Availability and Fade Margin Calculations For 5G M

applied
sciences
Article
Availability and Fade Margin Calculations for 5G
Microwave and Millimeter-Wave Anyhaul Links
Attila Hilt
Nokia Software, Cloud Core, Budapest Technology Center; H-1083, Bókay János utca 36-42, Budapest, Hungary;
attila.hilt@nokia.com

Received: 26 October 2019; Accepted: 28 November 2019; Published: 2 December 2019
Abstract: The deployment of new radio access technologies always provides a good opportunity and
timing to optimize the existing mobile front- and backhaul (commonly called “anyhaul”). The legacy
systems (Long-Term Evolution (LTE), High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA), third-generation mobile
(3G), second-generation mobile (2G)) already extensively utilize the transmission and transport
capacities of the mobile anyhaul. With the current launch of 5G (fifth-generation mobile) and recent
LTE-A (Advanced Long-Term Evolution), additional new transmission capacities are required again.
Depending on the traffic and network topology, additional cell sites are built, and even more locations
are connected with fiber optics. The existing microwave and millimeter-wave links are rotated
toward those aggregation points that already have optical-fiber access. Due to the increased cell-site
density, the average distance of the radio access links can be reduced by network and topology
optimization. The reduced hop lengths combined with adaptive modulation and automatic power
control bring an opportunity for capacity increase in shortened radio links. Links newly deployed for
5G find a wide spectrum in the millimetric V, E, W, and D frequency bands. This paper discusses
the availability and hop-length targets of the anyhaul links that should be carefully kept by proper
planning and monitoring.
Keywords: 5G; mobile anyhaul; hop length; rainfall rate; system gain; availability; outage
1. Introduction
This invited paper is an extended version of the paper presented at the 42nd Telecommunications
and Signal Processing conference [1]. The paper investigates the recommended hop length and
availability of microwave and millimeter-wave (µ/mmW) radio links operating in traditional and
new frequency bands. In Sections 2 and 3, it is shown that, in addition to the preferred fiber-optical
access, µ/mmW radio links continue to play an essential role in fronthaul and backhaul (commonly
called “anyhaul”) deployments of future mobile networks. In Section 4, a straightforward calculation
method is given for the fade margin (FM) of the links by using radio equipment parameters and
system gain (SG). Then, it is explained how to determine link availability from the calculated FM
and for the given hop length by taking rain and atmospheric attenuation into account. In Section 5,
maximum recommended hop-length curves are plotted as a function of rain-rate intensity for the
different frequency bands. The paper—as a planning guideline—focuses on real deployment scenarios.
Compared to earlier research and case studies, a general approach is presented for the practical
link designs [1]. With the step-by-step calculation method presented, the different antenna size,
the link polarization, and the used modulation modes can be taken into account. The presented
calculation method and charts provide useful help in the planning phase of newly deployed µ/mmW
links. The results also help in optimization projects, when existing links are shortened by rotating
toward new fiber access points. For the first time, maximum hop-lengthvs vs. rain-rate curves are
plotted that belong to the pre-determined availability of the radio links. Earlier, these calculations
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240; doi:10.3390/app9235240 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 22
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 2 of 22
these calculations were done using planning tools; here, the results are plotted by calculations of a
simple
were doneExcel macro.
using The charts
planning tools;presented in Section
here, the results 5 are illustrative
are plotted examples,
by calculations and the
of a simple presented
Excel macro.
method
The charts canpresented
be used in forSection
any equipment and antenna
5 are illustrative examples, combinations havingmethod
and the presented different cansystem
be usedand for
antenna gain values. Finally, in Section 6, an interesting conclusion is drawn;
any equipment and antenna combinations having different system and antenna gain values. Finally, in in Central/Eastern
Europe,
Section 6, even smaller countries
an interesting conclusionexhibit significant
is drawn; geographicalEurope,
in Central/Eastern variations
evenof smaller
rainfall-rate intensities.
countries exhibit
Therefore,
significant to maximize hop
geographical lengths
variations of for a given bit
rainfall-rate rate andTherefore,
intensities. SG, the local rainfall-rate
to maximize hopstatistics
lengths for area
recommended to be used during deployment and optimization. Finally, the
given bit rate and SG, the local rainfall-rate statistics are recommended to be used during deployment calculation method is
helpful in the monitoring
and optimization. Finally, thephase of mobile
calculation methodanyhaul networks,
is helpful when field phase
in the monitoring resultsof of the running
mobile anyhaul
µ/mmW links are compared to the planned parameters.
networks, when field results of the running µ/mmW links are compared to the planned parameters.
The
The new radioradioaccess
accesstechnologies
technologies (RATs)
(RATs) enable
enable diverse
diverse services
services and different
and different use in
use cases cases in
mobile
mobile
networks networks
(NWs).(NWs).On oneOn one the
hand, hand,5G the 5G (fifth-generation
(fifth-generation mobile)mobile)
broadband broadband
servicesservices
may requiremay
require Gbps (Gigabit/second)
Gbps (Gigabit/second) peak data peak data
rates or rates
even or even beyond.
beyond. On the
On the other other
hand, hand,critical
several severalservices,
critical
services, e.g.,control,
e.g., remote remote robotics,
control, robotics, or vehicular
or vehicular applications,
applications, require require ultra-high
ultra-high reliability
reliability and lowand low
latency
latency
(Figure (Figure 1) [2]. Therefore,
1) [2]. Therefore, the deployment
the deployment of 5G necessitates
of 5G necessitates a quicka expansion
quick expansion
of the of the fiber-
fiber-optical
optical
transporttransport
network, network,
as wellasaswellthe as the µ/mmW
µ/mmW radioin
radio links links
the in the entire
entire mobile mobile
front-front- and backhaul
and backhaul [1–6].
[1–6]. The existing
The existing mobilemobile
anyhaul anyhaul
networksnetworks
alreadyalready
provideprovide the transmission
the transmission capacitycapacity for the
for the recently
recently
deployeddeployed
Long-Term Long-Term
EvolutionEvolution (LTE-A (Advanced),
(LTE-A (Advanced), LTE) evolved LTE) evolvedasNode-Bs,
Node-Bs, well as theas capacity
well as the for
capacity
the legacy forsecond-
the legacy
and second- and third-generation
third-generation (2G/3G) base (2G/3G)
stations in base stations
most of thein most of [7,8].
countries the countries
[7,8].
Figure1.
Figure Fifth-generationmobile
1.Fifth-generation mobile(5G):
(5G):enabler
enablerfor
fordiverse
diverseuse
usecases
casesand
andservices.
services.
With the
With the new
new 5G
5G radio
radio access
access points
points (RAPs),
(RAPs), thethe density
density of of sites
sites is
is further
further increasing.
increasing. Combined
Combined
systems mesh
systems meshvarious
variousgenerations
generationsthat
thatare
areeither
eitherlegacy
legacy2G2Gsites,
sites,3G3GNode-Bs,
Node-Bs,LTE LTEeNode-Bs,
eNode-Bs,or ornew
new
5G RAPs. The different RATs (or simply “generations”) are frequently co-located
5G RAPs. The different RATs (or simply “generations”) are frequently co-located to accelerate to accelerate network
rollouts, rollouts,
network and theyand re-use
theyearlier
re-usesite investments
earlier to benefittofrom
site investments thefrom
benefit capacity of the existing
the capacity of the front-
existingor
backhaul. Earlier RATs are continuously modernized, often “re-farmed” toward
front- or backhaul. Earlier RATs are continuously modernized, often “re-farmed” toward 4G and 5G, 4G and 5G, resulting
in a continuous
resulting expansion and
in a continuous optimization
expansion of the mobile of
and optimization anyhaul [1–9]. This
the mobile paper
anyhaul investigates
[1–9]. how
This paper
the earlier deployed
investigates how the and newdeployed
earlier µ/mmW and linksnewcan contribute
µ/mmW links to thecandemands
contribute of bandwidth
to the demandsincrease.
of
Topology optimization, shortened radio links, adaptive modulation, and
bandwidth increase. Topology optimization, shortened radio links, adaptive modulation, and automatic transmit power
control (ATPC)
automatic techniques
transmit can all(ATPC)
power control contribute to extra
techniques capacity
can for theto
all contribute sites.
extraHowever,
capacity forforthe
5G,sites.
low
latency and
However, forhigh
5G, availability
low latencyrequirements should also
and high availability be fulfilledshould
requirements [2,5]. also be fulfilled [2,5].
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 3 of 22
2.2.Connection
ConnectionOptions
Optionsand
andTopology
Topology Optimization
Optimization after
after Site
Site Densification
Densification
With
With thethe deployment
deployment of of pico-cells
pico-cells andand5G5G introduction,
introduction, thethe distance
distance between
between neighboring
neighboring sitessites
is
is continuously
continuously decreasing.
decreasing. Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, thethe capacity
capacity demands
demands of of
thethe sites
sites areare increasing.As
increasing. Asa aresult,
result,
moreand
more andmore
morelocations
locationsrequire
requirefiber-optical
fiber-opticalconnection
connectionorormicrowave
microwavelinks linkswith
withincreased
increasedaccess
access
transmission capacity [1–8]. The rapid network expansion inherently provides the possibility ofof
transmission capacity [1–8]. The rapid network expansion inherently provides the possibility
optimization
optimization byby means
means of of topology
topology re-planning.
re-planning. Thanks
Thanks to the
to the site site densification,
densification, the lengths
the hop hop lengths
of theof
the micro- and millimeter-wave access links can be reduced. A recent case
micro- and millimeter-wave access links can be reduced. A recent case study estimated significant study estimated significant
hop-length
hop-length reduction
reduction with
with 5G 5G deployment
deployment [9]. [9].
The The shorter
shorter linkslinks can either
can either use higher
use higher millimeter-
millimeter-wave
wave frequencies
frequencies where available
where available bandwidths bandwidths
are wider; arealternatively,
wider; alternatively,
when thewhen same the same hardware
hardware is re-used,is
re-used,
the averagethe average
output output
power can power can beby
be regulated regulated
ATPC, and by ATPC,
elevated and elevated modulation
modulation can providecan provide
higher bit
higher
rates bit rates
[9–14]. Thus,[9–14]. Thus,
the access the access
capacity can be capacity
increased canand,
be increased
with careful and, with careful
re-design, re-design,
the possible radiothe
possible radio interference can simultaneously be reduced. Figure 2 shows
interference can simultaneously be reduced. Figure 2 shows two connection scenarios: how 5G and two connection scenarios:
how
LTE 5Gcan
cells andbe LTE cells cantobethe
connected connected
LTE and to 5Gthe LTEinand
cores the 5G
earlycores
5G in the early 5G
deployment deployment
phase, and thenphase,
to a
and then5G
common tocore
a common 5G corephase
in the mature in theofmature
5G. More phase of 5G. More
connection connection
options options
are discussed in are discussed
Reference [3]. in
Reference [3].
LTE Core 5G Core 5G Core
N2/3
S1
S1
LTE X2 5G LTE X2 5G
(a) (b)
Figure 2.2.Different
Figure Different5G
5Ginterfaces:
interfaces:(a)(a)ininearly
early5G
5Gphase;
phase;(b)
(b)ininmature
mature5G5G
phase.
phase.
As Asananexample,
example, the µ/mmW
the µ/mmW links of of
links ananurban
urbanaccess network
access areare
network shown
shown(dark lines)
(dark in Figure
lines) 3,
in Figure
as3,seen in theinlink
as seen theplanning tool. Line-of-sight
link planning (LoS) information
tool. Line-of-sight for possible
(LoS) information new radio
for possible new hops is plotted
radio hops is
with light-green
plotted lines. Highlines.
with light-green sites having fiber-optical
High sites access pointsaccess
having fiber-optical are considered
points are as transmission
considered as
hubs (e.g., the locations
transmission hubs (e.g.,102A
the and 270C 102A
locations in Figure
and 3) andin
270C areFigure
target3)
end-points of new
and are target links deployed
end-points of new
after site densification.
links deployed after site densification.
Route diversity can be achieved with short radio chains composed of a few µ/mmW hops and
fiber-optical loop-back. Alternatively, the entire loop can be fiber-optic and, from the aggregation
points, radio links can access the sites in star or in tree topology [8,15]. It should be mentioned also
that very long radio chains of multiple hops increase the delay and, therefore, cannot be tolerated by
low latency 5G services. Finally, a full mesh topology composed of µ/mmW radios, free-space optical
(FSO) links, and fiber-optical cables provides the mobile anyhaul [16–18]. Satellite links are very rarely
used in Europe due to the high associated installation and lease costs and the relatively low capacity
provided. Twisted pair or coaxial cables are limited in the bandwidth distance product; therefore,
metallic cables were step-by-step replaced by optical fibers. Lightweight optical fibers are already
widely used for remote antenna heads as feeder lines, and there is a significant research activity of
radio-over-fiber (RoF) systems to deliver combined “fiber/wireless” networks for a reduced cost, with
easier installation to support 5G deployments [5,17–23].
Figure 3. Example of topology re-planning for new and co-located sites.

