Report No.

FAA-RD-75-79

A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW
OF
HELICOPTER NOISE LITERATURE
SftwoB. Magliozzi
•l Z ~~~~~F.B. Metzger"", o;: x

W. Bausch / ,,
R.J. King

/,italSit- 0.

June 1975 L

Final Report
Document is available to the public through the
National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Virginia 22151

Preparid for
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
Systems Research & Development Service
Washington, D.C. 20590

BEST AVAILABLE COPY

N[SCLAIMEI NO1TICE

THIS DOCUMENT IS BEST

QUALITY AVAILABLE. THE COPY
FURNIdSHED TO DTIC CONTAINED
A SIGNIFICANT NUMBER OF
PAGES WHICH DO NOT
REPRODUCE LEGIBLY.
 Ttci..col Rep.., flguceawien. Peg.
FAA-R r5-79\c.... .... ,..e.gi.

"S , .un~d76
j A Comprehonsrve Review of , s... c.
* Helicopier Noise Literature.,

Magliozzi, Fj.
B. .etlgeI. W.BauschI R J /u
- 4 1~~~0
if.4 ~~~A5
Hamilton Standard, 0 vWes*of Uifted Teelilge Corp. . 36317
lWindsor Locks, Connecticut 06096 Ot-FA4W--47

U.S. Department of Transportation SURVEY

Federal Aviation Administration
1
Systems Research and Development Service Id. s'_'_ Ini(4
Wa.!tunjon,.D.C. 20590 _____________PRfl-W(2fllL-Af7l

This report summarizes the stateof-ttwat in helicopter noise I: inckludesa biliophy ofreorts on all compw
nents of helicopter noise including main rotor, tail rotor, engine and gearbzox. Uteatuhre on hellcopm noissreduc.
tion arid subjective evaluation of helicopter noise wee also Included. Capsle summaries of Importanrtrepor to am
included which dlemribe the purpose of the report, summarizes the uimportant results.compures; te epor with
others on the same subject, and provides acritical evaluation of the work prevented. It is conc:65ced the the aval-*
able prediction methodology provides a moons for estimating helicopter sources on a grow bernia. Mwowver, the
mechanisms of noise generation we still not fully undersood, althoughs the experinental end theoretical tools we
now available to conduct the definitive experiments and seetablish the mathematical models needed for ecetreis
definition of helicopter noise geneation mechandILus Spectrum enalyses of helicopter ranie show that main rotor,
tail rotor, and engine soures contribute sipVlflcany to annoyance. In cases where these sources have been heavily
suppressed, gearbox noise will also appear as asignificant contri butor to annoyance. Therefore. quieter heicopters
must include supprousion of ali nf thou compenents. For certification, the literature indicates th at new noise unit-
is required. This unit may use the effective nercoeive noise level cocps but should include conrrctions for impul-
sive noise, corrwctly address the influence of tones througisout the frequency spectrum. extenid the sp,4trm of
interest to very low frequencies, &id correctly address the annoyance of noise comnponents below-0 Hiz. For
aassaing the community acetance of helicopter noise, modification of the Day-Nigiit Noise L.WItobWa 5
promise.

Helicopter Noise Bibliography This document Isavailable to the public througit the
Subjective Response Rotor Noise National Technical Inforinatiost Service, Springfield
Impulsive Noise Gas Turbine Engine.loise Virginia 22151.
Gearbox Noise Annoyance Criterias
* Noise Certif ication Criteria
C...f.i~iC.,*...s
IS.S.,..~ W. se.t.... C1.4.1..
4#A.4.6 P.") # Pites. [22.P..
Unclassified Unclassified 19

Fer. DOT F 1700.7 57 10.LPRODUCTION OF THIlS FG:.'t IS AUTHORIZED

Vertical 1 itiv dentote,; chanpen.
 Tumo ." ,.

r-..

44

"(,'II'IT

',: d,.', ~.:. i. dOi en%1

. I tdl aim:, r Ith
ti po.ii. ,or-hfi p of
*...." .... .1'4Tr'aJsp. t-•, t; in ill Ili- intaorest of infer-
1. J'.1..a
, T t 1 iiL-Jd Stit es (Gov).-
"|.*. ic•iti a ssiu.es rnij
•i
* i:. ~r.
* t tL vCM Vta
111 urr uise t he-re.cf
 a
Ii a - -
i

I
- I

I -
a.'
ill! lit
I 1 .11
p
I*
*
*
a
I
-
4
a I -
a -
0

- I g a
- !:- I
V
a = 0
-
** I
ci. jI !
-'
* 13
0
- - *- a
a- -,
* -
---- x '- e

I
I

a
ciI- or or ii co cc cc oc ,c cc
FVF
ii ci u 01 II
I I
- .
. . , .*
'
I I jIi.
Il If
* II !:':.

I 3 7

a
Sd

a.'. 0 --
hII
U

a.
- -
- I..- * -- a
t.EE.
a--
irs
*
* a
*I ! --
U
a'a
-

a
* .
- S ala... a
*
I *

a
*
- - 3 aegoo@ooE
- a'
U - 3*. ***
* '
4
*
U a'S -I- a'-

sty'
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

[N R(lC 1'10N ....... ............ .....

- . *...........1

SUMA11Y ............
.II *......................... ....... ..... 3

HEI-10)PTE:lt NOISE SOUIR.ES **...................................................7

InltrodIuction.......................................................... 7

Rotor Noist .................

0 ............................. I.. 8
Rotational Noise, .................... *...............*.a. a
Broadband Noise .... ........................ .0.0.0 13
Impulsive Noise .......... ........... ............... ... *. i

Introduction. .................. ............ *. .... 18

Jet Noise ............................... 19
Combustion Noise ............
a................. 19

Strut Noise ... ... ........................ ............ 22

Compressor Noise ..... 22

Engine Noise Suppression *.................. ...... 23

Introduction . ................................. 23
Reduction of Combustion Noise .................... 23
Reduction of Turbine Noise 0 ag 23
Reduction of.Strut Noise2
Redluctionof Comnpressor Noisee .............. 24

Gearbox Noise .................. f........... 24

HELICOPTER NOISE PREDICTION *...................... 29

HELICOPTER NOISE REDUCTION TECHNIQUES ..................... 31

SUBJECTIVE RESPONSE TOAHELICOPTER NO ISEN.......T...... 35

Introduction ......... 35

Noise Rating Units for. Helicopter Noise Certification .. .... 35

Background
t...........................................
r . 735
New Rating Scales for.Helicopter Noise Certification 3
3............
 IAII I.E {il- ('( P\ 0ITNI S t('C)Nil'

Page

. l It V l .ut : ul: ...............................

tt~tck~ronif . ............. ..................................... 34"
':.r
tVim;- ('Ciminxunity Acc i-pt.nc, Evaluation ............... 40

'.< €, S" . ..................................................... •41

.\IPENI)IX A -APi, .V.: II\IE\S -" .. :I.UTEI') REPORITS ........... 43

.,'r \,,s. C.1

{' 11111 lh .L'i , ...................... ......... 43
i-oU';- 01V1- rh. ................
i.h t....i.mt ........ ... 71
,,rN'u-nIrci........................ ....... 109
sRb,.trtiv. l ..- iio C suh. Sumriirivs .. .... ,...... ......... I ..... 121
R{EFU MMI 1*.,sI'............................ , ...... 0. ...... A..I..... ... 1.43

r Nu'....................................... ............. .146

Ilt-Iioptcr .NotIs. Priztil'ticn ............................. L500.........

h+lc'.optr N•tst. 1tt-duction Tt+hrifElitts ............................ 151
Suhjt'€c'ivt" RI.spon.ls4 to I Iellt.tprtr No.mt ............... .. ... 152

IIELI('PTL' .()ISE BIII.I¢(;IRAPIIY .................................... 155

iv
 INTRODUCTION

The helicopter is a complex vehicle from a noise standpoint. Significant noise pro-
ducing components in the system include the main rotor(s), tail rotor, engine(s) and
gearboxes. Differences in vehicle design philosophy cause differences in noise char-
acteristics; e. g., some vehicles use a main rotor for lift with an antitorque tail rotor,
other vehicles use fore and aft main rotors while others use meshing main rotors or
dual contra-rotating main rotors without a tail rotor. Differences in rotor design
philosophy also cause differer..es in noise characteristics since some manufacturers
may use high tip speed two-bladed main rotors while other manufacturers may use as
many as seven blades operating at lower tip speed.

Research to establish prediction techniques for all of the important helicopter noise
producing components has been under way for many years. In many areas the acoustic
theories relating the generated noise to aerodynamic and design parameters have been
fairly well developed and appear t. t adequate for current needs. However, as this
report will show, there are many areas where the noise generation mechanisms are
just now beginning to be understood and othern where much further work is required.
Also, the aerodynamic inputs required for the noise calculations are often Inadequate
for satisfactory noise estimates. It is thus apparent that the noise prediction method-
ology is inadequate due to the lack of tools required to define the unsteady aerodynamics
(i. e., fluctuating blade loads) rather than in serious limitations In the acoustic theories.
Fortunately, the helicopter as a military vehicle has benefited from noise control
studies oriented toward reducing detectability. This has resulted in a body of know-
ledge which can be evaluated in terms of annoyance when helicopters are used as
civilian transports.

The purpose of this report is to provide a current bibliography of reports describing

studies of components of helicopter noise, provide capsule reviews of the more signif-
icant reports, summarize the state-of-the-art based on the literature; and discuss
areas where further research is needed.

1/2
 t' i i,l 'l'wLI i
.' ntatti.i4 -tht.i-1i" i n h•cli,(-it, r ni.si)' , i., reviewed1. A 'as- i-Valuatci-
~*
Ic uii. l,,i-.
. ,J! t. ,a".:r,.iti,0a:i, hr,,:Iall,1 a,:, and impulsiv.-. eni r.e, ge:ar-
.ul.ti0isn.s ad
hlic .'ti .'"
I. %. . and sa, pr',n.-Ii,,a antil's.l;,,,ll0v; hulicopter noise reductitun tech-
1'1Lq .&; 2.111d
,llsi,,t- ctM .',., . . -v:Ilu tit in lit h-lic,- ih.. r nijs.. A bilhllography of
.,v,.*1- lOa v%.. tI- ..In 1h1.1.1 stljcc'ts is incluhal,, :ilong with capsule summarics of'impor-
L.:l1| rt-pi;t-• f1",1131 lh,. Iil, z;p

fi.l(t:l 1101iNI vi)lisli.,t ,.1t it.icro. to, Ir.,luenc't .ani'd hir,,:0.lh:ind components. Thie discrete
tv.juiu'nc\" t',np,,nt.I. ets . .f
1'1," i as r't :tijon:al noise harmonics and occur at
il tro.
::.:.i l I . 1 ath"
)1*61i p,,ass:k'" '-,ut1IwV. n t'' itit.ition.iI n iti.• i4 a result of tL-, rotating
fie'lai t-;a~lsea hv thtc rutur hlalcl, lo:..ling, cije !o thrust. Interaction with in-
ret''ýI
Ltst-c turbultunh., tip ' 'ortiesain.•:AH1?mVtriV 1 inflow van Significantly enhance h-r-
iniiifc. vo•'itc'tl of1 ro•tati:nal noi-,-. Cy;-lic pitch and fn-ward flight can give rise to a
1Ma,lde hl:oding whit h -ai iv-; onc..e iMr revoluitin. Undler certain conditions this can give
ris,, to inipulsiv, nfc.-i:, ch.iract,.riz67A t.o hihgh!v ,,a,.'. iag "bangi•'g bounds. Broad-
b;ind randtm rois. in tht r'otor sj •€.trun, fornaerL'r i.k:dl "vortex" noise, is probably
• *.. I.a I% ntVraetiti 4s th, Ill:auh.s vith inflow turleul,:nre..

In talculatijns of rotor harmonic noise, the steady loadhi.g methods are inadequate to
e.xplain the high l ow..f
mev..iurd harmonics. Unsteady loading of the blades is
rceiuired to imiprove ifhe correlation .tlwetin calcuLations and measurements at high
harn:-nic ord,-,s. In open-form :rolution,, instantaneous blade loads are computed at
many angl•ar positioms and several.radial stations (luring the rotation of the blades.
These loads art- then nuneriuallv integrated to define the noise at a given f[eld point.
rhis approach is generallv co ' tly as It requires long computation time. The computa-
tion time can ie significartly reduced by assuming an analytic form for the azimuthal-
variation of bl•de loads (flos.d-form solution) ratherthan the many descrete poin:s
r.-juir,.d for the open-f rm solution. The integration can then be done analytically.
With tt.w exceptiioni, such -is for impulsive noise, closed-form solutions give compa-
rable results to opin-forn solutions. Results using this methodology are greatly
improve-ld oetr the stvady lfading formulations. However, some deficiency In high
frel'ue'ncv noise prediction remains. This has been improved by hmodifying the un-
.Mttadv airload inputs to account for uwfttady vortex effects as measured in wind tunnel
tests.

It appears that the existing nFloi.;e Lheorie5 ar'• adequate for good prediction of heli-
copter rtational hois:. '11e limitations in the methodology appear to Heh in the tefiai-
tion of the fluctuating aerodynamic blade loading inputs to the acoustic theory. *Since
the fluctuating blade loads cannot be well predicted analytically, empirical (or at least
partly empirical) methods for estimating blade loads are required for predicting the
rotational noise of helicopter rotors.
 Trhe origin of rotor broadband noise is probably the turbulence in the flow seen by the
rotor blades. Trhe prediction of rotor broadband noise based on rotor geometry amd
operating conditions using empirical procedures has proved acceptable. 'The success
of such methods is misleading in that they do not model the detailed acoustic processes,
but rely on generalization of existing test data. The recent impetus to study broadband
noise is the result of reducing helicopter data with improved equipment that shows the
higher f requency components of the spectrum to consist of peaks at blade passage
harmonics superimposed on a lower level of broadband noise.

