature (°C)

the increase in internal friction resulting from an

Head of concrete (kPa)

15 27
increase in coarse aggregate volume [7].
10 Chemical effect
26
(Physical + chemical)
5 effect 25
4.2 Set-ups to pressure evaluation until early
0 24
hardening of concrete Lateral pressure
-5 23
Pore water pressure
-10 Concrete temperature 22
When using tall experimental columns to monitor Limits of sensor
-15 21
pressure variations after casting, the experiment 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
is typically limited to few hours to enable emp- Time after casting (hour)
tying the column prior to concrete stiffening.
Fig. 4 Typical example showing the variations of lateral
Shorter pressure columns have been used by the pressure and pore-water pressure with time for the 1100-
authors to determine pressure variations until mm high experimental column
42 Materials and Structures (2008) 41:37–46

Assuming that soil mechanics principles apply, r of formation of hydration products that enables
can be considered as the sum of the pressure the material to be self-bearing. In case of the
obtained from pore-water (pore-water pressure: sensors used to monitor lateral pressure, a full
U) and that from solid particle interaction in the cancellation of the pressure can be achieved upon
concrete (effective pressure: r¢). The resulting hardening. On the other hand, the pore-water
equation can be expressed as follows: r = r¢ + U. pressure sensors continue to reflect negative
After the end of casting and throughout the pressure values of approximately –10 kPa before
dormant period of cement hydration, both lateral ceasing to function properly. Theoretically, the
pressure and pore-water pressure sensors are pore-water pressure should continue decreasing
shown to yield similar values. Such observations for several days before stabilizing at a given
were obtained regardless of concrete temperature negative value. However, as mentioned earlier,
or mixture composition (binder type, coarse the hardening process of concrete causes the
aggregate volume, chemical and mineral addi- reduction in moisture content in the capillary
tives, etc.) [7]. When a stress is applied to a pores, which can interrupt pore-water pressure
saturated undrained porous material, the total measurements as such sensors necessitate contin-
stress (r) becomes equal to pore-water pressure uous water saturation to function properly.
(U) with the effective stress (r¢) equal to zero. From the foregoing data, it can be concluded
The lateral pressure corresponds then to the pore- that the selected lateral pressure and pore-water
water pressure (r = U). Another typical example pressure sensors can be adequately used to
showing the variations of r and U with time monitor the maximum lateral pressure and its
measured using the selected pressure transducers variations with time. As for the period following
attached along the 2800-mm high experimental the end of the dormant period, the use of the
column is given in Fig. 5 for highly flowable pore-water pressure sensors seem to provide
concrete with 0.40 w/cm and R values of 0.75 and limited information regarding the variation of
0.30. Again, similar kinetics of pressure variations lateral pressure. On the other hand, the lateral
are obtained for both the r and U values. pressure transducers can be used to estimate the
By the end of the plastic stage when the time for pressure cancellation in the hardened
concrete skeleton becomes relatively rigid, the state, thus indicating when the concrete becomes
total lateral pressure (r) and pore-water pressure fully self-bearing.
start to decrease abruptly towards zero, as shown
in Fig. 4. This corresponds roughly to the time
when the concrete temperature starts to increase 5 Use of sono-tube for formwork pressure
at a faster rate. This is due to the accelerated rate monitoring

To determine the contribution of the ‘‘caisson

55
Highly flowable mixtures made with
effect’’ or minimum section dimension on form-
work pressure, the authors compared the lateral
Head of concrete (kPa)

450 kg/m³ of ternary cement,

50 0.40 w/cm, and
slump flow of 650 mm pressure of SCC cast in 200-mm diameter PVC
45 R = 0.75 tubes to that obtained from large sono-tubes
40
measuring 3600 mm in height and 920 mm in
diameter. The thickness of the sono-tube walls was
: Lateral pressure
35 R = 0.30 5 mm. SCC mixtures having 600 to 700 mm slump
- - - : Pore-water pressure
flow values were used. Five lateral pressure sensors
30
0 100 200 300 400 were employed at different elevations of the sono-
Time after casting (min) tubes. The concrete was discharged directly into
the sono-tube at a constant casting rate of 10 m/h
Fig. 5 Variations of lateral pressure and pore-water
pressure with time determined on the 2800-mm high
from the chute of a ready-mix concrete truck [8].
experimental column (R: sand-to-total coarse aggregate To enhance the rigidity of the sono-tube,
ratio) vertical wood studs were placed at intervals of
Materials and Structures (2008) 41:37–46 43