Figure 2. Different 5G interfaces: (a) in early 5G phase; (b) in mature 5G phase.
As an example, the µ/mmW links of an urban access network are shown (dark lines) in Figure
3, as seen in the link planning tool. Line-of-sight (LoS) information for possible new radio hops is
plotted with light-green lines. High sites having fiber-optical access points are considered as
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9,hubs
transmission 5240 (e.g., the locations 102A and 270C in Figure 3) and are target end-points of4new
of 22
links deployed after site densification.
Route diversity can be achieved with short radio chains composed of a few µ/mmW hops and
fiber-optical loop-back. Alternatively, the entire loop can be fiber-optic and, from the aggregation
points, radio links can access the sites in star or in tree topology [8,15]. It should be mentioned also
that very long radio chains of multiple hops increase the delay and, therefore, cannot be tolerated by
low latency 5G services. Finally, a full mesh topology composed of µ/mmW radios, free-space optical
(FSO) links, and fiber-optical cables provides the mobile anyhaul [16–18]. Satellite links are very
rarely used in Europe due to the high associated installation and lease costs and the relatively low
capacity provided. Twisted pair or coaxial cables are limited in the bandwidth distance product;
therefore, metallic cables were step-by-step replaced by optical fibers. Lightweight optical fibers are
already widely used for remote antenna heads as feeder lines, and there is a significant research
Figure 3. Example of topology re-planning for new and co-located sites.
Figure 3. Example
activity of radio-over-fiber (RoF) of topologytore-planning
systems for new and“fiber/wireless”
deliver combined co-located sites. networks for a
reducedThecost, with easier
evolving installation
networking to support
scenario 5G deployments
is shown in Figure 4. [5,17–23].
Due to low latency requirements,
The evolving
cloudification, andnetworking
5G slicing, the scenario
cloud coreis shown in Figure
networks tend to4.beDue
more to distributed
low latencytoward
requirements,
the edge
cloudification,
sites. Current distributed radio access networks tend to be more centralized, and the role ofedge
and 5G slicing, the cloud core networks tend to be more distributed toward the fiber
sites.
opticsCurrent
in clouddistributed
RANs (radio radio access
access networksis tend
networks) to be more
increasing centralized,
[17–23]. However,and the the role of fiber
microwave and
optics in cloud RANs (radio access networks) is increasing [17–23]. However,
millimeter-wave links still continue to form an essential portion of the mobile anyhaul [1,3,4,6,7,9]. the microwave and
millimeter-wave
Business analystslinks still an
forecast continue
initial to form ansplit
50%/50% essential
of fiber portion of the mobile
and µ/mmW access anyhaul [1,3,4,6,7,9].
for 5G. Later on, this
Business analysts forecast an initial 50%/50% split of fiber and µ/mmW
split may change to 75% optical fiber and 25% radio, when new optical access points—often access for 5G. Later on, this
called
split
PoPsmay change
(points to 75% opticaladded
of presence)—are fiber and 25%
to the radio, when
networks. Thisnew
paperoptical
focusesaccess points—often
on the radio linkscalled
of the
PoPs (points of presence)—are added to the networks. This paper focuses
mobile anyhaul. The possible new mmW frequency bands, the radio link availability targets, on the radio linksand
of the
the
mobile
outage anyhaul.
caused byThe possible
rain new mmW
are discussed frequency
in later sectionsbands,
of the the radio link availability targets, and the
paper.
outage caused by rain are discussed in later sections of the paper.
Figure 4. Evolving core and radio access network (RAN) toward cloudification, 5G slicing, and
Figure 4. Evolving core and radio access network (RAN) toward cloudification, 5G slicing, and edge
edge sites.
sites.
3. Higher Link Frequencies and Bit Rates

As the access links are getting shorter and the capacity demands are increasing continuously,
frequencies in millimeter-wave bands are becoming more and more employed [1,4–6,9,11–13]. The
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 5 of 22
3. Higher Link Frequencies and Bit Rates

As the access links are getting shorter and the capacity demands are increasing continuously,
frequencies in millimeter-wave bands are becoming more and more employed [1,4–6,9,11–13].
The millimeter-wave bands V, E, W, and D (57–66, 71–86, 92–114.25, and 130–174.8 GHz, respectively)
are coming into focus because wider radio-frequency (RF) bandwidths are available and, as such, the bit
rate of the connections is increased and latency is reduced [12–14]. The European Telecommunication
Standards Institute (ETSI) discussed the possible frequency bands in Reference [24]. The channel
spacing may reach GHz values, i.e., as a multiple of 250 MHz, as seen in Table 1. In the 71–86-GHz
bands, the link bit rates go beyond Gbit/s. In the widest 2-GHz RF channel, the link bit rate is above
10 Gbps with equipment from the best equipment class of ETSI [14,24–26].
Table 1. Channel separation and link bit rates in the different frequency bands.
Capacities 1 According to
Frequency Bands Channel Separation Options 1
Equipment Class and Channel
(GHz) Minimum; . . . ; Maximum (MHz)
Separation (Mbit/s)
13, 15 1.75; 3.5; 7; 14; 28; 56 4–431
18 1.75; 3.5; 7; 13.75; 27.5; 55; 110 4–862
23, 26, 28, 32, 38, 42 3.5; 7; 14; 28; 56; 112 4–862
50, 52, 55 3.5; 7; 14; 28; 56 2–128
30 or 50, multiple of 30 or 50, 28.5–3400
57–64, 64–66 (V band)
maximum 2000 (unlicensed band)
62.5; 125; 250; 500; 750; 1000; 1250;
71, 76, 81, 86 (E band) 35–11200
1500; 1750; 2000
1 For more details, see European Telecommunication Standards Institute, ETSI EN 302 217-1 [24].
Please note that there may be deviations from the frequency allocation rules indicated in Table 1
based on local decisions of the national communication authorities. The European Conference of Postal
and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) already allocates frequencies up to 175 GHz [27–29].
Actual research of fiber/wireless systems goes above 200 GHz [5,12,19,30].
Different methods are utilized to increase the overall transmission capacity of a radio link.
A traditional approach is to combine two radio channels operating with different carrier frequencies.
Multiple channels operating at different carrier frequencies can also be branched together. Polarization
multiplexed links (often simply called “dual-polar” or “cross-polar” links) add up the two different
polarizations (i.e., vertical and horizontal) to double the transmission capacity [13,14,31–34]. However,
dual-polar links require special antennas, and are more sensitive to interference and rain, as discussed
in later sections. The combination of cross-polarized and multi-frequency techniques is also well
known and widely used. For example, by adding two radio channels (in the same frequency band)
and two polarizations, the link capacity can be quadrupled. A novel and interesting approach is to
aggregate parallel links operating in different frequency bands to increase capacity. A recent filed trial
reported an aggregated bit rate of 100 Gbps over microwaves with these techniques [35]. Dual-band
antennas are available to combine traditional frequency bands with the E band [9,26].
4. Link Parameters and Availability Calculation