Impulsive noise is generally considered to be a special case of rotational noise. Two

basic mechanisms are believed to he responsible for impulsive noise. Interactions
between tip vortex filaments and the rotor blades are one major cause. Compressible
aerodynamic effects are the other major cause. The major limitation in calculations
of vortex filament interaction noise is the difficulty of specifying the details of the in-
teraction of the filament with the blade. This is due to the complex trajectories of the
vortex filaments and the blades. The impulsive noise that occurs during high speed
cruise of a single rotor helicopter Is believed to be caused by the compressible drag
rise on the advancing rotor blade due to the high resultant of rotational and flight speed.
As in other rotor noise prediction areas, the specification of the aerodynamic imputs
for the calculations require further work.

Engine noise research has received recent attention because of its importance inI I
turbofan engines. The noise components of engines identified in these studies are jet
noise, combustion noise, turbine noise, and compressor noise. Jet noise In helicop-
ters is not considered significant for current helicopters because of the low exhaust
velocities of helicopter engines. However, it may become a significant component In
future quiet helicopters. Combustion noise, which appears as a broadband noise
which peaks near 400 Hz, is the dominant component of engine noise. Turbine noise
appears at higher frequencies and consists of tones, pseudo tones, and broadband
noise. Compressor -noise occurs at high fr'equencies an'd Is the lowest level component
of engine noise. Compressor noise is easily suppressed with sound absorbent duct
liners.

Two approaches to engine exhaust noise suppression can be used. The first approach
reduces source noise by changes in design or operating parameters. This appears
promising for futare engine designs, but results In increased weight and size or In-
creased fuel consumption In present engine designs. The second approach is the use
of acoustically treated ducts to attenuate generated noise. This approach invariably
adversely affects engine performance and also results in Increased weight.

Gearbox noise is not generally a problem in current helicopters. However, quieter

versions In the future will require gearbox noise suppression. Significant progress
has been made in understanding gearbox noise mechanisms over the past eight years.
This has included development of both analytical and empirical noise prediction
 MI

r*;IU~t I hv
!~- I;' l
141inpiini-hofk.i are ro. hatrw tsyi
-l to use. anfd ilj,,)ea r to otter
lw, mi arxac.
n.%-! In hv'ilk ulpl.r ippulit-ations4. A1%Ia nkcth-Wis,.on tht. other
* * ;11
a 1, . I'Pit
%I1 .. 1 )1 11a 1,41
t.4~ : .t,
.ied j:d .1;ni;'t inn lit u~t*e anti 'it 11re±'-uire some-
z .1 LI-.. ri%.'-ta
ive br
.-.tsoni.,lilt agrt'vii.elit wth txpi-rmrent. It appears thait the
lo
: 11pIII vdU rt.",: Jlit.
p! ... 11C.O' to 4-t~t Zhtt- ltv- k (if .exi.sing izearl'-oxes, %bile
I ~. ~'i~ulpr.
~r" catelurt, art- moilrv u:~d.; ful ainia.snosine flr hiui~:: prolalemsi e gear-

;rt'.-tion2f 4~ not.-.'' for rmi. et-t he.'Iiýaopt'rs h:,,. rec-entlv received sai- at~entiofl.
sIN *I 1v'4-fit ' I.) i ro(*-irs'
h 1.')W av:d I~al.Ie. iajqw-'r to be *adcquale for sItudies of
- a..::::i~
.. a".t~au '. ii'- ji~ieiIri~.arv t'ehiv!c oricuend and do not appear

* A 1*.`. i.-W 4d tA\1 I,vrl4flE'nt: prograufls Ic reduce. thic flokL* of existing helicopte~rs showed
thaL i'oW**1- ntwj:-I- el van lit- :atitha.'ve, hut at thei etzjwflni of f-fre lmnce reductions
.!nSi wi'a,.ist s'-' ~Ro tor noj*es rtaluction was atwainvd b * reduzzing itip speed, ia-
crt:t -.in*, rutur ~t livt A adtdini, bladcH, anti by limaited blade aerodynamic improve- -
w.ihjl*'
v*'-:.~rdutedt i-t pz'aniarliv liv Irst~a~lationk of inlet and exhaust
n,,ui~tqr:;. Gusarls,iix ia:,.wa was reduced( priniarily by installation of en-c'1'Jsures around
ir.ht *c.tarh'Ax an([ It. :appli'ation of thirmping mAf ri~aI to *gearsand shafting. These noise
Ic-*!,;' tiflinfsInuu. w..re effsd-ivt' but unight -lut Iii acc'eptable fir comimercial trans-
* W'rt" h.'Iicutii'-r I,.i'-ust of th'-ir wsji'ht and pe r."or mance penalties. Fu rther researc~h
a -, ri'juirt.-d in tht' ,iwis rediuction larva to daofint- rotor- and engine configuratioins. that
;s r* both quie't and cffivi' 'flt.

Sulbot i.(tvs: I'espoflsi to aireraft flaisL* must hi' considered from two standpoints: air-
!1i:iff nofise' ct'rtirii'ation and c'cainvnitv rewc'tion. Inthec firpt area. P. s~cale li needed
to ritva:urt' the- p.-rvis'd 1.'vel (f :an incliviidt'id aircraft flyover soitnd-- In the second
:ir,., a~ roi'llfuflit.'. .ac'cptaine.e c'afrulation jp'oe'!sure 1i6vhlch a.'curately evaltuat,?s the
1-.ra; te'rra effeets %inaircraft ricist- on cominhfuzities airound airports i's. required. For
noi -z ct'rtifi-ation, setrirats U'-fic'iercles ex.iAt in the existing ratL'ig scales because of
th~e siginiific-ant Uiffr 1 tln(flC(* b'LWi..- he'li(optvr noise and noise from otL~er'type_1v ~r- M
c i :aft. Mlss'd on ihe data f ro-ni the' literaturv, it appears that the helicopter noise
vertifica~tiosw unit will ust' Effec'tivP Perc'eivec:N!'~ Level as the- basis for develop-
mvt Reivisio'is apptlar not4ayto: 1) -,-os~e the payechoacoustic response (Noy)
vu.-vvs and. ex'te'nd thvr.n below 50 H~z, 2) us. irattgrawdc duration correction as use-1
mnFAR( Part %;' %i:thi-r than 10 !ogji 0t/174 1%;;nrc t is the time, in wsetonds, between,
10) dBJ down pointsi, 3y irectud(' the effects of impulsive notse, and 4) :-orrectly a~ccount
fL'i' th-Ve s.fi!w. Of (i:eVrtet frequency nioise be!A)w 500 Ik~. rhe data from the literature
';uppcmrt t.he use of some v'u'rs-ior. of the Lcln voahcept for community aeccotance evalua-
tion. The basIc unit for L~i calculation might be (111A c-irrcctccI fo.- pure tones and
tIhiration as described above. impulse noisc pe.tli wotaid also be included.

5/i;
 HELICOPTER NOISE SOURCES

Introduction

['he principal helicopter noise sources are those associated with the main rotors or
main and tail rotors, drive engine(s), and gearbox(es). All these sources give rise
to a broadband noise spectrum extending over the entire audible spectrum and to dis-
crete fiequency noise, which may or may not be detectable to the human ear. Under
certain conditions, helicopter rotors may generate impulsive noise, aescriptively
termed "blade slap" or "banging".
Rotors produce noise due to the rotating forces on the blades and the displacement of
the air due to the blade section area. Also, at high tip speeds and/or high flight
speed, the flow over the blade section may exceed snaic velocity and a local (and thus
moving) shock is generated. Finally, fluctuating blade loads may occur due to inter-
action with atmospheric turbulence, tip vo.'tices. or the flow from another rotor.

Engines produce noise over a broad frequency range The engine inlet compressor
generally contributes to high frequencies and the engine exhaust dominate- at low
frequencies, although turbine tones may occur at high frequency.

Gearbox noise can be apparent in the noise -lguature of a helicopter due to direct
radiation from the gear casing or from reradiation of the structure coupled to the
gearbox.

Extensive literature exists on the understanding, description, and prediction of these

sources. Studies range from simple empirical equations showing the relation of a
few gross design and operating parameters to the resulting noise to extensive open
form solutions requiring detailed design information which can be applied only by
means of a high speed computer. The state-of-the-art in source noise uderstanding
and prediction has by no means progressed to the point where all aspects of the pro-
blems have becn fully developed. However, .he fundamental noise problems are
reasonably well understood and predictable in principle. Application of these theories
to the design or redc sign of helicopter components has generally resulted In noise re-
duction, although a deeper understanding In many areas, especially those related to
broadband noise, is required for substantial reductions without undue performance
and/or weight penalties.

The following discussion presents a review of the literature on the historical develop-
ment of aoise prediction methodology, summarizes thp current understanding of basic
mechanisms, and presents philosophy aid results for the reduction of heheopter noise.

7
! tI:f. .~tainfs th~irreti frcltiuinow u1111i41)iltit.i awl thro:cliand vimiponents. The
(-)-'
is Clinponei uts a rt. rtisirrcd to wz notationrial nui..ie ha rn'..~nici and occur
.~:~~t j.~. Of OW W-101- lXU:4A~ge-f.iuuc l'lait: ire cvauýými- by tYhe rotatipg pres-
.,ur~ I :t.i. i atistal I-v fl-.. roltor hL~aiti ioasdi.1-. -lu' to~ thL-tthru~.-t. Also, in cases where
ar r~a~ tn .r uth ir-ig.9ted turltiu'ncs! Or !mtwvi n rotorm, isr with thIi,tip vcrtices occurs,
:I r'JMAZi~a Iluý-tuatjn.g Ipri 4urL fiClO rivSUlLS which k-'ar sii-t a tl inrea*se the har-
Is..!i v v *n.1!nt .,f r.)t:tti.n.Il nois'.. Cvclir pitch and forwacd flight (can glyti rise to a
1jl.,s!- !..ai.1juz which v~aries omit' pc. r revcIt itai-. I :Iniot ve rtain conditi~ns le. g , if
it,'U .rwrl
tnittc &,1v
s such thaft the til) M'hnuin~lwr of tl.t ;auvanclong bla:de exceeds
m,oMt I.ritival %.aluo.i, flus van give r irte to lanjaulshiver..* characte.rized by higbgly
:Ln:g.
i. 'l):Ingir.g* so)undsl. T'he iflwi)Oi..ve no.lse is cha~ractLerize'd by sharp' pe~aks in-
he:ia-u.- pr -sur, time :Rsv.lan-Itina. noke~ fi riam'ri-lv as called I.rortex'
rnolse, but in-.-k-.t.ig.it4ors now peeft-r *1aodih noibe, :-ircce vortex shedding itself
is not Illtevoed to be the principal nit*chanisir.

R-.:atjsinld Noisa* 1; .)r to, !he t

- (il n. :thtAd was used exti-inelvely for pre-
iidr,
dictin..t tht''oii fro'rn p-.pollers. fans, aiial rotcz-s. In this. th..-oryv, a distr~butlio4 of
-;our,-,-- whit L are fixv.i izL sp~ave are' *trirgvre.'u by*thMI passing~ bl:idL's. The. strength
ofi the %our, es is d.-:teinminedl tL tht rotor abr-u-t an.: toýrtue assumed V.)act at an
cff" tive radiu.-, t%piwally at 0). .1 time.is the actual radliu:.;. rhis analysis is valid for
a st-itic. propeller and :at distance' several diameters aw~ay (far-field noise). Hubbard
and Ite-g ier . ri-fineJ Oniir's fundramental equation..; without some of the simplifying
.ais.'ulfpti.2nr of the firivirial paper. This ri-moved Gutin's restriction for fLr-fi1eld
noise and aillowed c'alcul~ations of noise in the' near-field to distan~es within one blade
chord. of the tip. Also, the actual radial blade load distribution could be utilized.
G;arrick an~d Watkin's: e.xtentied GutixV % theory to th: case of a propeller with forward
,sixee.d for an observe'r moving with the san..- vcoc~ty as the scr--e (ILe., a wind tunnel
test). The results could also be applied to the case of a stationary observer. providing
that the i-orrect iOistantana'ous distances wi'ri; useud und the f-requencles corrected for
flsspph'r s~hift. Finally, Watkins andt lur!ingl (orn'Anfed these effects and Included
effectsz of a rhordwise blade loa~iing. Horwever, the.se methods, which a'll assume that
the Madire loading is constanit with time, were found to severely c-nderpredict the level.
of the haxrmonics beyond the second or third.

[hei realization that unsteady Mlade loading (i. e. ,a blade loading diatribution which
Varie-d with tirniii could co'rtribute sij.'nific.inlt v Ito the noise generated by a rotor
prompted an extm'n.-ion of 1(tuLin's approach and the development of new formulations
for 61- noise prodluced byv moving sourca's-:- and unsteady blade loading effects6- 10 .