150 mm along the circumference. The studs were

attached together with steel straps. The base of
the sono-tubes was sealed using a stud of
concrete cast a day earlier to minimize any
deformation at the base of the formwork and
prevent leakage. Despite the precautions taken to
enhance the rigidity of the sono-tubes, problems
were encountered during testing leading to erro-
neous pressure values. For example, pressure
transducer placed at 600 mm from the bottom
(No. 2) registered lateral pressure values of
160 kPa, despite the fact the maximum hydro-
static pressure at that location would be limited
to 64 kPa (Fig. 6). This additional pressure is
attributed to the opposing lateral forces acting on
the sides of the sono-tube due to the confinement
by external steel straps. Therefore, any experi-
mental set-up used to determine lateral pressure
where sensors or other measuring devices are
attached to the formwork sides should be suffi-
ciently rigid without the need to provide any
supplementary external confinement.

Fig. 7 Photo of the set-up for simulating various concrete

6 Portable device to determine lateral pressure at heads and casting rates
various formwork heights
that it could be quickly or slowly opened, thus
To simulate placement of higher concrete sec- simulating various concrete casting rates.
tions, a pressurized and sufficiently rigid column An example showing the variations of the
device measuring 1300 mm in height and 200 mm maximum lateral pressure developed at the bot-
in diameter was developed (Fig. 7). The simula- tom of this portable test set-up is given in Fig. 8.
tion of higher heads of concrete is carried out This relationship was developed for SCC mixtures
using air pressure introduced from the top of the of different degrees of thixotropy placed at a
column. The air valve is specifically designed so constant casting rate of 10 m/h. The magnitude of

100
P(max) / P(hyd) after casting (%)

200
1m
80
Head of concrete (kPa)

160 Pressure sensor No. 2

5m
(3 m from bottom) 2m
P(hyd) = 64 kPa 60 7m
120 3m
9m
40 4m

80 Pressure sensor No. 4

P(hyd) = 32 kPa 6m
20 Rate of casting = 10 m/h 8m
40 10 m
Pressure sensor No. 3
0
P(hyd) = 45 kPa
0 50 150 250 350 450 550 650
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 Magnitude of thixotropy (J/m³.s)
Time after casting (hour)
Fig. 8 Variations of maximum lateral pressure with
Fig. 6 Erroneous lateral pressure values determined using respect to concrete head of SCC cast in pressurized
pressure sensors attached to the face of sono-tubes at column (five data points correspond to test results
different heights obtained in field testing)
44
thixotropy was evaluated using a modified version
of a Tattersall two-point rheometer operating
under a coaxial condition [7]. The testing protocol
consisted of determining the initial and equilib-
rium torque measurements after maintaining the
impeller at four different constant rotational
speeds of 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 rps. The time
required to perform each of the tests at a given
rotational speed was 7.5 min, of which 5 min
corresponded to a period when the concrete was
at rest in the rheometer bowl and 2.5 min
required for testing and rehomogenizing the
concrete before subsequent measurements. In
total, a 30-min period was necessary to determine
the magnitude of thixotropy for each concrete
mixture. A detailed explanation on how thixot-
ropy was calculated in given in Ref. [7–9].
In order to determine the lateral pressure at
various column heights, the concrete was initially
continuously cast from the top of the 1300-mm
tube at 10 m/h, corresponding to an approximate
elapsed time of 8 min. Then, to simulate the
casting of higher heads of concrete, pressurized air
is introduced from the top of the pressure tube at a
given rate to maintain the same concrete casting
rate of 10 m/h. The rate of increase in air pressure
was calibrated earlier using various heads of
water, and the time necessary to reach the
required applied air pressure was predetermined.
For example, to evaluate the actual concrete
pressure developed on a 6-m column at a casting
rate of 10 m/h, the applied air pressure introduced
from the top of the tube is steadily increased to
reach the corresponding level that can simulate a
6-m head over a time lapse of 36 min. This time
period corresponds to the initial time of 8 min
necessary to fill the 1300-mm tube in addition to
the 28 min necessary to simulate the casting of the
remaining part of the 6-m high column.
As can be seen in Fig. 8, the pressure relative to
hydrostatic decreases with the increase in concrete
head and tends to stabilize at a maximum value
after reaching a height of 7 m. For example, for
SCC with a breakdown area of 350 J/m3 s, the
relative pressure is shown to decrease from 90%
(determined on a 1-m high column) to 40%
(determined on a 7-m high column). This is, in
part, due to the time necessary to fill the formwork
that affects the development of shear strength
Materials and Structures (2008) 41:37–46
properties of the plastic concrete [5–7]. It is to be
noted that the pressure values plotted in Fig. 8 for
various heads of concrete were validated under
field conditions for five SCC mixtures cast in a 5.6-
m high formwork (this will be further discussed in
the next paragraph). As can be seen, the field
results fall within the curves corresponding to
concrete heads of approximately 5 m obtained
under laboratory conditions.
7 Field validation of lateral pressure
measurements using pressure sensors
To evaluate the reliability of using the pressure
sensors to monitor formwork pressure, two
systems were used for measuring lateral pressure
developed by SCC used in the repair of retaining
walls. The repaired section measured 5.6 m in
height, 6.7 m in length, and 0.20 m in width.
Lateral pressure exerted by the SCC on the
formwork was determined using the pressure
transducers described earlier. They were set
flush with the inner side of the formwork. The
performance of such sensors was compared to
the stresses determined from the measurement
of deformations using strain gages welded onto
steel bars anchored to the concrete substrate, as
illustrated in Fig. 9. In order to avoid any
secondary effect resulting from the formwork
on the deformation determined from the strain
gages, a slot of 200 · 200 mm was made in the
polywood formwork and replaced by a specially
isolated plate of similar size. The plate was
supported by four steel rods anchored into the
concrete substrate. A strain gage was welded on
each of the 8-mm diameter steel anchor rods.
Comparison of lateral pressure determined
using the strain gage and pressure transducers is
given in Fig. 10 for SCC mixture with a slump
flow of 640 mm. A maximum difference of 5%
lateral pressure was obtained, again with similar
pressure drop in both cases during the first 4 h
following casting. The pressure measured from
the anchored bars did not show any further
decrease while that determined from the sensors
continued to decrease until the cancellation of
the lateral pressure after 18 h. The stabilization
of the pressure determined from the anchor-bar
Materials and Structures (2008) 41:37–46 45