In addition to the climatic and meteorological factors, the availability recommendations
for individual links depend on the topology and diversity methods used. Instead of “bulky”
hardware-based 1 + 1 link protection, in the urban environment, route diversity is recommended [15].
The installation of additional parabolic antennas for link diversity is avoided due to the undesired visual
impact. The availability targets are split into site- and link-specific targets. Overall link availability
targets are usually given as “four-” or “five-nines”. Each radio access link should have, e.g., A = 99.99%
availability over time, including outages due to rain and equipment failures. This 99.99% availability
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 6 of 22
corresponds to an annual outage of approximately 52 min. Outages of the individual links are caused
by the following:
• propagation (intensive rain and other atmospheric conditions, such as snow, fog, oxygen, or water
vapor absorption at very high frequencies);
• link unavailability due to radio equipment failure.
With reasonable dish sizes, the link unavailability (U) should be U = 0.01% of the time or less.
The link planning guidelines target individual link availability for an annual timeframe that includes
the seasonal fluctuations of weather conditions. The goal is to ensure reliable links, regardless of the
undesired effects of propagation phenomena and rain. Exceptions may occur, when antenna size is
limited due to civil work constraints, e.g., wind load or authorities not permitting the installation of
bigger diameter dishes. In the calculations, the frequently used frequency bands are investigated [24].
Appl.
ThisSci. 2019, 9,
paper x FOR PEER
focuses intensities R < 100 mm/h that are typical in Central and Eastern Europe.
REVIEW
on rain 6 of 22
For completeness, higher rain rates are also calculated, following the rain and propagation model of
For
thecompleteness, higher rain rates areUnion,
International Telecommunication also calculated, following the rain[36–39].
ITU-R P recommendations and propagation model of
the International Telecommunication Union, ITU-R P recommendations [36–39].
4.1. System Gain Calculation
4.1. System Gain Calculation
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) defines system gain as follows [1,40,41]:
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) defines system gain as follows [1,40,41]:
SG(BER)[[dB]] = PTX [[dBm]] − PRXth (BER)[dBm ]
]. (1)
𝑆𝐺 𝐵𝐸𝑅 = 𝑃 −𝑃 𝐵𝐸𝑅 [ . (1)
Thesystem
The system gain appropriately
appropriatelycharacterizes
characterizesthe transmitter
the transmitter andandthe the
receiver modules
receiver of theof
modules digital
the
µW or µW
digital mmW or radio
mmW link. Thus,
radio SGThus,
link. helps toSGdetermine
helps to the maximum
determine thedistance
maximum that distance
the equipment can
that the
connect with
equipment canaconnect
given, pre-defined pre-definedPavailability.
with a given,availability. TX is the “nominal”
P TX is thetransmit
“nominal”power at
transmitthe output
power atof
theoutput
the transceiver
of themodule (pointmodule
transceiver C/C’ in(point
FigureC/C’
5). The reference
in Figure 5). points are according
The reference pointstoare
theaccording
definitiontoof
ETSI
the (as provided
definition in Reference
of ETSI [24]). For
(as provided simplicity, [24]).
in Reference neither feeder
For lines norneither
simplicity, additional
feederbranching are
lines nor
indicated in the figure (for multi-channel or dual-polar links). When there is no
additional branching are indicated in the figure (for multi-channel or dual-polar links). When there feeder or additional
isbranching
no feeder network, thenbranching
or additional the transceiver can then
network, be directly connected
the transceiver canto be
thedirectly
transmitting
connectedantenna,
to theas
plotted in Figure
transmitting 5. Inasthis
antenna, case (C
plotted in0 =Figure
D0 ), the
5. output
In this power PTX canthe
case (C’=D’), be measured
output power at thePconnection
TX can be
point of the
measured antenna
at the (D/D’ in
connection Figure
point of the5). antenna (D/D’ in Figure 5).
transmitter
Z’ E’ A’ B’
X’1 PTX GTX
X’2
payload transmit
modulator transmitter
…
processing RF filter
X’n
C’ D’
branching
C D
X1
X2
payload de- receive
receiver
…
processing modulator RF filter

Xn
PRX GRX
Z E A B
receiver
Figure 5. Block diagram of the microwave and millimeter-wave (µ/mmW) transceiver (without feeder
lines),5.according
Figure to European
Block diagram Telecommunication
of the microwave Standards Institute,
and millimeter-wave (µ/mmW) ETSI EN 302 217.
transceiver The reference
(without feeder
points follow Reference [24].
lines), according to European Telecommunication Standards Institute, ETSI EN 302 217. The reference
points follow Reference [24].
“Nominal” refers to the fact that, in a wide frequency band and at changing ambient temperatures,
variation of a fewrefers
“Nominal” dB of to
thethe
output
factpower
that, may
in aoccur
wideand is tolerated
frequency [24,42].
band andThe
at calculations focus on
changing ambient
the output power
temperatures, level of
variation that
a is
fewguaranteed
dB of theatoutput
any frequency
power may andoccur
temperature within the[24,42].
and is tolerated operational
The
calculations focus on the output power level that is guaranteed at any frequency and temperature
within the operational range of the outdoor unit (ODU). PRXth is the receiver sensitivity threshold, i.e.,
the input power at the receiver that is required for demodulation. Again, if there is no feeder and
branching network, then this input power level can be measured directly at the antenna connection
point (point D in Figure 5). In a digital link, the sensitivity threshold of the receiver is defined for a
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 7 of 22
range of the outdoor unit (ODU). PRXth is the receiver sensitivity threshold, i.e., the input power at the
receiver that is required for demodulation. Again, if there is no feeder and branching network, then
this input power level can be measured directly at the antenna connection point (point D in Figure 5).
In a digital link, the sensitivity threshold of the receiver is defined for a given modulation mode and bit
error rate (BER) [41,43]. In the case of transceivers capable of adaptive modulation, each modulation
mode and the corresponding bit rate has its own set of BER thresholds [10]. In this paper, we use the
threshold values belonging to BER = 10−6 . Please note that BER = 10−3 thresholds are also often used.
From a system design point of view, any gain due to error correction coding (e.g., FEC, forward error
correction) is already considered in the given thresholds.
It is important to mention that an alternative system gain definition also includes the gains of the
transmit (TX) and receive (RX) antennas (please see Reference [33]).
SGa (BER)[dB] = PTX [dBm] + GTXa [dBi] + GRXa [dBi] − PRXth (BER)[dBm] , (2)
where GTXa and GRXa stand for the transmit and receive antenna gains, respectively. As indicated with
Appl. Sci. 2019,
the “dBi” 9, x at
unit, FOR PEER REVIEW
microwave 7 ofare
and at millimeter-wave frequencies—by definition—the antenna gains 22
compared to the gain of the isotropic antenna. To distinguish between the two alternative definitions
are compared to the gain of the isotropic antenna. To distinguish between the two alternative
of system gain, in Equation (2), we note SGa to indicate that both TX and RX antenna gains are added
definitions of system gain, in Equation (2), we note SGa to indicate that both TX and RX antenna gains
already. The two system gain definitions are illustrated in Figure 6, where only the µ/mmW parts are
are added already. The two system gain definitions are illustrated in Figure 6, where only the µ/mmW
indicated. The payload and modulator/demodulator blocks shown in Figure 5 are not repeated in
parts are indicated. The payload and modulator/demodulator blocks shown in Figure 5 are not
Figure 6.
repeated in Figure 6.
transmitter SG receiver
E’ A’ B’ B A E
TX RF
PTX +GTXa +GRXa -PRXth RX RF
… transmitter receiver …
filter filter
branching
branching
C’ D’ D C
… RX RF TX RF …
receiver transmitter
filter filter
E A B SGa B’ A’ E’
receiver transmitter
Figure 6. System gain definitions—with and without antennas [1].

Using the alternative system gain definition SGa is convenient when the transceiver has either an
Using the alternative system gain definition SGa is convenient when the transceiver has either
integrated antenna built together with the ODU (Figure 7a) or a flip-mount antenna directly attached to
an integrated antenna built together with the ODU (Figure 7a) or a flip-mount antenna directly
the ODU (Figure 7b). For dual-polarization and multi-channel links, additional signal combiners and/or
attached to the ODU (Figure 7b). For dual-polarization and multi-channel links, additional signal
feeder waveguides are required (Figure 7c,d) that introduce additional losses into the entire system.
combiners and/or feeder waveguides are required (Figures 7c and 7d) that introduce additional losses
A microwave or millimeter-wave link is operational, as long as the system gain is higher than the
into the entire system.
sum of link losses minus the sum of link gains in a hop.
Link losses[dB] − Link gains[dB] < SG[dB] . (3)
When designing µ/mmW links, the network planners should use the SG values carefully, i.e., they
must remember which definition is used by the equipment manufacturers when the parameters are
specified. The calculation of a complete link is presented in the next section.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 7. (a) Integrated antenna assembled as part of the outdoor unit (ODU). (b) Slip-mount antenna
fitted without feeder lines to the ODU. (c) Example of combining polarization; photo reproduced with
permission from RACOM [34]. (d) Separated antenna with two ODUs and two feeder waveguides.
A microwave or millimeter-wave link is operational, as long as the system gain is higher than
the sum of link losses minus the sum of link gains in a hop.
Using the alternative system gain definition SGa is convenient when the transceiver has either
an integrated antenna built together with the ODU (Figure 7a) or a flip-mount antenna directly
attached to the ODU (Figure 7b). For dual-polarization and multi-channel links, additional signal
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 8 of 22
combiners and/or feeder waveguides are required (Figures 7c and 7d) that introduce additional losses
into the entire system.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(a)Integrated
Figure7.7.(a)
Figure Integratedantenna
antennaassembled
assembledasaspart
partofofthe
theoutdoor
outdoorunit
unit(ODU).
(ODU).(b)(b)Slip-mount
Slip-mountantenna
antenna
fitted without feeder lines to the ODU. (c) Example of combining polarization; photo reproduced
fitted without feeder lines to the ODU. (c) Example of combining polarization; photo reproduced with with
permissionfrom
permission fromRACOM
RACOM[34].[34].(d)
(d)Separated
Separatedantenna
antennawithwithtwo
twoODUs
ODUsandandtwo
twofeeder
feederwaveguides.
waveguides.
4.2. Link Budget and Fading Margin Calculations