T[he approach of Lo'.-wv ind Sutton 1 0 is a similar approach to that taken by Garrick
annd Wnt~kins 3 , but extendled to tol~ude in-plane comnponer.ts of forward speed and
azimuthal asymmetry. In this aprahteoudpese is computed at any Hield
pproah
prssur th soud
poin, by a numc rical integration which utilizes, among other inputs, the lift per unit
span as a fu.cti•,n c. radius and azirmuth. In this manner any radial loading function
and any peri.;" v"aveform of the blade loading at a given radial station can be Input
by jtidicious ... c•etion of radial and azimuthal steps of integration. This approach,
while havinr, tAZ'ejl'', can become expensive due to the large number of calculations
required in, 1ýe nunmerical integratior., particular!y when using small steps, as is
required for calculation of the, higher rotational noise harmonics.

Schlegel, et .116 used a similar approach. They used the blade loading harmonics
which were measured on an .rtual helicopter rotor as inputs to a modified form of
Gutin's theory. They conclude that the agreement between measured and predicted
noise, as reproduced in Figure 1, is good at low frequency, but poor at high frequency,
probably because of inadequate definition of high frequency harmonic airloads.

so

70
>' MEASURED DATA S

0 ZCALCULATED (UNSTEADY
BLADE LOADING)
X 40
"30 •-GUTIN (STEADY BLADE LOADING)

-J 20

10 "S

_0 -. 2 3 4 -

ROTATIONAL NOISE HARMONIC .

FIGURE 1. COMPARISON OF MEA3URED AND CALCULATED LEVELS
WITH AND WITHOUT UNSTEADY BLADE LOADING FOR A
HOVER CONDITION
In both of these approaches, the harmonic blade loading must be input for the calcu-
lation. Such open-form calculations havetwo important limitations. First, the re-
quired airloads are extremely diffic..t to predict; and second, the computations are
extensive and often expensive to perform due to the digital computer time required.
Lowson and Ollerhead 7 overcame these difficulties by developing a simplified
rotational noise analysis which uses generalized !oading data instead of the detailed
amplitude and phase information required by previous anviyses. This simplified
closed form method was shown to perform at least rs well as the rather cumbersome,
open-form solutions in many cases, as indicated in Figure 2.

9
 A .1, 0- di~n~xJ:t ~d,,
1*.-a t!(( eupt that rertjtir asturrpti;ýas

~*II
rjYq~iiz~:tL~nWr1!4'~t~ fori'rul.,tion redu t.ci to an aral',-tical tfxp.resira
wt requirti
no~* ilumtiriv..1 iuitegr~1ion. Ili-; WgklfiC~ant ConClubiurzl are that the
1,!n.ru noist, in thi, dornznarit raitur n..i.%e* fta'L-h~tfinis anti vortex noise is a n,.gtl-
U yi~Ic .'j e' ,tJ~ I~t~ at nori111ii optvratinAP vw itij.,nsl. Al.:io, the haurmonic- fall-43ff wiltl
* t~ 1.
*~ if I.isk-alh 1)) the IA.M.dt !wideing -q.;vtra, Lig~rt will be. noise radiatio.n
.ablsi Me rg* . 'If, reotatLion (i'x E-on? r~ast With .tL:avav loacding radiation results which would
'A...~. on' aiv~-, und i the tip Iftuc t is idepf-ndtnt ofthe rumber of aL~d#s,
:.o* i* rrmw.ving the hirg.~e powtri l~aw ale*p4*flee'rr' n tMadv nuinlwr iad ic ak'd( by

0 I !1 AtS.ourn oATA

10 0 GUT,?. (5?. AOV LOACDING)

0 SC141CGL (OP~t. F.IRM)
41, 13
Ia aWSW.
& Ott1lI4AD

U)

.,C,-frIt
uhoije

0 I7
I 4
HARMONIC NUMBER -

FIGURE 2. COMPARISON OF STEADY LOADING, OPEN FORM, AND CLOSED

FORM THEOR;ES WIT-H MEASUREMENTS FOR A HOVER CASE

Tihvr.' are. mituatiun:i ff), which -lomehd-fortr methods are not well s4uited. B.a.alcaliyp
0.4. zet hetk are in~ale.Ilae gti wh.vit tari:t' :iizouu rh~angtns foceur over a smdlI portion of
Ilh, r'o1or di .r. This; Ialinfgr hch~avior protduves hig~hly directionatl harmonic nofac and
i- 1-1na. aaaon V oki,:w a*dI:.1: 1zpulkve. aoine (.)r sbla,1:!a ship"') on mtost tarndt~rrl rutor hell-
r1)ptiers andin xvfl n;in;gie rotor II()tz.Sill(.. tI~ ti, lusvcf-forar. olutiuns i.-mnuine that
11w- ;,a rloarI I1 :arinbonvi -irc rainxuoily phamsd :and dxixt their axmplitudesn decrease expo-
nionlitlly with h~armaenit' pr'!r, the nolise hi. predicted to I~e constantE azimuthaslly during
hover and syrnm(etricat azimruthally during forward flight. Irapubsive noise Is discussed
in I later sectiun of this report.
Much recent acoustic research work has returned to experimental rather than analyt-
ical studies. letferences 11 through 1-4 are examples of noise measurement studies
intended for verification of existing noise prediction analyses as well as for studies
of noise generating mechanisms. Reference 11 essentially verified and slightly re-
fined Lowson and ()llerhead's simplifying aissumptions. Reference 12 demonstrated
the accuracy of Wright's theoretical approach using measured airload amplitude and
phase data, whereas Reference 1:' is oriented towards establishing a base for develop-
ing empirical formulae for rotational noise at a future date. Reference 14 demon-
strates good correlation on-axis with Reference 7 and provides a preliminary aero-
acoustic transfer function for rotational noise. If generalized aerodynamic inflow
data are ever developed, the transfer function approach could become a useful new
prediction tool.

Existing prediction methods for rnon-impulsi.-. r,utational noise predict some decay of
harmonic level with inc-easing order. This behak'ior is predicted by open-form,
numerical integration of dit:tributed loads methods as well as by the simplified, poiat
load methods. flowever, improvements in data an-tlysls have shown that blade passing
harmonics may extend into the mid-frequency ranpt, as shown in Figure 3 (from
Reference 7), and that levels frequently increase with harmonic order after an initial
decrease for the first few harmonics. Consequently, agreement between predicted
and measured harmonic levels deteriorates with increasing frequency.

IJJ
.. .. .... .... . .. .. . . . ... ... . .

0
o ......
iW `-T .......
. ..
...
.... 7 i;
.....................
..................
........
..i .

...
I.....i..' ..

.J

.. .
A. 9 It 4'= Us - ,r 4B• • ,t

FREQUENCY- HZ

FIGURE 3. TWO-HZ BANDWIDTH ANALYSIS OF UH-IB NOISE SPECTRUM

Some preliminary studies by Sikorsky Aircraft1 5 have shown significant correlation

improvement by adding vortex-induced unsteady airloads to the airloads defined by
Lowson's "loading law" decay approximation. The unsteady vortex effects are based
on wind tunnel data measured with hot wire anemometers. Figure 4 illustrates that
the unsteady vortex effects enable a closed-form analysis to predict tLh basic noise

11
 ... : .I'..~
S:: ,,', ,,'.,
I .)11,,,0 t', IWl,.
Wt , W,., I infd I('- Ll, .is . It is lieu.I .d tO
u--t
. ..' h. I|to?' U1.I :i'!'. "j gh'.x ,hvvts coul•d Ibe ih..v.Ioped with
. .: it it ...: 1., :,tIIlullS ;il' ItII) v,' di.,'uratiubns, tcoupled with noi.se

" uz.::z:
TI it .,lj,,. : : I,,.'m :Wxr,.'. i h rat.tr. 0,,
ol t itht" t th,. te isting noisc 'meIthod-
. • :'.-,r
r.t..t 0:n iv., i!% ,d.,qu:it.l: !r qijc p)(r edi ction of helicopter rotor
. *. .', 0. ! :5-a.., , :,)i :1ir ttos i III h. e:th i,.thn' im r bM lad Ioading inputs
: v.I i ; I, ,I ,tw1 -.t ,,-h•o,'k. A.s Shi.- , #-I1onchudel
AI;, from their
-, 0 I;.1
3. III J,'I - VVII " hllt and
;zAi~iiins:sUl t'vlstent; was. oIt-uintd at low
,... "h ,11c, ;Ilaput ,da:t we're :adeLquat", hut poor agreement was
,': .. .. . ,t* . .' . :',',i,:'.c; h:, lacIk- & :iw i.xlyvamic .at:.
.1," The .its.,tio.' Is further
-,.. , . i; pr1.... ... I,.,+ :, . i I h fi.ield around a rotor during all
... A.
J% i,.',,!,!, ".P*. 111sls, js:rtLIt ul:,r v I;:: tort..
t ca;t" f t.an:h_:: rotors which I.ttr-
s;'t .!.. It. If , 1' it Li] l oAtir.s which aIre iih thu nain rotor doIu,3l tiwash.

-CALCULATED WITH UNSTEADY VORTEX

"~ •.- --- CALCULATED WITHOUT UNSTEADY VORTEX
0 MEASURED

<. 70 000 C 0+ 00..

= 0
oOOoo
_3 0 0 00 0O
0 -000

-; \h 30

1,10 1•
1* 0 20

IIARMONIC ORDER

FIGURE 4. CALCUI.ATED ZFFE'3T OF VORTEX INDUCED

UNSTEADY AIRLOADS

1"
F-

JBroadN.and Noise -opinions regarding the origins and behavior of broadband noise
var ' sjmnewh:it among investigators, but there is general agreement that turbulence
in the flow seen by rotor blades is the basic phkysical mechanism responsible for
broadbaind noise. Turbulence in the boundary layer also causes noise, but at a negli-
giblV small amplitude compared to blade interaction with incoming turbulence. The
frequency distribution of the broadband noise is determined by the, velocity of the blade
and by th sescloftetrune 14
. Principal areas of uncertainty concern the
efft'ets of velocity on the intensity and frequency distribution of broadband noise. Re-
cent experimental work by Leverton and Pollard 1 6 fails to show the accepted Strouhal
frequency scaling with velocity for full scale rotors. Ffowcs-Williams and Hawkings17
make a convincing, case for broadband noise varying with velocity as V8 at tip Mach
numbers above 0. 5, instead of the V6 dependence in common use as reported by
Widnalllh'.

Much of the recent impetus to study broadband noise comes from improved data ;.ro-
cessing techniques and equipment. Narrow band analyses of rotor noise have shown
discrete frequency components extending well beyond 150 Hz, which historically was
believed to be the transit'on region between rotation.* I noise and broadband noise for
typical helicopter rotors. This means that significant rotational noise contributions
are included in the observed noise behavior and in the broadband noise prediction
methods that have been developed from experimental observations such as the well
known Widnallib correlation of Figure 5. Work by Lowson~et a114 , and by Leverton

40 TI)Wfq 'r',ý

SC0 ' t4
!ft/sec)
Huhti"rd and
ELtICOPYERS
269I43
-
V $91 0300 U::al
T 650 U 450 um.) TR-62-73
35 * F68 60') TCA(C - _ __ - -
* 613 A ?OD
-~ *692 9 8C
* 805 91CC
Stuckey ar1, Goddart

3C

D.1

FIGURE 5. WHIRL TOWER AND HELICOPTER VORTEX NOISE.

13
 I I.1 IjW I I-tLIUent-~v biroadbajnd tw.ise
I- I!%!.~ I hat It.1 v'juit I Le dlWe ret~n in

I t. :arn.orv., the- ip.:I Iiint :i.2 IVI-IflItII .111 j31. i 1 L.tAe(hroai(dIand It i?1i and i~pectrum,
it.ivn -i-Ai -;n 'ito l*n t trx iii u;p'raing 't,.ond itiwzs isi misikeudiIM. Th.±se pre-
t: :~v' I~a~'a
! ,a~~aI*I' ~~t:~.te:~ ~t t:iav,- 1):,nif or pos.sibly 1/31 octave
1 .- is~ for~ Vt I' :, -.1 1*.to I,,, but h, -wt int-thuds alo not ra':i II- trotIv the detailed
pr .'v-
a. I'L. tl it von! uIbuta to Ola total i j~iaI . Conwq"uentlv, it is hot pre-
.4:~tipri'a. auil. a Iai-.tjl,.o nai ro-w I~andI e:tiniAe of rotor noise based on
~iitti1t ~trI(*,i afrr -(I n1.azx1iu preap.
.;L.-': qrtiev of ;I ri*lti ;;..stem. Extensive experi-
.1 :;aI'
HI tzaIwork. it ill flt vds to bc 'lont' to isolate!L the specific mechAnIsms
* ~i~~ Ijo~iI': 1 i IroAua' niis~.t' aez.. to rteuIj.vti set-ul i v h ii on models.

I I..p '' ir.~i.svu:- -pan1 infi'j:tt.'s thait 'h't:ailtd pretictirion nm'.thods are not available
1.uw'ýof, v*t il1. I, tuiwff un(cour-ifi:&g eurredmtiot.9 using measured inflow
:.I~t..,n,.t inl avus eq
iiu~atjions. ft predict~ broadbandn fan~ noist' at low speeds, but
to;; I,;i n%)t :I v.,-tho~t suittable for ht-Iiioptiri !JrLedi( lions. M'Jthrd,!ý in genera!, have
I'vlit-d imon'*t;'v iahnroI i'ie da~ta from full 41, ale rooors to ektvelop empirical methods.
In thta::e such :as the* 'Sh-lilgul" iquations for broadband noise 6 gross geometry
Indt .pcralinig condition ifil.ailt ch-ird, bl~ade x!eu, tip) speeud. and rotor thrust) are
tVa
* :'a.,ic pair:irter'vr-. *hVhform of these eqjuations wasi rnJified somewhat by MunchJL9
r*, .ul~tain the:fo.. f'ritIAlow.