Fig. 9 Schematic
diagram showing the Plate inserted in
width of plate = form work
strain gage system used width of formwork Concrete
= 200 x 200 mm²
for measuring lateral
pressure

200 mm Bar diameter

= 8 mm

200 mm Strain gage welded

Substrate
on anchored bar

system can be due to the effect of friction 1. Flush diaphragm millivolt output type pressure
between the embedded steel rods and the sensors can be used to appropriately assess
concrete. During the first hours after placement lateral pressure of highly flowable concrete
when the concrete is still plastic, any volume and SCC. Such sensors should better be placed
change due to dilatancy could be enough to flush with the inner surface of the form, and
induce deformation in the steel bars. However, should have diameters greater than the nom-
as the concrete becomes relatively cohesive and inal aggregate size used in the concrete.
rigid, the relative deformation of the strain gages 2. Pore-water pressure resulting from the fluid
decreases and leads to stable pressure measure- phase of plastic concrete can be evaluated
ments. From the foregoing data, it can be using pore-water pressure sensors similar to
concluded that the pressure transducers system those employed in soil mechanics. A special
is sufficiently accurate to enable measurements filtering water device made of compacted
of lateral pressure in the field. fiber should be used to separate the cement
paste from the measurement system.
3. Rigid PVC tubes can be used to evaluate the
pressure envelope exerted by SCC. For column
8 Conclusions
height of 2800 mm, a tube with 10-mm thick
wall is sufficient to provide proper rigidity.
Based on the above test data and results, the
4. Sono-tubes made of cardboard are not suitable
following conclusions can be drawn:
to monitor pressure variations of flowable
concrete. This is due to the flexibility of the
cardboard and the need to provide external
40 SCC made with 475 kg/m³ of
binder and R of 0.44
confinement that can interfere with the pres-
sure values determined from pressure trans-
Head of c onc rete (k Pa)

30 Pressure is determined at 2.8

m from the bottom ducers attached to the sides of the sono-tubes.
Pressure sensor system 5. A newly developed pressure column pro-
20
Strain gage system posed by the authors was found to be appro-
priate to evaluate the maximum lateral
10
pressure of concrete cast at various heights
up to 10 m. Pressure variations can be mon-
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
itored using pressure transducers attached
Time after casting (min) near the bottom of the column.
6. Lateral pressure of SCC determined from
Fig. 10 Comparison of lateral pressure determined using pressure sensors placed flush with the inner
the pressure sensot and strain agage systems until
cancellation in the hardened state (R: sand-to-total coarse
face of the formwork was found to corre-
aggregate ratio) spond well to the pressure determined using
46
strain gages welded to steel bars and an-
chored to the substrate concrete. The pres-
sure sensor system enables the measurement
of the pressure until its cancellation without
any interference between the stiffening con-
crete and the formwork.
References
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2. Civil Industries Research and Information Association
(CIRIA) (1965) The pressure of concrete on formwork.
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3. Roby HG (1935) Pressure of concrete on forms. Civil
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