A microwave or millimeter-wave link is operational, as long as the system gain is higher than
the sumTheofreceived signal
link losses level
minus the(RSL)
sumbehind
of link the receiving
gains antenna is calculated as follows [31,41,43]:
in a hop.
[ ] [ ] [ ]
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘
PRX [dBm ] 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 − G𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘[dBi
= PTX [dBm] + 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠
] 𝑆𝐺] −
+ GRXa [dBi PL. [dB] , (3)
(4)
TXa
When designing µ/mmW links, the network planners should use the SG values carefully, i.e.,
where
they PLremember
must is the propagation loss. With
which definition outdoor
is used by theunits integrated
equipment with or directly
manufacturers when themounted onto
parameters
the antenna (Figure 7a,b), the waveguide and additional branching loss terms
are specified. The calculation of a complete link is presented in the next section. are zero in Equation
(4) [31,40]. As the link is single-polarized, a polarization combiner between the ODU and the antenna
(Figure
4.2. Link 7c) is not
Budget discussed
and [34]. The
Fading Margin propagation loss PL is calculated as follows:
Calculations
The received signal PL
level
[dB](RSL) behind
= FSL[dB] + Athe
r
[dBreceiving
]
+ Aa [dB]antenna is] calculated
+ Amp [dB + Ao [dB] . as follows [31,41,43]:(5)
𝑃 [ ]
= 𝑃 [ ]
+ 𝐺 [ ] + 𝐺 [ ] − 𝑃𝐿[ ] , (4)
In clear LoS conditions, the obstacle loss Ao is zero. At high frequencies, the effect of multipath
where
fadingPLAmpis the propagation
is usually loss. With
not relevant, outdoor
thanks to the units integrated
very short hops. with or directly
Typically, mounted
in an urban onto the
environment,
antenna (Figurespropagation
any alternative 7a and 7b), the waveguide
path is blockedand additionalorbranching
by buildings loss terms
other obstacles. are zero
Multipath in Equation
fading is more
relevant at lower frequencies (i.e., frequencies at 18 GHz or below) and where reflection from large
water surfaces may happen, e.g., propagation over lake or sea. Ar and Aa are the terms of rain and
atmospheric attenuation in Equation (5). The unfaded received signal level PRXu is determined by the
free space loss (FSL), the transmitted power PTX , and the gain of the antennas (Figure 8).
PRXu [dBm] = PTX [dBm] + GTXa [dBi] + GRXa [dBi] − FSL[dB] . (6)
The free space loss is calculated as follows [1,31,40]:
FSL( f , d)[dB] = 92.44 + 20· log f

[GHz]
+ 20· log d [km] , (7)
where f is the frequency of the link, and d is the hop length. The constant of 92.44 dB allows the
calculation in convenient GHz and km units for the frequency and distance, respectively. The fade
margin (FM) is the difference between the unfaded RSL and the receiver sensitivity threshold.
FM[dB] = PRxu [dBm] − PRXth (BER)[dBm] . (8)
FM should compensate for all unwanted factors degrading the link availability: rain, fog, dust,
snow, atmospheric attenuation, and interference. Interference degrades the sensitivity threshold PRXth
of the receiver. In a sunny scenario, the link can switch to elevated modulation mode to carry more
data. Combining Equations (1), (6), and (8), we get
FM( f , d, O) [dB] = SG[dB] + GTxa [dBi] + GRxa [dBi] − FSL[dB] . (9)

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 9 of 22
Equation (9) simplifies to Equation (10) when the transmit and receive antennas have equal gain
(i.e., same antenna type and dish size are used at both ends of the link).
(4) [31,40]. As the link is single-polarized, a polarization combiner between the ODU and the antenna
FM( f , d, O) [dB] = SG[dB] + 2Gant [dBi] − FSL[dB] . (10)
(Figure 7c) is not discussed [34]. The propagation loss PL is calculated as follows:
𝑃𝐿[ ] = a𝐹𝑆𝐿
As seen, at a given frequency, + 𝐴 [ ] gain
[ ] system
higher + 𝐴 [results
]
+ 𝐴in a[ better
] [ ] margin of the link for a
+ 𝐴fade . (5)
given d hop length and Ø antenna diameter. In mobile front- and backhaul expansion projects (simply
In clear LoS conditions, the obstacle loss Ao is zero. At high frequencies, the effect of multipath
“anyhaul” or also called “X-haul” [13,25]), the manufacturer and the type of the radio equipment
fading Amp is usually not relevant, thanks to the very short hops. Typically, in an urban environment,
are usually defined. Thus, parameters SG, PTX , and PRXth are given and cannot be selected freely.
any alternative propagation path is blocked by buildings or other obstacles. Multipath fading is more
In several projects, for example, it is expected to re-use the equipment running in the field. Only few
relevant at lower frequencies (i.e., frequencies at 18 GHz or below) and where reflection from large
parameters remain free for the planners in practice, when the new links in the network are designed.
water surfaces may happen, e.g., propagation over lake or sea. Ar and Aa are the terms of rain and
In the planning phase, therefore, both the frequency band f and the antenna diameters should be
atmospheric attenuation in Equation (5). The unfaded received signal level PRXu is determined by the
carefully selected for a given hop length d. Lower frequencies are more “valuable” and should be
free space loss (FSL), the transmitted power PTX, and the gain of the antennas (Figure 8).
reserved for long-haul links. For simultaneously reducing the undesired radio interference [43] and
[ ]
𝑃 [bigger
increasing the FM, preferably ]
𝑃 [ diameters
= dish ]
+ 𝐺 and + 𝐺use [of ATPC
the ] [ ]recommended.
− 𝐹𝑆𝐿are . (6)
Figure 8. Link budget and fading margin calculation.

Figure 8. Link budget and fading margin calculation.
Radio links using adaptive modulation have different PRXth thresholds for the different modulation
modesThe free space
(Figure losslow
9). The is calculated
modulationasmode
follows [1,31,40]:
is active in the rainy minutes when FM compensates for
the loss caused by rain. During sunny periods when the FM is available, the link can jump to elevated
𝐹𝑆𝐿 𝑓, 𝑑 [ ] = 92.44 + 20 ∙ log 𝑓 [ ] + 20 ∙ log 𝑑 [ ] , (7)
modulation modes; thus, more data can be transmitted [1,11,31–34]. For simplicity, Figure 9 shows
where f is the
quadrature frequency
amplitude of the link,
modulation and donly
(QAM) is the
up hop length.
to the The [10].
512 states constant of 92.44 dBtransceivers
State-of-the-art allows the
calculation in convenient GHz and km units for the frequency and distance,
can use up to 4096-QAM to reach multi Gigabit/s bit rates as discussed in Section 3. respectively. The fade
margin (FM) the
Finally, is the difference
link between
is operational the unfaded
as long RSL
as its fade and the
margin receiverthan
is greater sensitivity threshold.
the losses caused by the
rain and by the atmospheric attenuation
𝐹𝑀[ ] =(obstacle
𝑃 [ losses
]
− 𝑃 and𝐵𝐸𝑅
interference
[ ]
. are not considered). (8)
[dB] [dB]
FM should compensate for all FMunwanted > Afactors + Aa [dB] .the link availability: rain, fog, dust,
r,0.01% degrading (11)
snow, atmospheric attenuation, and interference. Interference degrades the sensitivity threshold PRXth
of the receiver. In a sunny scenario, the link can switch to elevated modulation mode to carry more
data. Combining Equations (1), (6), and (8), we get
[ ] [ ]
𝐹𝑀 𝑓, 𝑑, Ø [ ]
= 𝑆𝐺 [ ]
+𝐺 +𝐺 − 𝐹𝑆𝐿[ ]
. (9)
Equation (9) simplifies to Equation (10) when the transmit and receive antennas have equal gain
(i.e., same antenna type and dish size are used at both ends of the link).
[ ]
𝐹𝑀 𝑓, 𝑑, Ø [ ]
= 𝑆𝐺 [ ]
+ 2𝐺 − 𝐹𝑆𝐿[ ]
. (10)
As seen, at a given frequency, a higher system gain results in a better fade margin of the link for
a given d hop length and Ø antenna diameter. In mobile front- and backhaul expansion projects
(simply “anyhaul” or also called “X-haul” [13,25]), the manufacturer and the type of the radio
[43] and increasing the FM, preferably bigger dish diameters and the use of ATPC are recommended.
Radio links using adaptive modulation have different PRXth thresholds for the different
modulation modes (Figure 9). The low modulation mode is active in the rainy minutes when FM
compensates for the loss caused by rain. During sunny periods when the FM is available, the link can
jump to elevated modulation modes; thus, more data can be transmitted [1,11,31–34]. For simplicity,
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 10 of 22
Figure 9 shows quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) only up to the 512 states [10]. State-of-the-
art transceivers can use up to 4096-QAM to reach multi Gigabit/s bit rates as discussed in Section 3.
link capacity [Mbps]
512- 512-
256- 256-
QAM 128- 128- QAM
QAM 64- 64- QAM
QAM 32- QAM
QAM QAM
QAM
sunny scenario guaranteed bit-rate time
Figure 9.
Figure Adaptive link
9. Adaptive link modulation
modulation when
when ensuring
ensuring guaranteed
guaranteed bit
bit rate
rate during
during intensive
intensive rain.
rain.
4.3. Rain and Atmospheric Attenuation
Finally, the link is operational as long as its fade margin is greater than the losses caused by the
The rain
rain and by theattenuation
atmospheric calculation
attenuationfollows thelosses
(obstacle methodology discussed
and interference are in
notITU-R P.530 [36–38].
considered).
The rain attenuation term A0.01% refers to the attenuation that is exceeded for 0.01% of the time and
caused by intensive rainfall. This rain𝐹𝑀
[ ]
> 𝐴 , . % [ ] + 𝐴 in[ 0.01%
attenuation—exceeded
]
. of the time—is given as
(11)
4.3. Rain and Atmospheric Attenuation d