1')
[13 ~
Ic* lt A
LO ( IAG J-) I", (CO5 2 000.1) 'Sje19. 4 (1

f., ii I-.vt - 211) l.(X; (T) (2)

:~
ri-an~ezIi'~tis vasa'.r to use ý.inet it wwi,i thc basic
pa'rameters of Uip speed,Vt
hr I, aiistanev, r', blade arva, 11, blaile r~diiUS, It, blade %thord,c,
elevation
"1F4',1.aril ýpvtrufii .;haipe' (orri'r-(itinf, Sj. Values -if Sj for thie j th frequency band
Ihy Munach arv shown in Vigrure! 6i. The' Iit n, fg. Ns the. center frequency in Itz~
I-, a v.%kthPi-,rure' 1). This flit~thlol p~rovides i~stima~tes of oc tave band
levels In fairly
.,0'u.i :agnreH'nuant with aacvtwo. hbani tvi'.t data,. but -,univ rotation~al
it Is crintributions -ire
invitili'4I in !!)is br',:idI,:iiul nois.e" as dsuw- previou!:ly.
 S-0
.J
-J /
Li 10
0
W

JW -20

z /
.30
I.
.. L LJ. '
32 16 6 4 a I 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
BAND CENTER FREQUENCY RE PEAK FREQUENCY, FS

FIGURE 6. ROTOR BROADBAND NOISE SPECTRUM SHAPE

Empirical broadband noise rilethods tend to be most accurate for a moderate thrust
condition which typically is near the design point for a given rotor. Predicted over-
all broadband levels normally fall within i 3 dB of measured levels. Accuracy de-
creases rapidly, however, at low thrust and at high thrust. Problems are compounded
by blade twist, which leads to recirculation through stationary rotors (i. e., when the
blade wakes are reingested by the rotor) with attendant noise increases during opera-
tion at low blade pitch. At high thrust, blade stall and complex unsteady aerodynamic
events in the tip region of the blades contribute to rapid Increases in noise. Figure
5 illustrates the noise behavior discussed above.

Impulsive Noise - Impulsive rotor noise generally is considered to be a form of

rotational noise. Narrow band analysis reveals many harmonics of noise that decay
slowly with harmonic order, while oscillograms of the acoustic pressure characterize
the noise as an Impulse that occurs at the blade passage frequency of the rotor. Hell-
copters with tandem, overlapping rotors are prone to generate impulsive noise, but
helicopters with 3ingle lifting rotors also can generate it.
Two basic mechanisms are believed to be responsible for Impulsive rotor noise. In-
teractions between tip vortex filaments and rotor blades are one major cause. Com-
15
 * . ~~. . . ~l.
... hia 1. S't.-s -1, vI :111 dematron~.tr:,te with1 their
* -a:'.1.n
. :orlI. i..,raaiwo an 'in alai f :1 hoverinig. rotor. Of tlhd two

h ~. I~n
~ ~~an
-. t~yaai~s h~a h~~ a a~*n~ m.~:It(.(]h irnnortant rolte that
'**%~n*****vvor IiAI."*~~.- ina zipul~si~ e n ;I
*.nviiii gane r:ation. :Anilvtical nwodels of
11 . * :~ c. ai~ mv' ~'~nilsal ipaI Ul~ifri-rives 21,. 22, 2 1j whic1,a IIpIaI
prv~**4:i' 'Ing, s~r~i Ij.. .Igri~t. 'jtudi lavi.1it& wIith measiured. %tt .ie~a~fl.ni
- ... a *ýJ rl *,.wj.. agrt-non fo I n, -tia.I~itA rotor cix-rutin,." in
1'. in;. 1 .111~. ' Iii :~ast ;sr l14Ie
liteS it) I'iti:at ing (tho magnitude nf the uncounter
t. *n- v nt tiLia iv'flt. Iii rut h
'artex fiair-on~nts fS ry(ifplex trajL~c:ori2s.
.itha:~~
h -.'i:4 .11' vn I- CJ
-ti
it I
MA-iiviit
tIn ion4Itllut sti Lnladv ;aidl vorte*x verv dfi-
.*U1 it ,,)~a Ill .1-.1Ion
lti ssi, n 1ist rib-a ion 1a1 vtaamtx uu rt velueity andl the rleeav of
Ow.i bit' U u1 tiifleit. isdjffivul it. as~t-,v- expt-rimeitntaulv as wull as :analvticall V. A
iLrthtlr roweifpliu:Ltiin :to if.,- :a'istiv prteditction probIlemI is the sptrating point of the
.4 ill az.! it-:z :eer-a'!%ai.anaic rev.Ibon:-.e -hi r~aetuiistivs. a s pointed *eut in R;ferenve 11.

I I~~~ i n-
lsit- I ron'.
roluar hehelispter, involve.s. main'
tanfl'!in 1 fat tars. TypicallY, a
~'pn,~
;h.d thn o~ some dc-grev of overlapping of the rotor discs.
hn ehi-(.iLle Abjow
4e~trLdJ .nust s milpulkive nlaaske from iwt, inr-thanisms. The. inaor one JLiblade-
Thilnsa.
Aurzt'x ini-rarntiun, '.Oiarv tht* tip vortives from uric r'.tor pags through the other rotor.
TUhe intier:&cttuai te.af oc-cur onl aithur the forward rotor or the aft rotor, depending on
.- e-iativs, LIaaIani.I ifti rsiirsa zawal oil tht* flight coundition. The scrond eause of impulsive
rwoi -. ira candcicm roto: - with ovi-rlap is valiesd rotor/'Iownwaish interaction, The down-
-wash tof omne~ rotor p:i~.;*#s tha ough the aothwr rotor in the overlap region. causing a
puls:itivc ne -p -aalo uh~aang# iii loading oin the rctor blades. This loading
giVe rise it) &mpulsive floisu. B~oting Vertol Company has conducted numerous studies
(if noke generation :and noise~ reiluctIon for tandem helicopters that established the im-
ptrurtwe( of rotor/'vo)riex inte raet ion and rotor/downwash interaction. Substantive data
gi-ner~altv are proprie~tary it) th~e Vertul ConipanY, but soman.q~aantitative -trends aip pre-
.-wiltedl in Ittclerunve 21-P whic-h doc-unients aI study of vivil helicopter noise. this study
vonc-luiles that (he only wav to elimninatf- impulsive nolse .1rom rotor-rotor interference
is~ t-) elininate tavfrl~ap andl to control the vtnrtival separation 'of the two rotors. Figuire
7 ks t~alkasn from~ Ranfisrtnen 21 to illustrate haiw separating the rotors Influences noise.

a hte :Ajilitv to pditnoike from tanahnim rotor helicopters with overlap Is not. we 1l
in * pan Iiii r:,turv, alt hough praapriet a ry imethodiology may exist in some
:t.a(~~~lI
viinilri~nhis. II principle, if data :ar(n avaihlable fro~m te.4t or annilysis to relate vortex
nI lah rt-ligth and ilt)wflwasl vI
I r~it eiLt to a 4*oifigrur ation, analytical miodels ejxist
to #,'5tijfadt( than noise vavi'f',rin eauwscd by ptilsative changres in airloading on the rotor
slarlesi(.

fimrpulsive nokva th~at occurs during, high speed cru,Ise of single rotor helicopters is
lielieved to Ihv vauseil by c.ompressible drag rise on the advancing rotor blades. The
rotor noise of ;I largen single rotor helicopter (Sikorsiky S-6;5) was studied in Reference #23

I;
 si

S .... ....... .4 . .l 4. . .
;i- ,• : 722., ,1 ft/ser- bANe..

- ~REA VY @
7'- :A" %. I ROTOR
-N0 SE4

j.I 006"

P,

.• I IiI •

- BLADE -O.2 " .0 2.0 3.0 BLADE

BFLOL FCWARD VWIFTl'X AFT BJ .LE VERTICAL SEPERATION A8CVL
- VORTEX FT./.lAJDE CHOD VORTEX

FIGURE 7. EFFECT OF BLADE-VORTEX SEPARATION ON

IMPULSIVE ROTOR NOISE
during a program of simultaneous noise and rotor load measurements. Results show
that during high speed cruise, unsteady airloads alone are not enough to predict rotor
rotational noise in front of the helicopter. Arndt and Borgman2 6 present a model for
drag rise harmonic noise based on profile drag on the blades. Profile drag Is shown
to be a significant source of harmonic noise at high forward speeds, a source that
would not be reflected in airloads from aerodynamic pressures measured on the sur-
face of the rotor blades. Lyon, et a12 7, approach the problem differently by tailoring
the thickness distribution in the tip region to reduce noise near Mach 1. 0. Results
from both approaches are similar, since reducing blade thicknesp -reduces nois-e (and
drag) and reducing drag reduces noise. In practice, Arndt and Dorgman's approach
is fairly straightforward to apply if airfoil lift-drag characteristics are available.
Available rcsults from unpublished Sikorsky studies show fairly good agreement with
measured data (Figure 8) when noise from compressible drag rise is added to lioise
from fluctuating airloads.

Drag near the tip of a helicopter rotor bladc during high speed cruise !s difficult to
calculate accurately. Torsional blade bending modea combine with flatwise and edge-
wise bending and with rigid body flap and lead-lag motions to influence local angle-of-
attack, drag, and noise. Obviously, unsteady aerodynamic response characteristics
of the airfoil also influence the drag and noise. Consequently, it is Important to

17
 7 M~JTE7D WIHDRAG RISE NOISE
comp

I -CcThWUTI*.D W."THOUT DRAG RISE NOISE

1 3 5 7

ROTATIONAL. INOI5FW HARMONIC

FIGURE a. CALCULATED AND MEASURED EFFECT OF

DRAG RISE NOISE AT 180 KTS CRUISE

fIi- S
t.:ij**h..! I.'i'.Isv 11101t. isi not ne-cvssaIrily in .ccuraite representation
a
.,z~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r,.-' ~ t~ w rira, uluing high speed cruise. The simple
~*!ii'i:t011Uti
(j**
m~dvtshv ~~mpov Iw ~vfle~tjji~teI i~I teasure'I noise atnd is useful
;Iz~*fl~g(

to~r thaut rea:Iw'n. More c()flIitlence ~toe bile (I-velUoiQ( in the ability of either virndt
:,no Il'rgmn':rs mtvthout or Ixotn'-; nme.thod to pri-diet high speed impulsive noise levels.
I-li~t, it-sts ocr -xin' tuntitl ~imuilatiumn- amre nevded to estabilish this confidence . W to
-I :..;vv. .u rtefineit priut-itiofl nit-Ilue. It is t(nceivabite that more sophisticated expe~rl-
of t~he
-1tudivit, will find that vxi-t ing nioslvis have producdre~rasnableI csti~mates
pro-
- v;o'usti% proper ties without coirrectly modeling the actua~l noise generaitng
;es:4vVI Afttuat ion AnI51i:II to Ot- cas (:if b roadbanifd rotor noise). letafled-estrimates
approach.
.1thi..h ptidimpulsivie nut. e mviv tOwni reqjuire in vnti rtly nlew :inalvtleal1

EngJ4ine' Noise

!h! r"' ,'ucti' ,i Go-i~t-raulv:, hi

11le!iv'cItiptr. are powo'red'by mtrnaii combustioin u'r.:,ines which
li tI 111:611
e)'id~pewi try till.n~ d UII I ;torI S ; and avcvss.orii-s thrnLu,~h vairion-v
re~riprinx':ting
.,Laet-l's of skiftiiig. amndr'~e: Althoug~h tu:trlv lit-lictupte'rs utilizredTh~~elr~re, the dis-
vmh~~~iflts~~~l:ifl
eityurn:1:I.wrIlitulohu 'nginen.
c.ussiol (if engine noise sources in this zetport hans Isen limited to tilrbosh-aft engines.
Turbine engine noise sources fall into two general categories: those originating out-
side the engine and those contained within the engine. The first category includes jet
noise, while the second category includes combustion noise, turbine noise, strut noise
(turbulent flow interaction), and compressor noise.

Jet Noise - Jet noise originates from the momentum exchange between the higher
relative velocitv of the exhaust gases and the ambient air. This momentum exchange
gives rise to turbulent shear stresses which in turn produce pressure fluctuations and
a radiated sound field. Thus, jet noise is gcnerated entirely downstream of the engine
exhaust duct. Lighthill's equation 1 , 2 is generally recognized as a valid mathematical
description ot the phenomenon of jet noise. In Lighthill's equation the far-field sound
intensity of jet noise is shown to be proport"onal to che relative jet velocity raised to
the eighth power and a characteristic dimension (usually the exhaust duct diameter)
squared. As is indicated in lighthili's equation, the let noise is a strong f'Mctio 4 of
the jet velocity. In typical helicopter application, the engine exhaust duct velocities
at the exit are relatively low, since exhaust diffusers are used for maximum power
extraction from the engine. Generally, exhaust velocities from helicopter engine tall-
pipes are less than 300 ft. /sec. At such low velocity, the jet noise levels are very
low and will not contribute to the overall engine noise until the other sources are ex-
tensively attenuated.

Combustion Noise - In turboshaft engines for helicopter applications, the combustion

noise is the dominant source. This source of noise has been "discovered" fairly
recently and was in the past associated with jet noise by investigators who found a
deviation from the classical eighth power velocity dependence of jet noise (Lighthill's
theory) for jet velocities below 1000 ft. /sec. Bushell 3 , in 1971, presented evidence
that the low frequency noise which was unmasked at low engine exhaust velocities was
associated with turbulence, internal struts, and flow through the combustors. it is not
surprising that this source of noise has not gained prominence until recently, as it
generally appears as low frequency broadband noise peaking in the vicinity ofL400 Hz
and is thus frequently confused with jet noise. -

Combustion noise is produced by the unsteady combustion process in turbine engines.

Because the combustor airflow is highly turbulent and the fuel injection system intro-
duces variability in droplet size, the combustion process Is, therefore, unsteady witb
time with varying heat release which in turn produces pressure fluctuations within the
combustion chambers of the engine. These pressure fluctuations propagate down-
stream and give rise to a sound field.
Ho and Tedrick 4 have concluded from extensive analysis of noise measurements made
on small turboshaft engines that the combustion noise is the most significant source
for these small engines. A simplified procedure for predicting gas turbine exhaust
noise related the overall sound power level to a noise factor based on the combustor
inlet temperature, the combustor discharge velocity, and the effective diameter of the
combustor. They identify combustion noise with a low frequency hump, characteristi-
cally at 125 Hz.

19
V

.. , t l£ioll W "i z o'i. * hcy :ativiiiiied iit) (I.-rive i ntndifled noii, fn'ctur by
*n~ial ,iA1hi:i!hm
ljz adh1 pt titictihc, va tu.--tu-ailr ra~tio, con bu torei rs

A shb* lit vat iatl.ln ot :n~r ~uation Ds offered :)y Nvitzvl7. in -Ahich the presd1u.-.-
eq.
ilit i!ii.'i.- It tilt- L. :1 1))%- il:-tvtl-:it tilt 21. U p(,wt'r and the- con.bustor inlet-tern-
1
P.*Cl:%*J1-t-o-:iZJ-.,i%.1t-tvivil-raiture racii dep'nulndene is oroppeil.

I ~e~t~t~so IV W*'i-r4.tt o'ther fuorms. of varying con .iixI~y for the predlctica
ctwl~i%.iustioarahi UI nci-
t
tFJ I'.jlu-se $L~1 to hav- W~voramon~n ,'wever, th.-it the Impor-
t-tnt a-irarnittt-r. are the. all- ruW raite, comibustoir exit temperature, and comnbuator*
.- it pre~sure.

Tht.- .d~ovr citt~d provedure'4 alli relate tht. over.1il sound. powvr level to the com~bustion
proev.-s.q A proctedurvtfdoes Iinot appe.ar to exist for coinpvttng the combusticn noise
firtcttivitv p~Attrn ur ,pet-trum shaIpe. In the reeently Vablished report describing EAl
interini predriction int-th'j-l for low'~!rf ;uvcwc core e*nglne noise to be used by the NAUSA
.1irer.-ff Noist:PeIii~~ctionf (flic~e, fluff, t-t al , SUgge3tedi using Demi and Peartts 1
itirectivitv vurve b~ase~d on measured! ifirectivities from .ieveral engices. Also, they
.&,ree with Dunn and Pearti's justification for adcpting tilt SAE 12 spectrum for In-
flight jet noise on the bas~is !hat jet noise anti low frequency (ore noise are d'ficult to,
M!Patrate.

fIowever, K.14in, .et a11 f romn iinalyslds of engine data. have concluded that tbt, direc-
tivity puttern of comblustion noise depends in the engine exit geometry. Thelir cdata
does not show as steep a 7eduction in the forward quadrant as dces Dunn and PearV&a,
:idthoju,;h bloth plavv tbi' jwak at or~near P-110 delyffes from the inlet. The Kazin, et al, -

ia..:ippear to rx, Ynore consistent with Strnhle's;work14 , who concludes that the 16w
irerjuency cenmbustic.n noise should have only weak directional tv.

Ilnrillv, Ka'.n, et al. and Picke't" conclude that the combustion noise spectruJm shape
Wiii close lv follow the tut bulence %pectrumat the -entrance. to the combustor. Kazin's
1Iatai reveal 'a broad peak centered Atbout :300 to 400 lIz, which Iis conpsistent with
M-iihvws and Pe.caeLchioll', ;and ve rtainlv inure intufflvely statisfying-than arbitrarily
:i;sigflifl it a jet nioise spectrum.

In sum.-Pary, it appears that vornbustlon noisL processes a're not aa yet fully understood
and the noise prL~diction nmths)dology Is not fully developed. However. several semi-
empirical procedures have Ilesn deve~loped wh~ch give reaBoflably good agre-.ment with
available test data. In pt~rticutar, the procedutre presented by Kazianet all 3 , (similar

20
in part to that recommended by tiuff, et al11 seems appropriate for current noise
estimates due to its relative simplicity and good accuracy.

Turbine Noise - The noise mechanisms for turbine-generated noise are similar to
those for c-oripressor noise; i.e. , fluctuating blade forces due to rotor stator inter-
action and turbulence in the flow. Turbine noise generally occurs at a higher frequency
than combustion noise and includes tones and pseudo-tones as well as broadband noise.
"iT'e fundamental frequency for turbine tones is generally above 4000 Hz due to the high
rot:ative speeds and many blades of the turbine.

There is considerable broaderning of the "tones•, commonly called "haystacking".

i'his phenomtnon has been found to depend to a large degree on the relative axial loca-
tion of coaxial fan duct termination in turbofan engines (Dunn and Peartl 0 recommend
that the turbine tone noise level predicted for the 47T6D engine be reduced 10 dB aor
this engine, where the primary and fan flows mix internally) leading to the conclusion
that this compoernt of turbine noise is strongly influenced by propagation through the
turbulent exhaust flow. Also, since the flow leaving tMe combustor is highly turbulent,
random pressi~rc fluctuations give rise to random perturbations of the vane and tur-
bine blade loadings. In the ease of the vanes, this phenomenon will produce broadband
noise, whereas for the turbine blades it will generate narrow-band random noise which
appears as 'hay,.tacks" at'blade passing frequency and its harmonics.

Essentially, no analytical formulations for turbine noise exist, although the mechanisms
are believed to be simi'ar to those for compressors and thus compressor noise method-
ology can be adapted to the turbine noise case. However, there have been several
attempts at empirical correlations of data obtained in turbine rigs and full-scale en-
gines. Early attempts by Smith and Bushell 1 7 related the peak broadband noise level
to the total mass flow and to a local speed of sound and blade relative velocity cubed.
A similar relationship is given for the tone levels with the addition of a stator-rotor
spacing term, although large scatter in the data detract from the usefulness of the re-
lationship.

Dunn and Peart10 present a turbine noise estimating procedure which is eimilar to that
of Smith and Bushell. They show somewhat better agreement with data, primarily by
virtue of selecting comparison data only from limited turbofan noise measurements.
I
Kazin, et a11 3 , have attempted to derive an analytical turbine noise prediction method
based on noise generating mechanisms studies for fans and compressors. Although
the procedure is claimed to accurately predict turbine noise levels, it is of limited
value for general use due to the detailed design and operating parameters required for
its use.

Since it has been demonstrated that the noise generated by turbines is related primarily
to 1) a work parameter; 2) a velocity parameter and 3) blade row axial spacings, the
relationships of Dunn and Peart 1 0 appear adequate for rough estimates of conventional
engine designs, as their relation includes these primary variables.

21
 tA,. 13 'Ick .

r aw 1. * i:: v..lC

~
*~ ~ ~:a ~ I;~ ~~I 1l nn! .. A-r
w4..vl' vi ival':.i.wl ~t
I.. ... .
,..~ i.: ~.*I .~ a. fit ~ 14)a'0
IsO fl L'XpL'ri-

* . .~a. .e 3;,.. .%*

. .... ia .I:g
!3.' I3v'v.
(lain sho w tol..i )
ve try,

a. .d:.-aI- ::a-l i 3m~ d)~ * ~ III.:13.s . In.O"'i bllonips in the frc!(uency

r.*~.
:a~~ t * ~r.'
~.* ,~:U1I't~.I :3 in' ~flucncic's were

.,I
t : -... ti l lte OJ!':;: of
Ol* In fillinpre.-iscr nos m t s1 , 0
a::a~iA..a.a
-. ::.a il* ~ noirt. mýIvie~ni. ins :are rotor/st~ator interaction
*azl.I ~ tur. it. na.- j ~ilt 1a:aItl i. M. Al i att .. upls-roflW tip ~~~s orrs
A: ',

~kJj
I...':;t~ u.h l. I.Ilael,".j~: lit Ow qe**.~d
1'uadran:t ai Wvell is in the iWet

..3.)
Ii t3*n~r4 i.. - ~I:.
1: I. :aappiail Iproliv 1 it-mkvul Wallijn- n'itse theory
. n:i :i~ ~
iiI~t~'~~~*l( ~[. , ly I u- .Oul PXeIIt~;utln~s thL.4') to the case of
*.'.3)*~flil3.3' :i~! 33.- . Ii: 3Iu s' avva tice FiiIt-i-inifl
aTi ti)the baiSicecltua-
-- Iai oi. :a I: 'l Cit., V.
ill 'SA l~e l~it,-3 I . g. s~~I.I
-lta.1 ) t Ili ir. to .intludL* effac~ts- of un-
.' .I.I.vaisr t-jkii .-,ti,- I.,~ w-'Ie '- grin; upp.l h-.min slatlir rows aind( turbulence ingested
I~. 3
*.~m i. *..-Nafi I'ia I.- . unwk , izollil. ;.ddit-onal dtetails, such as
xil.-JIP'jla .1 'Aand %;sil
ult' w~hvr E!ifilI as, ,,uc~h Lositiffusion
ana:~'trdd thrrugh the

'.).r:aIk:313i
a va
g: lIp * U:~: rifqii-
" Ir
h' motaia inlputs 1.c., (i-titt&lded L.ign aInd
r 0ui:1 tOri.ieS t~n :arv g*333*r:a liv ;tvatiiabIe it) the astal~IIIuser, anti, there-
..h3.:

i rt~iI tnst3lbods;3y
t~n; is-,* it ieele'opi-O. *Ihvx faaiilte the neiss:W to svra~.L :l
I l3~*)
.*a] i . jm.h~ . . lit-bAI'j...n -n.a d iv. -erI llt ailva vni3 flh31I4 f i5.ofl -iimplu relationc.hips,
Sfh Allval-'1 whic'h frtquir'(5 ojiiiinput p)owiar or prex~gure rise and discharge flow,
lij. *W .whi..0i;a"InI oios iunvolving ina:ifv jI r:m(turs,. such as that of Smith Ind

IloJ :11 wahich incl]ude.:: Indepundfl3eflL cLItn'ions11 for toneian~d broadband componenits,
rov,' -st'ttrar 'wparations, andl h~igh Mach numbei .dow effe'cts.
'lii:- procediure h.- b..-q iound to cirx3t: itec l! .w'zh tUr.~.i;k4;n .:at:irz .At r
*ipplicatwl to the. uf ain Vtngint. ~rb~c~~tr.::; lhn Grta~ jXAi'zi-

hirodoo-tiiwtm. - iiicaillv, there~ :zr' f'xi a ptrs;:Lehe.s Lo rc'lucirng the no-ic~ trurn. turI~zne
s '*~.i'lLit ll.ý ,ppronavik ini tý. irvdcie t-L- mi it-t tb- srurct hiv c~h.vs'4 fixI.4z
.11 det
-oroix-ratis),. ~:f~*~r; I 13I l'tt(I';, L-111' ir %1L~d1,'a teelinOI',g%' h:.nA~t***; ld W~ith-
out rv.g' :rd to) nuj~ist 1(, t!..refor., (cIflgý! in v-rg~re r..~~lparaint~cr!s
at~~nd
for reduringtn flt uis, 1A :' s -'zi.xs ge.l-trzally i:Ut in' horn. los's in pi:rforrnuac.ie
vithevr as~ iriivasud~c %i:i:,ht a~nd :.izv or ic:atdfut-l :.0.nsumption. T1he siecond a.-s
proach is in tho u9t- of ~avoustivalI~. treinfud "Ict.3 t..%:W!.*rnuaUn ~:d seratedi noist- Irv-
visvous dibsip:Itioni This~ secon'md:p*.'.::n
l i.d 'e -df-., t~ :nF;.iA pten..) -
Mm:ICT 'andI al-:.) r.'-'ults in j-- r. .:-*if we:ight duea -tt tiL, au.aJed mutcrials.

*jeluctjion of (onih-usi. 'in Noire' - In order to araintai.. lho mame powe~r output, theet::
*iL(;,V through flth!omfnaitor ha,; it,.**t~i~d P. .r-e-nr, the combustor diarwitmt., r
canf ix: incr::zsel so th~tt the combjustordis-hargeý velo'-h; r:in he retiIeed to. ai Itiala.
flow rate. It is for thi.i re'ason th.-It an annular combrastor Is cjuicter than ;i can-type.
combustor and thu reverse :anrnultis roxbustor is tho Liest coinflgurrit on from an aeotus-
tt
*heal point (if viw.Strahl su-gests that a drop in comibustor flow turhule-ee
intensity would cause effc- tiuto nc~kse recductioni. However, actual comb~ustors .Iep'.nd
uponv a high turbulenct: leviei tor flame .Atniilization as wrell -_-.for bu. cevr perfoiri~:nace
.optimilzation, HO somv fx-rforfliaflve petnatlt would hec evcpwtvc with reduced noise.