A0.01% [dB] = γR deff = γR . (12)
1 + d/d0
The rain attenuation calculation follows the methodology discussed in ITU-R P.530 [36–38]. The
rain attenuation (12),Aγ0.01%
In Equationterm R isrefers
the specific attenuationthat
to the attenuation (in is
dB/km) duefor
exceeded to 0.01%
rain, and defftime
of the is the
andeffective
caused
hop length. rainfall. This rain attenuation—exceeded in 0.01% of the time—is given as
by intensive
d
d =
[ eff
]
. 𝑑 (13)
𝐴 . % = 𝛾1𝑑+ d/d
= 𝛾0 . (12)
1 + 𝑑/𝑑
When the rain rate is R0.01% ≤ 100 mm/h, then
In Equation (12), γR is the specific attenuation (in dB/km) due to rain, and deff is the effective hop
length. d0 = 35e−0.015R0.01% . (14)
𝑑
When R0.01% > 100 mm/h, then d0 = 35 × = (i.e., R =. 100 mm/h is used for all rain rates above
𝑑 e−1.5 (13)
1 + 𝑑/𝑑
100 mm/h). However, such intensive rain is not relevant in the Central and Eastern Europe region [37].
When to
According theITU-R
rain rate is R
P.838, the ≤ 100 mm/h,
specific
0.01% then for vertical polarization is calculated as follows:
attenuation
𝑑 = 35𝑒 . αV . % . (14)
γR,V = kV R , (15)
When R0.01% > 100 mm/h, then d0 = 35 × e (i.e., R = 100 mm/h is used for all rain rates above 100
−1.5
and thatHowever,
mm/h). for horizontal
suchpolarization
intensive rainis calculated as follows:
is not relevant in the Central and Eastern Europe region [37].
According to ITU-R P.838, the specific attenuation for vertical polarization is calculated as follows:
γR,H = kH RαH , (16)
𝛾 , =𝑘 𝑅 , (15)
where the constants kV , αV , kH , and αH depend on the frequency f and the polarization of the link [38].
V and H stand for vertical and horizontal polarization, respectively.
The atmospheric attenuation, Aa , is caused by the absorption of gaseous particles in the air.
Compared to rain attenuation (Ar,0.01% in Equation (11)), for few-km short hops, Aa is negligibly small
in most of the frequency bands used by µ/mmW links. As seen in Figure 10, up to 300 GHz, there are
four remarkable attenuation peaks [39]. Water vapor causes extra attenuation in the 23 GHz band
(where Asp = 0.2 dB/km) and around 180 GHz.
where the constants kV, αV, kH, and αH depend on the frequency f and the polarization of the link [38].
V and H stand for vertical and horizontal polarization, respectively.
The atmospheric attenuation, Aa, is caused by the absorption of gaseous particles in the air.
Compared to rain attenuation (Ar,0.01% in Equation (11)), for few-km short hops, Aa is negligibly small
in most of the frequency bands used by µ/mmW links. As seen in Figure 10, up to 300 GHz, there
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240
are
11 of 22
four remarkable attenuation peaks [39]. Water vapor causes extra attenuation in the 23 GHz band
(where Asp = 0.2 dB/km) and around 180 GHz.
frequency [GHz]
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Specific
Specificattenuation
attenuationdue
duetotooxygen
oxygen (blue
(blue line),
line), water
water vapor
vapor (orange
(orange line),
line), andand
totaltotal
attenuation
attenuation (red line) according to International Telecommunication Union, ITU-R P.676-12.
(red line) according to International Telecommunication Union, ITU-R P.676-12. Reproduced with
Reproducedfrom
permission withITUpermission
[39]. from ITU [39].
Other high
Other high attenuation
attenuation peakspeaksare arecaused
causedby byoxygen
oxygenabsorption
absorption in in
thethe
56–64 GHz
56–64 andand
GHz in the 120
in the
GHzGHz
120 range [39,44,45].
range As seen
[39,44,45]. As seenin Figure 11,11,
in Figure thethe
attenuation
attenuation due
duetotooxygen
oxygenabsorption
absorptionisis very
very high:
high:
about A
about Asp =13–15
sp = 13–15 dB/km
dB/km in in the
the 58–62-GHz
58–62-GHz band.
band. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the 57–63
57–63 GHz
GHz links
links are limited to
are limited to aa few
few
hundred meters,
hundred meters, and and the
the use
use of of vertical
vertical polarization
polarization isis recommended
recommended [44,45].
[44,45]. On
On the
the other
other hand,
hand, at at
56–64 GHz,
56–64 GHz, duedue to to the
the very
very high
high atmospheric attenuation, the
atmospheric attenuation, the chance
chance for
for interference
interference from
from other
other links
links
is rather
is rather small,
small, enabling
enabling severe
severe frequency
frequency re-use.
re-use. The
The 30
30 or
or 50
50 MHz
MHz bands
bands are
are allocated
allocated by
by CEPT
CEPT in in
thisSci.
Appl.
this range, as
2019,as
range, listed
9, xlisted
FOR PEERin Table
in Table
REVIEW1.1. 11 of 22
Atmospheric
Figure 11.Figure attenuation
11. Atmospheric at 50–70 GHz
attenuation (in dB/km,
at 50–70 GHz (inred line: red
dB/km, sea level), according
line: sea level), to ITU-R
P.676-12. Reproduced with permission from ITU [39].
according to ITU-R P.676-12. Reproduced with permission from ITU [39].
For the frequently used bands, Table 2 summarizes the typical atmospheric attenuation values
per km (at sea level). These values are used in the calculations.
Table 2. Atmospheric attenuation at different frequencies.
Frequency band (GHz) 13 15 18 23 28 32 38 58 60 80 90 100

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 12 of 22
For the frequently used bands, Table 2 summarizes the typical atmospheric attenuation values per
km (at sea level). These values are used in the calculations.
Table 2. Atmospheric attenuation at different frequencies.
Frequency Band (GHz) 13 15 18 23 28 32 38 58 60 80 90 100

Asp , atmospheric
0.02 0.03 0.07 0.2 0.1 0.09 0.13 13 15 0.36 0.4 0.45
attenuation (dB/km)
For the entire link distance d, the total gaseous attenuation caused by water vapor and oxygen is
calculated as follows:
Aa [dB] = Asp [dB/km] ·d[km] . (17)
The atmospheric attenuation per km, Asp , is shown together with rain attenuation in Figure 12 up
to 200 GHz [12,30,32]. As seen, between 64 GHz and 120 GHz, there is a useful frequency “window”
where new mmW links can benefit from a wide spectrum with atmospheric attenuation below 1 dB/km.
Also, as seen in Figure 12, rain attenuation is dominant at all frequencies, except for 60, 120, and
180 GHz, where the atmospheric attenuation peaks are visible even when the rainfall rate is above
20 mm/h.
Figure 12. Combined atmospheric and rain attenuation in dB/km as a function of frequency [12]. The
Figure 12. Combined atmospheric and rain attenuation in dB/km as a function of frequency [12]. The
figure is re-printed with the permission of ETSI.
figure is re-printed with the permission of ETSI.
Equation (11) has no closed-form solution. After inserting the rain and atmospheric attenuation
Equation
formulas (11) has(12)–(17))
(Equations no closed-form solution.(11),
into Equation Afterthe
inserting
maximumthe rain
hopand atmospheric
length d can be attenuation
calculated
numerically for a given R0.01% rainfall rate, polarization (either V or H), and frequency f. calculated
formulas (Equations (12)–(17)) into Equation (11), the maximum hop length d can be
numerically for a given R0.01% rainfall rate, polarization (either V or H), and frequency f.
d
SG + 2G > 92.44 + 20 log( f ) + 20 log(d) + k RαV/H 𝑑 + Asp d, (18)
𝑆𝐺 + 2𝐺 ant > 92.44 + 20 log 𝑓 + 20 log 𝑑 + V/H 𝑘 / 𝑅 / 1 + d/35e−0.015R 0.01% + 𝐴 𝑑, (18)
1 + 𝑑/35𝑒 . . %
where ff is
where is in
in GHz
GHz andand ddisisin
inkm
kmunits. The SG,
units. The SG,GGant , and all the attenuation terms are in dB. Index
ant, and all the attenuation terms are in dB. Index
V/H that parameters k
V/H shows that parameters k and α are different forthe
shows and α are different for thetwo
twopolarizations.
polarizations. In
In Section
Section 5,
5, systematic
systematic
calculation results are given for typical system values considered in dense access
calculation results are given for typical system values considered in dense access networks. networks.
4.4. Obstacle Losses

4.4. Obstacle Losses
By careful link design and installation, any unwanted extra loss should be avoided, to preserve
By careful link design and installation, any unwanted extra loss should be avoided, to preserve
the highest possible fade margin for the link. Microwave and millimeter-wave links require clean
the highest possible fade margin for the link. Microwave and millimeter-wave links require clean
line-of-sight conditions that are checked in the planning phase of the links in two ways. The first
method is to use digital maps, digital terrain, and clutter models in the link planning tool. The second
method—not to be forgotten—involves site visits, where the LoS of the planned link is confirmed
and photographed. It is strongly recommended to always document the clean LoS in an LoS report
and to insert the confirmed LoS paths into the planning tool (green lines in Figure 3). With actual
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 13 of 22
line-of-sight conditions that are checked in the planning phase of the links in two ways. The first
method is to use digital maps, digital terrain, and clutter models in the link planning tool. The second
method—not to be forgotten—involves site visits, where the LoS of the planned link is confirmed
and photographed. It is strongly recommended to always document the clean LoS in an LoS report
and to insert the confirmed LoS paths into the planning tool (green lines in Figure 3). With actual
high-performing digital cameras, links of 50 km or even longer can be checked. Later, trees (Figure 13b),
new buildings, cranes, electric cables, or chimneys may block the link. As a rule of thumb, at a minimum,
the first Fresnel zone of the link should be clean [32,41]. However, in some urban environments, the
obstacle loss cannot be avoided, e.g., when the link must operate behind window lamels or camouflage
to reduce the visual impact of the antenna (Figure 13c). In such cases, the extra loss caused by the
obstacle
Appl. (Figure
Sci. 2019, 13)PEER
9, x FOR should be taken into account in the link budget calculation (Equation (5)).13 of 22
REVIEW
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure13.
Figure (a)Ice
13.(a) Iceand
andsnow
snowononthe
theradome
radomeofofaaparabolic
parabolicdish;
dish;the
thephoto
photoisisre-printed
re-printedwith
withpermission
permission
from RACOM
from RACOM[34]. [34]. (b)
(b)Extra
Extraattenuation
attenuationduedueto
toaatree
tree in
in the
the near
near field.
field. (c)
(c) ODU
ODU installed
installed behind
behindaa
churchwindow
church window (polycarbonate
(polycarbonate lamels).
lamels). (d)
(d)Metal
Metalcables
cablesinside
insidethethefirst
first Fresnel
Fresnel zone
zone of
of the
the µW link.
µW link.
5. Results and Calculation Examples