Moderate redu~iutl.n ')i engine exh:iust nflile has buen demonstratutd using :I(oUti-Ai litint'rs
in the X1791i) uflgineli. Conventional tre'atmlent concepts were uhilzel anIti required larie
bUaeking depth to attenuate the. low frequency tao1ie components. This results In signift-
cant Weight :and space p~enalties. lBowes.- showed substantial reductionin tungine ex-
hauust noi.;e by thoe a.ilditiozn.Of Llong tre~derl tallilpipe which rediri'tct-ethe tuxiuSt
alip~ltly Upward awayv from listni~tirs andl thus a*.4n benefited1 fromn dirvetlonalitv effm'cis.
lie due~wnn, hitowe-ver, indicate the incurred w.-ight And performance penaflnties.

It-itduio i'nn ofl '1turIine N~sism - l~W examining the impo~rtant jparam.. lrs governifig tur-
bine noisie, it was futind that inc'reasing the 4paa'lng hettween ftlit. :ttor and atator siuigt~
is the nmos't :ait railvv imethod for redutction of noise at thet source... Although this thui~a
incrl!:uiu the !mvn;:th of the h~aft. the ansIlaoei:litt-t pformanve losms ii very Mlight.

P'ropi-r seI-ectinon of htadde and vane cousits- has Im-fcn itemonsivrated te, ri-due. flt- no1 ise
from turbofans 1)y pushing the. interaction rnodea; into cut-off. Tian asmect, of the Tyle~r-
Sofrin *theeory- t% should! be eqiually' :pplieabllt to turblinesl. Another coti.4lvtcriot isflithe

23
 * * .a.
. ~.i. 'a a .*i.at.. ~ : fl~ati.~l I.wevtr, con.~.ithIra-.
* ~
: . ~ Lal ;~.' I. ~.A~4It. l.2urlir.e
Ow11 At~ige Ouca.h

~~i
~ .. , .L*I
-.A I .t .*... .. Ili,- taAaai
f -Ul:r.-ant.sx1:yc. This approach is
* t~., *ai' .:~ ta!dI-. tha, -1,, .i truaiin.~iL ro"% ...
d th r-luc d.

* c,-!aa~Itan
- I' .. d-a
t** I' .pj LIC.
q'i A., iS tbal± case for

.~ ~- 44 * . f ;A- ;If i a-!.'jp iA~twt~~4.n s~tmt nloise

t f. it
* *..t:.1a.
.. . .. *.' ; r.,.t . *tCie no;se -*cifiicaliy,
a*trulgif 13 .1 I.di
Lw . ,Ii 'I L
t1.. ~~:,:eat~ili-
v*~ 04e Struts in
low- vvi'..it', .avi:w r:;tI,k-r thm.~tah~.. a:! ut . i 1:re bult in k-wer -noise. Simnilar)--
It :"I
*.t AJi: 3ai1.t1 .ill~
A 'Ir..,. 14ill a-LdUCt* tIajjL~tr,;jqi£ *.te~iJUUisL.

*
N;e~z'~ai I!..

~1t1i:;I~i;I~i; ;t;; £j:~;

1; h
)I thv tltw Livtsr the strtit wmay actur, i c'hange la th..

*Ait t~ fitw. airza£I.Ir.4ý twist to the st zut may resv:t

At
?"All .... I %rdflit troanilju~itin and Itirnilnt nnise will also attenuate
t~t II144.tf'41 I',~i r,'Iit f Itai* *li:.ta.:aa''
U1I I it.ctiflnumfllt.lht uf Qbi tr*-Ž;t-
a': n a . aL .
11.' 1-1to! *I.1 ~t1imt-
- ..-1 IOw1 r.Ltv builn.;4)f Ow~ three :m urv(e..S

Rtlaa'ict-tin -if ~u . v -, Mall. ý-.twlivs. havis Il'4iil rcof4urtt-d Ito alle'viate the.
"hail -t 1.91.1 st.a1 ,''s inl turhad-.inis t ý'9
i- . The rviiuuit Irmni these. -itudies art, eqjually
i ~.i~'1.
**'I. I :~~('sL'oF ati:~ eaip Isos SignIfhvant refluttion can Ix.- obtaine'd
Is-, 1i:( it'!~It~iI spavihg Itl4Iiroitiar amnd -;tataur M tkfl(I toy rclt-Iung the ro t or

*i;;)r-.;.vJr is i~s,spvvi:aIj WO1 3il

fl'ijist at.'IlU.Ii-te( lby :ari)11tical luilins: ;ni's~rials -dnce the
I jla:.tj *.ai ;1ri'l tistialI
.~ . . it, I raIewI lit, nc:!. it prnipg~atinrg :1 ..w)t Ote flow,
%fill t!wtet-irnitnpe'turairv is az.::r ;qnii~a ,wherv 1a'%;.; ex~~tjeiaz jiitterial than th-ni.' iv-0

lifeit
iR .iau
e.j I
(I:( blot ctiJI'ni e vXIa1:0t, ita, i1 the. for engine a'xLaus't treait-

f.:Il.)x.~jg is limIiiittalI, vilrv~~ lt~~ .1-ill

Jt'I~i:i''.'It' frel it.eauy :ilnals nevur-
rin41 A: 4-:101 temth .,,,'t*(r bi hii I 'Iaflit-1aii~
:;~.d-n. I'haw-
aist:AliiuaI,) frai-uatinry'k~I
.n01r.1ut timex*, 11:11, V.tlabit '-iaithhatiifile, which ari*t. g.*nerally lnxliznifivaint rvlative W(
tih :t- at m.eshing frequenci;s. Mesh frequency noise is ra(oiated to tl-.c atmosphere
bý lh- casing or the stricture to which it is attachcd. The r~diating body is driven
by the dynamic svswn' comprised of gears, shafting and bearings. The dynamic sys,
t.:m is .excltodiby !he rn.ihing .)f gears, which is Imperfect In all but ideal cases.
lmnIM rfect mieshing induces :an oscillating force as well as the intended constant force
tra nsmitted to the mr:nia gears. This oscillating fcrce.is the cause of gearing noise.
Both the generation of mesh frequency excitation and the path It takes to the final radia-
tion point must 1w considered in predicting and r(-ducing gearing noise. Both analytical
and empirical solutions have been developed for gear noise prediction. The analytical
form of solution, hov,ever, not only predicts noise levels, but can be used for Identify-
ing means of noisc suppression at the source.

Empirical methods are gener-ally used for pre-diition of gearing noise emission. There
are several practi.al reasons for the use of these simplified methods over the highly
dutailhd analyses now available for transmi•ssion noise prediction. The lirst is that
the analytical methods requirer a detailed knowledge. of both the design of the trans-
n..,sion. and characteristics of the system, such as bearing load deflection character-
istics. The second is the tact that aircraft transmissions are designed with subst-antial
commonality in terms of loadings, speeds, and material-', Also, the normally coin-
plex casings and airframe configurations do not lend themselves to dynamic analysis
at gear meshing frequencies, thereby adding a significant unknown in terms of sound
output on top of the problem of computing excitations andemissions from the basic
.gearing.

Excitation of gearing svstems at tooth-mesh frequency can be determined through the

use of computer programs such as those descrifxbd in Reference 1. These progr"ms
have been used in several studies which demonstrated that a reasonably accurate pre-
diction of tooth mesh excitation and resultant system torsional response can be made.
"Thcy have bxeen improved and supplemented with lateral bending'anrilyses of the gear-
ing system elements (References 2 through 5), but have not been integrated into a total
program which is capable of accurate neise predictions. R should 6e- noted, however,
that the detailed analysis of References I through 5 has made it possibLe to attain noise
reductions by shifting resonant frequene'fes of saomie components out of the normal
operating speed range.

The disadvantage of the detailed analytical approach to gear noise prediction character-
ized by these and other programs Is threefold. First, the detailed inform~ation on gear
quality ..nd the dynamic characteristics of some elements of the gearing system are not
generally known and must bc estimated. This immediately transforms a rigorous
analytical solution to a semi-emppirical one. Second, the complexityof these methods
requires computer programs which are difficult for most engineering organizations to
use without extended study. Third, the accuracy of the programs attainable at the
prese.'nt time Is limited.

25
 .;. .n .akn v~to Ox
i anai tival procedures, tli-ire are grap~hical methods .ivail.labl
!Jr 0.,- esliiw:.At'n of nlwsh frequenev excitation Wfich .iccotult for the impornant para-
:;.'LL~IwiLb~4pov.'cr trasmitctd,- tooth, loadwa,, pitch line velacity, toothl prcflle
tritooth protile roughrnLss, tooth spacing error, tooth alignmient error, p.th
c,)fltaict ratio, approach awlii ceess angle, prc,;surv an~gle and backlash. It Is felt that
trus peof pr-Aiicticmn, p~rLs:t:nlttd in Ittferentc 6i, is valid in estimating this excitation.
K-ii-ve'r, an vajCi:allv important part o)f tw! :.!.i estimation proceS3, that of translating
the e-xo~itji- )n iitar radiatcd noisev, is ,iuljjtct -., large vrror.

1' :-ansmissionl', and helicopter main tran~smis sions In particular because of stringent
~e4tlini~t.&aiufs, are cornprised of many coinple x components which do not readily
lend;. *L.m~ivlces to dyN-amic analvsis at ine.'hing frequencies. The casings are probably
ti.e ':.!t.fliiult part of the transtnissi-n to anal, zv U-cause of their complex shapes
"'tl ~a z%ing cross sieations. hlighlyN detailied arialyses. auc asth
%ag~ ntel-
i:*.pplro)awh, are netcessary to dt.fine impvd;Anc-:s and miode shapes.. Lacking 3uch
anfll. SvS, empirical or statistical means are used to cstimate the casing's effect on
radiated tLaisc.

The casing Bs tlec single- most important clement in the-chain of events leading to gear
mevsh noise emission by '.irtue of its influence oin dynamic element mounting Imoedance
and It-i uLLtimate radiation of mesh frequency vibration as noise. The fact that no
jI~z:-c tlcail anal,, sis exists for il-,rminlng its dvilarrnlc characteristics makes the emupir-
ical approach to geartx~x noise prediction necessary for the present. although such
methods are somewhat inexact.

Helicopter transmission. are de'signedi to transmit a rated power with minimum weight.
Thbey are manufactured %ith a high de~gree of quality control and tight tolerances to
maintain safvty margins required. These requiremvints, along with similar reduction
ratios from engine to rotor on most helicopters gives this family of transmissions
enough comrnonality to allow a good dleal of generalization and an empirical method-to
be u~sed in predicting ermitted noise levels. A method such as this Is found in Reference
6;. In tilis methudA, the rrvinufac~uring cha-racteristics of a gearbox are-used to classify
the .11d
qs the sound ipowf-r le-vN of twnot-w Is plotted as a function of transmitted
power. Figure 9 shows the sound power level versus transmitted powuer curve from
Reference 6. Since helleopter gearhoxexs are manufactured to high accuracy standards,
their noise sh~ould lie In the vlatia B or C area ef Figure 9. Levels predicted In this
way appear consistent with unpublishied Sikorsky danta.

Meference 1; ak()o provjdt.es soni)c empirical inlformalftioni on the noise reduction that can
h~e :a-hieved with various modi~fication~s to gearlaoxens. '1hcne are shown in T~able 1.
(Note that the recluct bati for each variable ark- not necessarfly additive).

In sumnmary, significant proqre.49 has4 twen made in understanding gearbox noise mte-
chanisms. 'l~his progress has included the development of both analytical and empirical

26;
 i 6ýnd
160 I IllII
are Ofg f•iid

and
C Reijt of eaxremoely W•h moan ioauring accuracy

|. CIs C: 'l;gr, 'o•.! ,ctur•ng U¢"..,ce.

Closs D Nor'- -l u qac lity revqitd.I

"C Gear •h-,s with high noise levels "at are

easily
1u E:
crec red by i, creairog the monufoct44mg q .ty. D

so I30 CC

1,20

110

W 1000 5000
1050 10
CI

GEARED SYSTEMS
FIGURE 9. NOISE QUALITY CLASSIFICATION FOR

gearboxes. Empirical methods :re

prediction procedurea which can be used for new
accuracy for gearboxes such as
relatively ca3s to use and appear to offer reasonable
units used in helicopters. Ana-
the lightweight, highly loaded, close tolerance aircraft
deal of detaihled design information
lvtical method:s, on the other hand, require a great
for reasonable agreement with
to use and still require some empirical corrections
do provide Insight into problem areas
experiment. However, the analytical procedures
not be determined with the empirical
and likely noise reduction modifications which.can
methoda.

27
/

j , - -',
: °.

~4 n
|
. i, ~ a:.. .,

, 3. ...

r-..-. !c - I , - . $
rr;ar
.
LJ
3 .
.. ... I

*
:.-4.-I

( .)
•'.,,
".:1 * *" :t , t• •,,2

i-t

• , ,: i*.
- ).
m. . I .~.* •i i|
24.-..
. , . .1.
.. - e . -.
:ll
* . a j j, g.
,.
a II~a k. * Ij .I 12
3...,.,.
..
. i* 4 I %*t
s , l , .' .t •b

*i 11

• . .* . . . a.
If
... . ±. . .*

,-I .. ".*" , i ' s ,•' *.Ir..

. . .. * ap
la.P3.I',.,

... J , - .,. ~. - lI" a.l'l"* i" I~t.a li

1
3.p-

; | I II,|,i a
 Des~pite all of1 th.. work that has been dofle to dtvt-lop prediction methodis for the souirces
uf V. STO*I. noise, alitemptb to formulate comprehensive metthods for prcdh~iizgn, the
noise fromn a eurnpletet vetacle have occurrvd oak; re-cently. The two m. jo r studies that
ipecifit'aIlv :scr'hliapirare. reported in Refurences I. and 2. Boath studies deal
with nrdst- lruw. main rotur. tail rotor, and engines. Noise from grearboxes is ignored,
which is a legitiniate simplifivation in most cases, especially at distances typical of
flig4hts over porwhited areas. Re~ferenlce I consiaers the special case oif tilt-rotor
vehl'dcLus, but uses Hthts~ame oredietlor. method a,4 is used for helicopters.

Both studies use the dlosed-form rotational noise miethod of Lowson and (iilcru-ad3
as the biest practical tool that is presentlY aV.'iil.leM. The selection of loading Uarn.onic
diway constants, called "loading laws". is Ihasid .)n acoustic test data. i'XcitIA~r ret:-
crence specifically duals Aith the effects of rotor-rotor inte rference on tail rotor noise,
*since. relattively little information is available 1r. the liter;.ture. Broadband rotor noise
is predicted with emplrlc(i-at it, -ods. Although differtent studies are referenced In
developing the broadband method. both vehiclu nloise rtAIieods use forms of the so-
called Scheh-gul ecluatlcii4 with a dlirectivityvcorrection as jpropbsed by Lowson and
()llerhead. in ltt-ft-rence :1. Engine noise pred1ictlon also uses empirical procedures
in each methodl. A sample of the agreement obtained with the method. of flefderence 2
is shown in Figure 10, below.

-95

90

85
_j- MEASURED
IL- CALCULATED

75 A A I
I.A I-A j.-
0 02468a 1Q.12 14 161Is20 2224 26 21330
- TIME AFTER TAKEOFF . SE.C

FIGURE 10. TAKEOFF NOISE CORRELATION

The agreement between measured and predicted noise levels Is quite good and is ade-
qiuate for us%! in stutiqs of community acceptance of noise using tone corrected per-
* edved noise level, lE1a. 1. Similar correlation has been obtainted betiveen predicted
anti measured A-weighted sound pressure level , SPL(A). It is linporiant to note,
however, that the referenced 'ehlcle noise prediction methods have demonstrated
good agreement with gress characteristics of the nolie, namely PNI. andi SPLIA). Cal-
culation of more complex measures of subjectivc reponse Which may be needed to as-
sesls tone content and impulsive noise require revisions to the referenced methods.

29/30
 fl'.1.l( PT'(), R'.lNOIS.E jjf-H['C'fION TECHINIQUttES

o rit,', 4o h.l i..pt,.r nuis,, rt-luires that all ol the s(,urces of roi:-e, includingi nain
rotor, tail rotor, engine', and to a lesser extent, gearlox be :considered. Studies of
foist' sour,.,.s and. ih,.ir pri.ikction for .:ih of the.s. components ot dhe helicopter in-
hc,..rntl. :adh'Vss fil. h 4 t 14.1rduc.tion quo.Ution, hint.e the irfiuence of .,perating ant!
.on,:i.ur:ititin pa.n'iviers on nokise gem ration is part of any noise prediction technique.
i ,tl.r svetins of this rcpor! :4hdress the n:jise prediction techniques in detail. 'Th-Cre-
1.;r ., in this -ii-ction orlv thi tioi:;e reduction tcchni';ues investigated experimentally
%%ill!,. discusz.-

()f li:'•-t intt-erst atv the noise rteduction 1xit.ri-wents conducted on the lIughes O-tGA,
the. :,korsk-ýS113) arin the- Kaman liil-.131. "h'l"i-t;A is a light observation heli-
4 ý,)tcr of 951 kg 210.1 l.,rs j t.i4ibht with a fiur-hiaded main rotur and a le'r,
bladed tail rotor. The 1ll-11113 is a lar'ger helicopter used for Air Force Rescue
mio.sons of 3175-4:30-t r.g (7000-9500 lbs. I gross %%i-:ht.with two meshing twit tadiltd
niain rotors. The SlfalD is a large troop transport tpc helicopter of 70-0 kg 1h].511
lb-. gross weight with five-teiaded main rotor anti fi'i-bladed tail rotor.

Anl'.: :3s of the ( )li-i;.\ no4).. signature as shown in Figure 11. from lReference 1) clearlv
indw'atehi that main rotor. tail rotor, engine exhaust and gearbox noise all contribute
sub.stniallv to the total noise. In order to suppress main rotor noise the design tip
speed was reduced from 6;-i- it. :rsec. to -13.| ft..sc. In order to maintain performance,
five main rotor ld:'hs wlre used instead of four. The main rotor tips were changod
from the standard r14.t.I:..Ular tip shape to a traipzoidal shape with a 2 degree twist.
"lTo !i1•p')rss the tail rotor noise its speed was reduced from 3120 rpm to 16:30 rpm.
'o maintain performance, a lour-bladed rotor 14'. larger in diameter than the stan-
dard rotor was us.od. T'he angles between blades were 75 and 105 degrees instead of
the conventional equal spacirig. Aibo, high lift eamheted airfoils were idsed insto.ad of
¶ - the standard svmmuitricva airfoils. (;?ar'box noise was suppressbd by use of lower
pit( h gears with hi-ht.r contact ratios. These gears were also machined to higher
-accuracv :.nd had lx"tter surface finish than the standard gears. . Damping material
was applied to the w,.bs of some gears and to the core of some drive shafts to reduce
ringing nois|, resulting from gear clash. Modifications to the engine as well as exter-
nal muffling was used to :uuppress the engine. rhe basec engine modifications2 consisted
of i) shot p'-ening the first itaqv turbine nozzle to create a :ionic inlet block; 2) hal.maning
all rot:nting. ompon.*ntst i to cu.,r than normal toltehr-aces to reduce vngine casing vibra-
tion anud .3) clipjpivg .. 'v al s:tagis of compre;sor vanies to Increase blade./stator spac-
ing and thus redluce- inlet .iren noise. tlss: engine changes resulted In an exhaust peak
reduction of 2 dill. The ,irwine exh:tuSt inuifler consisted of a tuned douhle expansion
reactive type muffl,:r exiting ;nto a large tun, -1 resonating chanmber". Engine inlet
noisc was suppressed by lining the inlet fairing and plenun chamlxr of the test vehicle
with 1-inch thick oro-n .ell polyuireth:ne foam. Peak attenuation of engine noise was
found to be over 30: d1l for this system1 .

31
"r':Ac .arly test Lczfort.; on the lIi-4:3I indicawa that the rotor engine and gearboxnS
cu!:r:Lutc'd to thu !oise signature. Enginh. noise con.ponan*s are inlet radiated broad-
ba~iii fUw noise and discrte tone compre..sor noise, case radiated mechanical and
.jnhbustiun nodise, and exhaust radiated broadband flow noise 3 . Inlet noise was sup-
pressed by a revers-' flow inlet duct, as shown in Figure 12, with a multi-layer :e-
activý, liner. Ca,:e radiated noise was suppressed by Installation of vibration isolators
between the engine and its supporting strueture and by a high transmission lose enclo-
surt- around the .n.ine t omp:trtment. Exhaust noise was suppressed by the exhaust
duct shown in Figure 13, which includes a lined absorber section for attenuation of
nghIne and in--duct gener:xted noise and a diffuser section which allows for uniform
expans*onn of vxhau.;t gases to nearly zero relative velocity. Additldnal reduction is
achii.ved by directing the exhaust nearly diretctly aft as opposed to the downward
directed exhliust ofthe standard aircraft.

it was found tLit the vibration isolation and installation of an engine enclosure were not
effective In reducing the aireraft noise signature. The Inlet noise suppression was
effective, particularly the suppression of the compressor blade passage tone. Reduc-
ticn of as much as 10 dB In the mid-frequeacy range was achieved with the exhaust
muffler.

Many, changes were made to suppress gearbox noise discrete tones at frequencies equal
to the gear clash frutquency and Its harmonics. These changes included the use of a
gear set with good wear patterns tand minimurm tolerance, plating of gear teeth to
improve surtace fitush, the use of high viscosity oil, mlsphasing of right and left drive
gears, elastomeric !..olation of the planetary ring gears and Installation of external
sound proofing. -Octave band analysis did not show any improvement for theae changes.
Hlowever, the changes did re:ult In a subjective Improvement as they reduced the levels
of the discrete tones in the spectrum. The external sound proofing was not effective in
reducing aircraft noise signature.

Rotor modifications included increasing the diameter from 47 ft. to 50.34 ft. , Increas-
ing blade chord from 15. I69 inches to 18.69 inches, thinning and-drooping the leading
edge, and slightly tapering the tip. These modifications caused a reduction of higher
frequency noise components, but an Increase In low frequency noise. Reducing the tip
speed from 540 to 4f2 ft. /ceC. reduced :,ise throughout the frequency spectrum by 3
dB. With the reductions achieved, the rotor was still the dominant noise source
throughout the audible spectrum.

Initial analysis of the S!,21

.,. dlcated that the total etera-l noiac spectrum Is domi-
nated at various frequencies by the main rotor, tail rotor an] engines. Main rotor and
tall rotor rotational Poise at multiples of 16. 9 and 100 liz, respectively are dominant
in the low frequencies with a mixture of retor and engine noise contributing to the mid
and upper frequencies.

32
 A .1w. aonola

I, is, -,
-10 M - 10 SAI

M^11 A19, I

F sminan

C;A' I G.