5. Results and Calculation Examples
Results of systematic hop-length calculations for short- and medium-haul digital µ/mmW
Results of systematic hop-length calculations for short- and medium-haul digital µ/mmW point-
point-to-point links are presented in this section. Solving Equation (18), the recommended maximum
to-point links are presented in this section. Solving Equation (18), the recommended maximum
distances were calculated. All the links operate in ETSI-defined communication bands widely used
distances were calculated. All the links operate in ETSI-defined communication bands widely used
in Europe, at frequencies of 13, 15, 18, 23, 26, 28, 32, 38, 58, and 80 GHz. Up to 38 GHz, the
in Europe, at frequencies of 13, 15, 18, 23, 26, 28, 32, 38, 58, and 80 GHz. Up to 38 GHz, the links in
links in the calculations used 14 MHz channel spacing (ETSI and ITU channel raster) and 32-TCM
the calculations used 14 MHz channel spacing (ETSI and ITU channel raster) and 32-TCM (trellis
(trellis coded modulation) for 34 Mbit/s [10,24]. The 58 GHz links used 50 MHz channel spacing.
coded modulation) for 34 Mbit/s [10,24]. The 58 GHz links used 50 MHz channel spacing. The
The transmitters were set to the highest output power and the links had identical antenna size on
transmitters were set to the highest output power and the links had identical antenna size on both
both ends. The main parameters of the calculated links are summarized in Tables 3 and 4. In the
ends. The main parameters of the calculated links are summarized in Table 3 and Table 4. In the 13–
13–38-GHz bands, slip-mounted 60-cm- and 30-cm-diameter parabolic dishes are used (marked with ø).
38-GHz bands, slip-mounted 60-cm- and 30-cm-diameter parabolic dishes are used (marked with ø).
At 58 GHz, ø 30-cm parabolic dishes and integrated 20-cm rectangular antennas are used (marked
with □). The integrated rectangular 58-GHz antenna is a grid composed of radiating waveguide
elements. The low-profile antenna structure and its measurement are discussed in Reference [46]. The
system and antenna gain values are illustrative examples. Naturally, the simulation can also run with
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 14 of 22
At 58 GHz, ø 30-cm parabolic dishes and integrated 20-cm rectangular antennas are used (marked with
). The integrated rectangular 58-GHz antenna is a grid composed of radiating waveguide elements.
The low-profile antenna structure and its measurement are discussed in Reference [46]. The system
and antenna gain values are illustrative examples. Naturally, the simulation can also run with different
SG values and with asymmetric antenna configuration.
Table 3. Transmit power, antenna gain, and receiver threshold of the calculated 13–38 GHz links.
BER—bit error rate.
Frequency Nominal Gant Gant PRXth at SGa = SG + 2Gant

Band PTX ø 30 cm ø 60 cm BER = 10−6 ø 30 cm ø 60 cm
(GHz) (dBm) (dBi) 1, 2 (dBi) 1, 3 (dBm) (dB) (dB)
13 20 30.9 35.8 −74 155.8 165.6
15 18 32.1 36.8 −76 158.2 167.6
18 18 34.2 38.7 −73 159.4 168.4
23 18 35.3 40.4 −75 163.6 173.8
26 18 36.6 41.2 −73 164.2 173.4
28 16 38.1 42.2 −72 164.2 172.4
32 16 38.9 43.7 −72 165.8 175.4
38 16 40.1 45.2 −73 169.2 179.4
1 Antennas in the calculations are ValuLine from Andrew, a CommScope Company. 2 The physical size of the 30-cm
(one foot) antenna is 39 cm (outer diameter). 3 The physical size of the 60-cm (two feet) antenna is 69 cm (outer
diameter) [47,48].
Table 4. Transmit power, antenna gain, and receiver threshold of the calculated 58 GHz links.
Frequency Nominal Gant Gant PRXth at SGa = SG + 2Gant

Band PTX 20 cm ø 30 cm BER = 10−6 20 cm ø 30 cm
(GHz) (dBm) (dBi) (dBi) (dBm) (dB) (dB)
58 5 36 41.5 −74 146 157
The graphs in Figures 14 and 15 were drawn using the rain model according to ITU-R P.838 [38].
The shadowed regions show typical rainfall rates in Central and Eastern Europe, (H and K rain
zones according to ITU-R P.837 [37]). The curves were calculated without any additional obstacle
loss (Figure 13). Single-polarized links were calculated, and there was no polarization combiner loss
calculated in the link budget. Antennas were directly connected the transceivers, thus no waveguide
losses were considered due to feeder lines. Vertical polarization is shown in Figures 14a and 15a.
Horizontal polarization is shown in Figure 14b and in Figure 15b. As earlier discussed in Section 4, at
58 GHz frequency, the atmospheric attenuation is very high. Therefore, horizontal polarization is not
recommended, and only vertical polarization is calculated [44,45,49]. Note that 7–15 GHz links are
rarely used in a dense urban environment. For the 13–18 GHz links, the minimum recommended dish
diameter is 60 cm. Several communication authorities specify very strict antenna pattern requirements
for the lower frequency bands to avoid interference (e.g., minimum antenna gain, maximum sidelobe,
front-to-back ratio) [50]. In practice, the 30 cm dishes are not permitted in the frequency bands below
18 GHz in some countries to achieve better frequency re-use. Therefore, the calculated 13–18 GHz links
with 30 cm dishes are shown only for comparison (the upper three curves in Figure 15a,b).
Finally, calculation results are shown for the E band. In the examples, the parameters of the Nokia
millimeter-wave radio family are used, as given in Table 5. The “Wavence” radios can operate with
several channel spacing options at 80 GHz: 62.5 MHz, 125 MHz, 250 MHz, 500 MHz, 750 MHz, 1 GHz,
1.25 GHz, 1.5 GHz, and 2 GHz. The 80 GHz radio uses adaptive modulation up to 256-QAM.
dish diameter is 60 cm. Several communication authorities specify very strict antenna pattern
requirements for the lower frequency bands to avoid interference (e.g., minimum antenna gain,
maximum sidelobe, front-to-back ratio) [50]. In practice, the 30 cm dishes are not permitted in the
frequency bands below 18 GHz in some countries to achieve better frequency re-use. Therefore, the
calculated 13–18
Appl. Sci. 2019, GHz links with 30 cm dishes are shown only for comparison (the upper three curves
9, 5240 15 of 22
in Figures 15a and 15b).
50 50
13 GHz, Vert, 60-60 cm 13 GHz, Hor, 60-60 cm
18 GHz, Vert, 60-60 cm
40 40 18 GHz, Hor, 60-60 cm
d, max. hop length [km]

23 GHz, Hor, 60-60 cm

26 GHz, Hor, 60-60 cm
30 30 28 GHz, Hor, 60-60 cm
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
R, rainfall intensity that is exceeded in 0.01% of time [mm/h] R, rainfall intensity that is exceeded in 0.01% of time [mm/h]
(a) (b)
Figure14.
Figure Recommended
14.Recommended hoplengths
hop lengthsasasa afunction
functionofofrainfall
rainfallintensity.
intensity.(a)(a)Hops
Hopswith
withvertical
vertical
polarization,3434Mbit/s,
polarization, Mbit/s,1414MHz,
MHz,and
andø ø6060cm
cmdishes.
dishes.For
Forthe
the58-GHz
58-GHzlink,
link,ø ø3030cm
cmdishes
dishesare
areused
usedinin
the calculations. (b) Hops with horizontal polarization, 34 Mbit/s, 14 MHz, and ø
the calculations. (b) Hops with horizontal polarization, 34 Mbit/s, 14 MHz, and ø 60 cm dishes. 60 cm dishes.
40 40
13 GHz, Hor, 30-30 cm
15 GHz, Hor, 30-30 cm
18 GHz, Hor, 30-30 cm
30 23 GHz, Vert, 30-30 cm
30 23 GHz, Hor, 30-30 cm
26 GHz, Hor, 30-30 cm


20 20
10 10
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
(a) (b)
Figure15.
Figure Recommendedhop
15.Recommended hoplengths
lengthsasasa afunction
functionofofrainfall
rainfallintensity.
intensity. (a)(a)Hops
Hopswith
withvertical
vertical
polarization,34
polarization, 34 Mbit/s,
Mbit/s, 14
14MHz,
MHz,and ø 30-cm
and dishes.
ø 30-cm In the
dishes. In58-GHz band,
the 58-GHz 20-cm□ rectangular
band, antennas
20-cm rectangular
are used.are
antennas (b)used.
Hops(b)
with
Hops horizontal polarization,
with horizontal 34 Mbit/s,
polarization, 3414 MHz,14
Mbit/s, and ø 30-cm
MHz, and dishes.
ø 30-cm dishes.
Finally, calculation results are shown for the E band. In the examples, the parameters of the
Table 5. Transmit power, antenna gain and receiver threshold of the calculated 80 GHz links.
NokiaBPSK—binary
millimeter-wave radio family
phase-shift are QPSK—quadrature
keying; used, as given in Table 5. The “Wavence”
phase-shift radios can operate
keying; QAM—quadrature
with several channel
amplitude spacing options at 80 GHz: 62.5 MHz, 125 MHz, 250 MHz, 500 MHz, 750 MHz,
modulation.
1 GHz, 1.25 GHz, 1.5 GHz, and 2 GHz. The 80 GHz radio uses adaptive modulation up to 256-QAM.
Modulation Nominal Gant Gant Gant PRXth at SGa = SG + 2Gant
Mode PTX ø 12 cm ø 39 cm ø 69 cm BER = 10−6 ø 12 cm ø 39 cm ø 69 cm
Table 5. Transmit
(dBm)power, antenna
(dBi) gain
(dBi)and receiver
(dBi) threshold of
(dBm) the calculated
(dB)
80 GHz
(dB)
links. (dB)
BPSK—binary phase-shift keying; QPSK—quadrature phase-shift keying; QAM—quadrature
BPSK 1/4 16 −76.4 168.4 178.6 194.2
BPSK 1/2 16 amplitude modulation. −73.4 165.4 175.6 191.2
BPSK 16 −70.4 162.4 172.6 188.2
QPSK 16 PRXth at
−67.4 Gant Gant Gant
SGa = SG169.6
159.4 + 2Gant 185.2
16-QAM
Nominal
14 −60.8
38
150.8
43.1
161.0
50.9
176.6
Modulation BER = ø12 cm ø 39 cm ø 69 cm
ø 12 cm ø 39 cm ø 69 cm
32-QAM PTX14 −57.7 147.7 157.9 173.5
mode
64-QAM 13.5
10−55.2
−6 (dBi)
(dB)
144.7
(dBi)
(dB) (dBi)
154.9 (dB)
170.5
(dBm)
128-QAM 12.5 (dBm)
−51.8 140.3 150.5 166.1
BPSK 1/4 16 −76.4 168.4 178.6 194.2
BPSKIn the calculations, 1 GHz RF bandwidth was selected. Three antenna configurations and191.2
1/2 16 −73.4 165.4 175.6 different
modulation modes16
BPSK were compared (from binary phase-shift−70.4 162.4to 128-QAM).
keying (BPSK) 172.6 The188.2ø 12-cm
QPSK 16
antenna was integrated with38 the ODU (see Figure −67.4 159.4 169.6 185.2
43.1 50.9 7a). The one-foot and two-foot antennas were
16-QAM
slip-mounted. 14 16 plots the calculation results. As −60.8
Figure 150.8 on the
seen, depending 161.0
antenna176.6
size and
32-QAM used, the
modulation 14 links can operate in distances of 1–4−57.7
km with A147.7
= 99.99% 157.9
availability173.5
in the K
64-QAM 13.5 −55.2 144.7 154.9 170.5
rain zone. Calculations show that the predicted behavior is very similar for horizontal and vertical
128-QAM in the
polarization 12.5
E band (Figure 16d), which needs to−51.8 140.3
be experimentally 150.5 by long-term
verified 166.1
measurements. Finally, the curves, such as that shown in Figure 16e, help to decide the minimum
In the calculations, 1 GHz RF bandwidth was selected. Three antenna configurations and
different modulation modes were compared (from binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) to 128-QAM).
The ø 12-cm antenna was integrated with the ODU (see Figure 7a). The one-foot and two-foot
antennas were slip-mounted. Figure 16 plots the calculation results. As seen, depending on the
antenna size and modulation used, the links can operate in distances of 1–4 km with A = 99.99%
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 16 of 22
required modulation mode and, as such, the bit rate that a link can support in the case of intensive rain
for a given hop length. The continuous monitoring of radio RSL and modulation mode is supported
Appl.
by Sci. 2019, 9,
Wavence x FOR PEER
radios, REVIEW
as illustrated in the example of Figure 16f. 16 of 22
5 6
80 GHz, V, 12 cm, BPSK 1/4 80 GHz, V, 39 cm, BPSK 1/4
80 GHz, V, 12 cm, BPSK 1/2 80 GHz, V, 39 cm, BPSK 1/2
5
4 80 GHz, V, 12 cm, BPSK 80 GHz, V, 39 cm, BPSK
80 GHz, V, 12 cm, QPSK 80 GHz, V, 39 cm, QPSK

80 GHz, V, 12 cm, 16-QAM 4 80 GHz, V, 39 cm, 16-QAM

3 80 GHz, V, 12 cm, 32-QAM 80 GHz, V, 39 cm, 32-QAM
80 GHz, V, 12 cm, 64-QAM 80 GHz, V, 39 cm, 64-QAM
3
80 GHz, V, 12 cm, 128-QAM 80 GHz, V, 39 cm, 128-QAM
2
2
1
1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
(a) (b)
8 4
80 GHz, V, 69 cm, BPSK 1/4 V, 12 cm, QPSK
7 80 GHz, V, 69 cm, BPSK 1/2 H, 12 cm, QPSK
80 GHz, V, 69 cm, BPSK V, 12 cm, 16-QAM
3
6 80 GHz, V, 69 cm, QPSK H, 12 cm, 16-QAM
80 GHz, V, 69 cm, 16-QAM V, 12 cm, 64-QAM

5
80 GHz, V, 69 cm, 32-QAM H, 12cm, 64-QAM
80 GHz, V, 69 cm, 64-QAM V, 12 cm, 128-QAM

4 2
80 GHz, V, 69 cm, 128-QAM H, 12 cm, 128-QAM
2 1
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
(c) (d)
8
256 0
V, 69 cm, QPSK
7
-20
V, 39 cm, QPSK
192
6
V, 12 cm, QPSK -40

modulation mode (n-QAM)
RSL [dBm]
5 V, 69cm, 128-QAM
128 -60
V, 39 cm, 128-QAM
4 TxMod -80
V, 12 cm, 128-QAM RXmod
64
3
RemRXpower -100
32
16 LocRXpower
2 QPSK
0 -120
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0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
R, rainfall intensity that is exceeded in 0.01% of time [mm/h] time
(e) (f)
Figure
Figure 16. Recommendedhop
16. Recommended hoplengths
lengthsasasa afunction
functionof of rainfall
rainfall intensity.
intensity. (a) Hops
(a) Hops withwith vertical
vertical
polarization,
polarization, 11 GHz
GHz channel
channel and
and øø 12-cm
12-cm dishes.
dishes. (b) Hops with vertical polarization, GHz channel
polarization, 1 GHz channel and
øand ø 39-cm
39-cm dishes.dishes. (c) with
(c) Hops Hopsvertical
with vertical polarization,
polarization, 1 GHz channel
1 GHz channel and ø
and ø 69-cm 69-cm(d)
dishes. dishes. (d)
Comparison
Comparison
of of vertical
vertical and andlinks
horizontal horizontal
at thelinks at themodulation
different different modulation
modes. (e)modes. (e) Comparison
Comparison of hopsofwith
hops with
different different
dish sizes. dish sizes. Modulations
Modulations are quadrature
are quadrature phase-shiftphase-shift keyingand
keying (QPSK) (QPSK) and 128-QAM.
128-QAM. (f) Example
(f)monitoring
of Example of themonitoring
local andthe local and
remote remotesignal
received received
levelsignal
(RSL)level
and(RSL) and modulation
modulation modes. modes.
6.6. Local
Local Rainfall Ratesand
Rainfall Rates andExperimental
ExperimentalVerification
Verification
As
As seen the global
seen in the globalrain-rate
rain-ratemap
mapofofFigure
Figure
17,17,
thethe Central
Central andand Eastern
Eastern European
European countries
countries fall fall
mainlyinto
mainly into the
the rain-rate
rain-rate zones
zones of
of 25
25 mm/h,
mm/h, 32 32 mm/h,
mm/h, andand 42
42 mm/h,
mm/h, called E, H, and K zones in the ITU
ITU recommendations.
recommendations. In planning
In the the planning phase,
phase, the the rainfall
rainfall raterate is often
is often approximated
approximated with
with one
one singlevalue
single
value for medium and small countries, i.e., 42 mm/h for the entire territory of Hungary,
for medium and small countries, i.e., 42 mm/h for the entire territory of Hungary, following ITU-R following
ITU-R P.837-1
P.837-1 [37]. [37].
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 17 of 22
Figure
Figure 17.17. Global
Global mapmap
of of rain-rate
rain-rate zones,
zones, reproduced
reproduced with
with permission
permission from
from RACOM
RACOM [51].
[51].
Figure 17. Global map of rain-rate zones, reproduced with permission from RACOM [51].
It Itisisworth
worthmentioning
mentioningthat thatadvanced
advanced linklink planning
planning tools toolsprovide
providethe thepossibility
possibilitytotodefine
definerain-rate
rain-
It is worth
polygons inside mentioning
a country that advanced
when more link planning
accurate data are tools provide
available. the for
Even possibility
medium- to or
define rain-
relatively
rate polygons inside a country when more accurate data are available. Even for medium- or relatively
rate polygons
small-sizeEuropean inside a country
European countries, when more accurate data are available. Even for medium- or relatively
small-size countries,the rainfall
the rate rate
rainfall may change
may change significantly inside theinside
significantly country.
theSwitzerland
country.
small-size
is shown in European
Figure 18a countries,
as an the where
example, rainfallthe rate
R mayrain change
rates varysignificantly
from 26 mm/hinside
to 46the
mm/hcountry.
into
the
0.01%
Switzerland is shown in Figure 18a as an example, where the R0.01% rain rates vary from 26 mm/h
Switzerland
different rainis shown
zones. in Figure
Research 18a as
activities an example,
are ongoing where
in the
several R 0.01% rain rates vary from 26 mm/h to
countries to determine accurate local
46 mm/h in the different rain zones. Research activities are ongoing in several countries to determine
46 mm/hrates,
rainfall in thespecific
different
forrain
the zones. Research
region. activities areare
ongoing in several countries to determine
accurate local rainfall rates, specific forFixed µ/mmW
the region. links
Fixed µ/mmW monitored
links are together
monitored with together
meteorological
with
accurate local
data continuously. rainfall rates, specific for the region. Fixed µ/mmW links are monitored together with
meteorological data There are also remarkable
continuously. There are long-term rain-ratelong-term
also remarkable measurement activities
rain-rate in the Czech
measurement
meteorological
Republic data continuously. There are also remarkable long-term rain-rate measurement
activities inand in Hungary
the Czech Republic [12,44,52,53].
and in HungaryRainfall and RSL results
[12,44,52,53]. Rainfall areand
stored
RSL with
resultshigh
areaccuracy
stored with and
activities
timeaccuracy in
resolution.the Czech Republic and in Hungary [12,44,52,53]. Rainfall and RSL results are stored with
high andThetimestatistical
resolution.evaluation of rainevaluation
The statistical attenuation ofisrain
based on the long-term
attenuation is based data
on the collected
long-
high accuracy and
experimentally. time18b
Figure resolution.
shows The statistical
significant evaluation
rainfall intensity ofdifferences
rain attenuation is based
calculated for on the long-
Hungary [53].
term data collected experimentally. Figure 18b shows significant rainfall intensity differences
term
Long-term data collected experimentally. Figure 18b shows significant rainfall intensity differences
calculated fortrial and operator
Hungary network trial
[53]. Long-term experience were also
and operator published
network for thewere
experience 58 GHzalso and 73 GHz
published
calculated
links for Hungary [53]. Long-term trial and operator network experience were also published
[44,45,52,53].
for the 58 GHz and 73 GHz links [44,45,52,53].
for the 58 GHz and 73 GHz links [44,45,52,53].
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure18.18.R0.01%
R0.01%in mm/h, thethe
rainfall intensities exceeded 0.01% ofof
the
thetime.
time.(a)(a)Rain-rate contour
Figure 18. R 0.01%ininmm/h,
mm/h, rainfall
the rainfall intensities
intensities exceeded
exceeded 0.01%
0.01% of the time. (a) Rain-rate
Rain-rate contour
contour
lines ininSwitzerland.
lines Switzerland. (b)(b)
Rain-rate
Rain-rate regions
regionsinin
Hungary
Hungary asas
calculated
calculatedinin
Reference
Reference [53]. The
[53]. figure
The is is
figure
lines in Switzerland. (b) Rain-rate regions in Hungary as calculated in Reference [53]. The figure is
reproduced with
reproduced with permission
with permission from
permission from László
from László Csurgai-Horváth.
László Csurgai-Horváth.
Csurgai-Horváth.
reproduced
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 18 of 22

A very accurate meteorological report is available, e.g., for Norway [54]. Rainfall intensities
A very
exceeded foraccurate meteorological
0.5%, 0.1%, reportofisthe
0.01%, and 0.001% available, e.g.,
time were for Norway
measured over [54]. Rainfall
several intensities
decades. Such an
exceeded for 0.5%, 0.1%, 0.01%, and 0.001% of the time were measured over several
accurate report is very helpful in the availability design of µ/mmW links (Figure 19). decades. Such an
accurate report is very helpful in the availability design of µ/mmW links (Figure 19).
(a) (b) (c)
Figure
Figure19.
19.Rainfall
Rainfallmaps
mapsofofNorway
Norwaymeasured
measuredover
overaalong
longperiod.
period.(a)
(a)Rainfall
Rainfallrates
ratesininmm/h,
mm/h,exceeded
exceeded
0.001%ofofthe
0.001% thetime.
time.
(b)(b) Rainfall
Rainfall rates
rates in mm/h,
in mm/h, exceeded
exceeded 0.01%0.01%
of theoftime.
the (c)
time. (c) Rainfall
Rainfall rates in rates
mm/h, in
mm/h, exceeded
exceeded 0.1%
0.1% of the of the
time. time. Reproduced
Reproduced with permission
with permission from the Norwegian
from the Norwegian Meteorological
Meteorological Institute
Institute [54].
[54].
7.7.Discussion
Discussion
Microwave and
Microwave and millimeter-wave
millimeter-wave links linkscontinue
continuetotosupport
supportthe themobile
mobile anyhaul
anyhaul networks
networks both for
both
thethe
for legacy
legacy andandthethenewnew 5G5Gradio
radioaccess
accesspoints.
points.Site
Sitedensification
densification and new fiber-optical
and new fiber-opticalaggregation
aggregation
points result in shorter hop lengths for the µ/mmW links. In the
points result in shorter hop lengths for the µ/mmW links. In the coming years, a mesh topologycoming years, a mesh topology
composed of fiber-optical, FSO, and µ/mmW radio links will be used
composed of fiber-optical, FSO, and µ/mmW radio links will be used with load sharing and route with load sharing and route
diversity techniques.
diversity techniques. InInthethe radio hopshops
radio adaptive modulation,
adaptive ATPC and
modulation, ATPCchannel
and aggregation techniques
channel aggregation
support higher bit rates. New millimeter-wave frequency bands
techniques support higher bit rates. New millimeter-wave frequency bands will receive emphasiswill receive emphasis thanks to
the wide spectrum available. In the millimetric E and V bands, multi-Gbps
thanks to the wide spectrum available. In the millimetric E and V bands, multi-Gbps links can support links can support 5G
deployments
5G deployments with
withhigh bit bit
high rates andand
rates lowlow
latency.
latency.
In this paper, hop-length recommendations
In this paper, hop-length recommendations were were given
given for
forthe
thedigital
digitalµ/mmW
µ/mmW radio radio links.
links.Using
Using
the ITU
the ITU recommendations
recommendationsforfor rainrain
and and
atmospheric attenuation,
atmospheric a detailed
attenuation, fade margin
a detailed fadeand availability
margin and
calculation method was presented. The presented calculation method
availability calculation method was presented. The presented calculation method takes antenna takes antenna size, link frequency,
size,
polarization,
link frequency, and modulationand
polarization, mode into account.
modulation modeExample radio link
into account. calculations
Example radio were shown with
link calculations
typical
were system
shown gain
with and antenna
typical systemsizegainvalues. Duringsize
and antenna the numerical
values. Duringcalculations, rainfall calculations,
the numerical rate statistics
rainfall rate statistics were considered that are typical in Central and Eastern European hop
were considered that are typical in Central and Eastern European countries. Recommended length
countries.
was plotted as a function of rainfall rate for the different frequency bands,
Recommended hop length was plotted as a function of rainfall rate for the different frequency bands, link polarizations, and
dish polarizations,
link sizes. The calculatedand dish charts provide
sizes. The useful help in
calculated the planning,
charts provide optimization
useful help and in themonitoring
planning, of
µ/mmW links.
optimization and monitoring of µ/mmW links.
Finally, it
Finally, it was
was shown
shownwith withrain-rate
rain-ratemaps
mapsthat, even
that, even in in
medium-
medium- or small-size
or small-size countries, therethere
countries, may
be significant rainfall rate differences in Europe. For more accurate availability
may be significant rainfall rate differences in Europe. For more accurate availability and optimal hop- and optimal hop-length
calculations,
length locallylocally
calculations, collected meteorological
collected data should
meteorological data shouldbe utilized in theinradio
be utilized link planning
the radio tools.
link planning
As a result,
tools. the new
As a result, thelinks can becan
new links planned with the
be planned required
with the requiredavailability targets,
availability and the
targets, andexisting access
the existing
network can be optimized to support the increased capacity demands
access network can be optimized to support the increased capacity demands of 5G deployments. of 5G deployments.
Thisresearch
Funding:This
Funding: researchreceived
receivedno
noexternal
externalfunding.
funding.
Acknowledgments:The
Acknowledgments: Theauthor
authorthanks
thankshis
hiscurrent
currentand
andformer
formercolleagues
colleaguesfor
forthe
thefruitful
fruitfuldiscussions
discussionsand
andfor
forthe
the
valuable support: Gábor Járó, Szabolcs Sülle, and Radu Paducel (Nokia Software and Nokia Mobile Networks),
valuable support: Dr. Gábor Járó, Szabolcs Sülle, and Radu Paducel (Nokia Software and Nokia Mobile
Networks), Dr. László Csurgai-Horváth, Prof. Lajos Nagy, Dr. Éva Gödör, and Prof. Tibor Berceli (BME, the
Budapest University of Technology and Economics), Dr. Julianna Györösi (HIF, the Hungarian Communications
Authority and TKI, the Research Institute for Telecommunications), Dr. János Ladvánszky (TKI and Ericsson),
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 19 of 22
László Csurgai-Horváth, Lajos Nagy, Éva Gödör, and Tibor Berceli (BME, the Budapest University of Technology
and Economics), Julianna Györösi (HIF, the Hungarian Communications Authority and TKI, the Research Institute
for Telecommunications), János Ladvánszky (TKI and Ericsson), and Viktor Fehérvári (T2-Com Ltd.). All personal
communications and valuable comments given by Trevor Manning, TMC Global, Australia and Lajos Hanzó,
Southampton University, UK are highly appreciated. The author acknowledges ETSI, ITU, MetNo and RACOM
for providing approvals and for their quick support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Acronyms
A availability
Aa atmospheric attenuation
Ao obstacle loss
Asp specific attenuation (in dB/km)
ATPC automatic transmit power control
BER bit error rate
BPSK binary phase-shift keying
CEPT The European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
d distance: hop length of the radio links
dB deci-Bel
dBi antenna gain in dB unit, compared to the gain of the isotropic antenna
dBm power in dB, relative to 1 mW
EN European Norm
ETSI European Telecommunication Standards Institute
FEC forward error correction
FM fade margin
FSL free space loss
FSO free space optical (link)
Gant antenna gain
GRXa antenna gain of the receiver
GTXa antenna gain of the transmitter
Gbps gigabit/second
H horizontal (polarization of a link)
HSPA high speed packet access
IDU indoor unit
ITU International Telecommunication Union
LoS line-of-sight
LTE long-term evolution
LTE-A LTE Advanced
Mbps megabit/second
mmW millimeter-wave frequencies: 30 GHz–300 GHz
NW network
ODU outdoor unit
PL propagation loss
PRX power received at the input of the transceiver
PTX power transmitted at the output of the transceiver
PRXth receiver threshold (for BER = 10−6 )
PRXu unfaded RSL at the input of the transceiver
PoP point of presence
QAM quadrature amplitude modulation
QPSK quadrature phase-shift keying
R rainfall rate in mm/h
RAN radio access network
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240 20 of 22
RAP radio access point

RAT radio access technology
RF radio frequency
RoF radio-over-fiber
RSL received signal level
RX receive or receiver
SG system gain
SGa system gain with TX and RX antenna gains included
TCM trellis coded modulation
TX transmit or transmitter
U unavailability
V vertical (polarization of a link)
Ø diameter
µ/mmW microwave and millimeter-wave
2G 2nd generation mobile network, GSM
3G 3rd generation mobile network, UTRAN
4G 4th generation mobile network, LTE
5G 5th generation mobile network
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Availability and Fade Margin Calculations For 5G M

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Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5240; doi:10.3390/app9235240 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

LTE Core 5G Core 5G Core

Figure 3. Example of topology re-planning for new and co-located sites.

links deployed after site densification.

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 22

3. Higher Link Frequencies and Bit Rates

3. Higher Link Frequencies and Bit Rates

4. Link Parameters and Availability Calculation

processing modulator RF filter

Figure 6. System gain definitions—with and without antennas [1].

Link losses[dB] − Link gains[dB] < SG[dB] . (3)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

4.2. Link Budget and Fading Margin Calculations

The free space loss is calculated as follows [1,31,40]:

FSL( f , d)[dB] = 92.44 + 20· log f

FM[dB] = PRxu [dBm] − PRXth (BER)[dBm] . (8)

FM( f , d, O) [dB] = SG[dB] + GTxa [dBi] + GRxa [dBi] − FSL[dB] . (9)

Figure 8. Link budget and fading margin calculation.

link capacity [Mbps]

4.3. Rain and Atmospheric Attenuation d

Table 2. Atmospheric attenuation at different frequencies.

Frequency band (GHz) 13 15 18 23 28 32 38 58 60 80 90 100

Table 2. Atmospheric attenuation at different frequencies.

Frequency Band (GHz) 13 15 18 23 28 32 38 58 60 80 90 100

4.4. Obstacle Losses

5. Results and Calculation Examples

Frequency Nominal Gant Gant PRXth at SGa = SG + 2Gant

Frequency Nominal Gant Gant PRXth at SGa = SG + 2Gant

d, max. hop length [km]

26 GHz, Vert, 60-60 cm

26 GHz, Hor, 30-30 cm

38 GHz, Vert, 30-30 cm 32 GHz, Hor, 30-30 cm

d, max. hop length [km]

80 GHz, V, 12 cm, 16-QAM 4 80 GHz, V, 39 cm, 16-QAM

80 GHz, V, 69 cm, 16-QAM V, 12 cm, 64-QAM

80 GHz, V, 69 cm, 64-QAM V, 12 cm, 128-QAM

V, 12 cm, QPSK -40

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22

(a) (b) (c)

RAP radio access point

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