?AIL NOIPE - A&ELL

1 ~~~~/ 4r,,,J 11/2 IN. Is. smCELLs n CL

NUITC.
3/4IN flIN. 3.".FBRLS

~~~FIGURE 1 3.
OEALNIEXHAUSSN SILENCER
CNTUTO
IUR 2.ILT

IN (RONTVIEWAT
HOER CNSTRCTIO
*main rutor noi.-, was treated by reducing tip speed from 662 to 597 ft./ -et. and cha:.g-
in; from 5 standard i-;quare-t:pped blades Gosix twisted trapezoidal tiu blades. The
tall rotor was treated by reducing tip speed from 657 to 442 ft. /sec. and by doubling.
the anaber of blades from 5 to 10, Further attenuation for cruise flight was gained
by mondifiing the aft vertical pylon to a cambered airfoil configuration, thereby reuiov-
ing some of the anti torque load frornn the tail rotor in this flight regime.

l'h11
1AIC;.ines were attenuated bv inlet and exhaust silencers. Although the silencer per-
ref~innce, was not measured, on the engine, tests with no flow showed peak insertion
loss uf approxinmaiely 25 dB around 1000 liz.

X comparison of roi.se generated by the standard and modified helicopters showed that
noise is-at.tnuiated at nearly all irequencles with the most noticeable change occurring
at the tail rotor blade pa'.,.; frequency. Tail rotor noise was reduced to the point
where it was almost ir •i dlcant for the modified vehicle. Also, high frequency noise
components were rec!,ced by 3 to 10 dB over a wide frequency range.

Although it could not be shown In the 1/3 octave band spectrum plots, the character of
the noiseu'was entirely'different for the original and modified aircraft. The standard
SH3D was easily identified as a helicopter by its characteristic main rotor rotational
noise and tail rotor "buzz". The .modified SH3D sounded like a low speed muffled
turbojet during flyby 4 .

Noise reduction methods described above for the three helicopters involved in the quiet
helicoptesr program were for the most part, straight-forward techniques with proven
effectiveness. Rotor noise reduction was attained via reduced tip speeds, increased
solidity, and limited blade aerodynamic improvements. Engine noise reduction was
attained primarily by muffling. Gearbox noise was reduced primarily by shielding
and damping.

The techniques employ .d were effective, but reulted in performance reductions and
weight increases in agencral. They mrove the helleopt.ra' op•ratlng, parameters away
from those which were orig-inally setected on the bisia of performance and economic
conside rations.

Further research Is requlrcod to define rotor and engine configurations which are both
quiet and efficient.

34
 SUBiIECTIVE RESPONSE TO HELICOPTER NOISE

Introduction

For more than twent\ vears efforts have been made to develop noise rating scales
which accurately predict the subjective response to aircraft noise. The difficulties
of corducting meaningful tests, where the results are determined by listeners judging
various sounds, has led to c'onsiderabhe confusion about the relationship between one
rating system and another. Also, there arc two distiact objectives which must be
considered in developing the rating scales: 1) a scale to measure the perceived level
of an individual aircraft flyover sound which can We used for noise certification and
2) a c.)mmunitv acceptanve cah'ulation procehLre which accurately evaluates the long
term effects of aircraft noise on communities around airports. In the following dis-
cussion, the work on various units for noise ct.rtification and community acceptance
of helicopters are discussed. Then, the direction for- stablishing better units for
helicopter noise assessment are discussed.

Noise Rating Units for Helicopter Noise Certification

Background - At the present time, most noise rating methods are based on PNdB or
dBA. PNdB Is a computed unit based on sound pressure level and frequency for one-
third octaves or full octave bands of noise. The dBA may be read directly from the
output of a sound level meter having an A-weighting network. Several research
studies have been conducted to establish the relative merits of these methods as pre-
dictors of amnoyance. Pearsons evaluated subjective response to recordings of bell-
copter noise in comparison with transport aircraft noiset. He found that PNL was
slightly more accurate than weighted sound pressure level such as dBA, and that adjust-
meats to PNL for tones and duration did not improveits accuracy. Hecker and Kryter 2
determined that tone corrections below 500 liz reduced the accuracy of various units
and suggested that the use of tone correction for low frequencies be deemphasized.
Ollerhead3 studied the subjective response to low frequency high intensity noise. The
annoyance curves he defined departed from existing curves below 1000 Hz. Figure 14-
(from Reference 4) shows that this is significant, since the large amount of low fre-
quency helicopter noise is the main difference between helicopter and other aircraft
sounds. Sternfeld, et a15 compared response to simulated helicopter noise, tilt-rotor
noise, and jet transport noise, and found little difference among peak values of PNL,
dBA, and dBC as annoyance predictors.

The work by Ollerhead 4 , 6, 7 Is considered particularly significant in establishing the

state-of-the-art in noise rating scales. In his work, a fairly extensive experiment was
conducted with a large number of aircraft sounds including turbojets and turbofans,
piston engine propellers, turboprops, and helicopters. His most recent summary of
this work 6 contains some surprising conclusions. First, It was found that all rating
scales are equally poor In rating helicopter noise. Second, an integrated duration

35 ("
 4I

0]
!-I

-40 1I -30t

(c• Jets•.• -20--.:

-410 .I ... I 1 I !
.063 .125.25 .5 1 2 4 8
Frequency -- kHz -

-10

(b) Turboprops and Pistons -J -20

-30

-40 1 1 "
.063.125 .25 .5 1 2 4 8
Frequency - kHz

-110

(c) Helicopters -20

-30

-401
.063.125 .25 .5 1 2 4 8
Frequency - kHz
FIGURE 14. "TYPICAL" 1 3 OCTAVE BAND LEVEL SPECTRA FOR DIFFERENT
AIRCRAFT CATEGORY SOUNDS

36:
correction (as in FAR Part 36) is particularly beneficial, probably because of the long
duration associated with some of the very low speed flyovers. The duration correction
based on 10 dti down points (i.e., as 10 logjo (t/15), where t is the time in seconds
between 10dB down points) was sigrificantlh inferior to the integrated correction.
Third, the simple energ), summation process performed by the weighted sound pres- :1
sure level circuits is rather sensitive to the particular choice of network. Thus a
linear (flat) weighting function overestimates the perceived level of an aircraft sound,
A-weighted level underestimates perceived noise, and D-weiglhted level (based on the i-.
inverse of the 40 Noy contour) shows a very small mean error. Fourth, the ton!- cor-
rection used in the EPNI. proc,.durv does not perform as intended, except when applied
to turbojet and turbofan sounds. It is recommended that the tone correction be elimina-
ted !ri" tones identified betow 500 11':.

In anoth¢r reci-nt study, Sterafelh 5 found that helicopter annoyance was under-e-,timated
by .44.1 PNdP compared to jet t:ansport noise annoyance. For example, rotorcraft noise
at a PNL of 94-96 was rated equal in annoyance to jet transport noise at a level of 100
PNdB. Leverton 8 has studied helicopter noise extensiW'ly and finds that existing
methods are inadequate for rating helicopter noise. This is true for low frequency
rotational noise components (including tail rotor) aa well as for impulsive noise.

An additional source of inaccuracy of existing Perceived Noise Level and A-weighted

Noise Levels is their inability to rate impulsive .,otor noise. Relatively little quantita-
tive testing has been done to define human response to repetitive acoustical impulses.
Munch and King 1 l surveyed the literature during a study of community noise accep-
tance and found that the presence of impulsive noise increases subjective annoyance
by 4 to 6 PNdB. Consequently, considering the findings of Sternfeld 1 2 , the annoyance
of helicopters with impulsive noise is likely to be underestimated by 8-11 PNdB com-
pared to the annoyance of conventional transport aircraft.

From the preceeding discussion, it is apparent that existing methods-of rating hal--
copter noise are inadequate. Shortc6niingsEarLse from the frequency range of the noise
and from the characteristicsof the acoustic waveform. A new unit or new units are
required in order to accurately predict subjective response to helicopter noise. Of the
existing methods, however, no one unit is clearly superior to the others.

New Rating Scales For Helicopter Noise Certification - Based on the deficiencies noted
above it appears that a new noise rating unli is required. The new noise rating unit
outlined below is intended for noise certification testing of Individual aircraft. It
should be emphasized that instrumentation and data processing for such testing are elab-
orate and extensive compared.to facilities for monitoring and evaluating community
noise levels. Recommendations are made In a later section for a community acceptance
unit that parallels the certification unit.

37
 M 0.4. :: t Ii~ c:cal~wit
vf!~s Liflit ';itU. *.. av-.A.L ki.!

~~e curves thait e~tw*Ld. Lelow,50 liz aad cover

.i.h~i*.~Crsonst,

- .,,,t~~* *i.) *Z. .t

1:rc I'All Pal E A1 rathtcr tha~n ceorrectivlls
M~~~~~
till Itl.. !1;11t ,dt I 'f- Li±:
'-L it) dli *l;.r polints,

3. . 1AIi(altj
j,.ri~ fM it:'. 1 .r'.:t oi if:,lub.iVL nloise..

~l
C. t .;.~:( ,li-:-rt frrquenc~ius t~hat ad.e~cjuutei/, represent human

aat :d' 11 to -;n-c-it\ ho

,k~~ Id:., urit will LK: .ce 1I:~.Ps.ehoacousttlc
t4~~~~~~.1h., ~*ui.I sl4*,u~~1~i
Otiaif~icu1lies, s*;itL mi~ul.LtiUf at IOW
sU1i

kict:qjve' teS.-;. II the~ i.se of actual helicopter fly~n ers (as opposed to r'e-
*cuILr
alr~n!ifi(I
., Lpc s~ure dthtat i of the- spectrumi chiracteristics and psycho-
toa-:
I:41:L (!*(-L.t l re accraktt
.11 presenited to the listener. durntfts proram.

Commtunity Ac~ceptant.e Calculations

t.i:r.,ua nsI~.
Tl- t ;.~e~vt: o~f noinec~ rit'-ria to which a Lclicopitt.r wllI W. sub-
;j( .cld :tii.c Vretifaevatz'n .. cd(oiflfiuniiU acceptaince. Certification criteria define the
nliru-e Ui.11 t;*.(- V.hivitc will IM~ alloviet to pgeneiratLe for typicat a keuff. landing, and
..:im t.p4eratiorls. (ommzunitv atrviptaifce criteria relate'this i er~tlficzAitin noise to'
V01i1i1ia.11ljty Ii~ 6l..Iylf' the toital t.ffet'tsof opcratting IY:3nIV t~vptN of alrcratft for
rnuhtipli* Ilight~s at vairi',u- tix~otvs of the day owv(r or into various I)I of the community.

jlit. iI.-terfl~na' 10,t Ofl:I~:dt comintinitv ;icreptance (if tioise throughiapplication of

.,.tiv. fh(:l:I 1-'ir.inidunition ot ai large nu 'r.,xr of eI.!mvwixts. It involves
1:,r-.-wuir.

'?-!1Ilii: Lilt! Ia161t i1-vf~u liv mvuiv lu of v.IrviagAircralt tvpt-s using znarny
- ,1~1 j~.;vh "~ab~o~ path1 )i .t rive ..I. .a Iil:a* expio ure numbewr whith Is de~sc:riptive of-
.:i Kff~lof Iurso --;.i::. Tlhd.s neft
4- ifI-i alao influencce-Il y the' time (it day at
Oduih [Ill. it- 4si' orrur, I he 1%i . oaf coniaaaunity in which thily occur, aund in nlihflV cases,
'

th :,nIIIaItit foaIs; le-vels gazwcrat.* by soures othe;r th~an airt-raft in flt! area. The
fol lowing disvusaton va::h',ate-s tin randidaule imncthi,'I for ratittoj~0~:!; t of ioiwe
unli bivna' thimi-4l~h It
ths
,..1~~tvc; "it-licptc~r ni'E!,4.

1 Mle
TI 24 It"JUI- till rcF,:t'- ru.-pOt liyl~jt, or~a~ and He rniOOedI, staaitt;nr~iyv thti far-
tilurs cgain:,aalsa. *t in Va c'EIjUS ( OfoanaunltitV uiso r-t lug Tit(ih(osbI. Till wm!o o#t 1. as1 the
Unit I'r ctilnamo'ijritv auco 1.1anck! vvaluaution of liel ivr.Iars it: reuttnueItyl Ilintierkeutter
-:t(.5flftdI I:i1)i:L
.111 it ill liuadas dvt-uneijflilItr.itiofl of tlt. ;.41.1,ita't neu.So* In thec voni-

31'4
 TABLE 2. FACTORS INCLUDED IN VARIOUS
COMMUNITY NOISE RATING METHODS

41
I 4i ii A) il

FACTORS $ > o

00 4 o 40 0

d-A Modo
4u wd Vin Level)-
44
torec4)st 4 Enr
NAME Compsit H
E-E U 4IZ8C
< 4CJE-4H U
0os aR0BC Ca im(m
R0in FAR 0~d O- 0 Leve0
0
ommunityj
Nois
London Guideline •E dB-Aerg
dBA
•N/Level
Eqialn Eeve
4 Energy
Composite Noise CNRC dBA EMaximum
RRating CNRA PNdB w4 4 Level
Community Noise CNEL dBA Average
Equivalent Level Energy

Noise Exposure NEF UNZd Total

Forecast Energy

Weighted Equivalent WECp!4L EPNdB Average

Perceived Noise j j 4jj Energy
LevelI

Noise Pollution NPL (any j jverage

Level Energy
Day-Night Level Ldn dBA • Average
I ~Energ
Local "Nuisance" - maximum
Ordinances or Level
SPL
Single Event SENEL dBA
Noise Exposure /
Level

39
 1'41Itt tIIult. di.,iriijution of noise± mizd number of flights per hour. Tlit
*!d
I.~t that
"it r Wis~v
of~ lB for ni ht time o artnon may b o mU
lieera bea to mal
C. A10'1.L (3'ti.c- OWmpldint.; are. associated with interruptive. factors such as
t v t:ccnt
L dMh.itr~ whlie nigrht time complaints niny be asiociated with
U1PI
01- !,V
t*Viti.)j3 -it SIccJ.

in -tn:)1h,-r *recmnt rvport bv Munch and Kiing t L the Ldjn conccpt is. endorsed with some
ia!. :111,0. I hey r-etimtndn~( thait a ptfraltt of. 5 to 10 d13A be adde'd to the. single
t'.*n
V1 11l-t:'i~ vNuJr4- leVVV ISE-:NF 1.) for a..a irvraft producing impulsive noise. This
is: 'in: rinit with the lli:nterkevuu-cr arid Sternfuid 1 0 fMAdlLý's. Mlunch and Kingk 1 aiso
rvivoinnit-nd the ustl of tunie cirre~ti1ons to the SENEL as calcutaied for Tone Corrected
*.y-c~eivt-cI Noise L~evel, but univ applied to tcnes above 500) lIz. This is In agreement
v. ath (AlerhvtO.a.

in ,uflitnLi-y, it appoarh that Ldn with significant modlfic'atalons is the choice for corn-*
miunitv ac'eptmnct- ev~aluation 'if helicopters.
Nia nits for Comnmunitv Accept~an'ce Kvaluatlon - As statc~d nIerees1ad11
i.Mnitv :eeetarxu criteria ir-unst inelutk-t-lie aunbicmt notse riwlirotmnentj and shotuld
(:rjli
be_ reasonably easy to use. Ktis-elear 'hat existing weighted sound pressure level and
iorceived noise level are equally good. (or equally bad) as predictors of annoyance and
lt-.f('i.,nmmes 10 :and 11 revommiiend use of Day-Night Level (Lazn) balsed on dBA as a
(-ornfunitv :acceptaflct' unit. Thel Lcln unit recotnniendedIn, Reference 11 uses the
S-NE 1. unit, dilA vorrectc.1 for pure tones and dluration. Of cou'rse, there io no
reason to ;:s~u.1ie that a nvw -xvighting network or a new EPNI. procedure could
nut be used~i in Jpl:Iee of dBiA to Wiprove the -accuracy of the 1*da unit. The new network
WtOul( includek revi Nel.. exterglted low frequency characteristics patterned after the sub-
jiective respotrise! re'sults discusse~d eatrlier. It Is possible that a revised N-weighting
network (the N-weighting avalo is somt-times referred to as the 1)-scale and 1isthe
inverse of the Ifi-noy vontourl would be .preferable to a revised A-weighting network.
Nala uralilv, inmpul:we penahitue:- and tonle co)rrie'tions paitterced~ after the new certification
anit wo)uldI he usriI in thi- uvw community avevpit.knev unit.

*l0
 CONCLUSIONS

In general, it is concluded from the study reported here that significant further effort
is needed In all areas of helicopter noise prediction, reduction and subjective evalua-
"tion to approac. 41.. , a.. .... achieved in turbolets and turbofans.
The single area where the state-of-the-art is nearly adequate is in the turooshaft
engine. Here, because of the interest in core engine noise of turbofans, substantial
progress is being made to understand the mechanisms of noise generation and develop
noise prediction methodology. It Is true, however, that this new understanding has
not yet been incorporated in any existing turboshaft engines. Therefore, the results
of the learning from the current work will not appear until a new geueratlon of engines
is designed.

Gearbox noise has been studied both experimentally and analytically with some success.
It appear that the tools for prediLtion must be tried in a quiet helicopter design to
establish where th current methods are deficient.

In the rotor noise source area, existing prediction methods appear adequate to estab-
lish general trends or gross properties of the acoustic field for most common heli-
copter configurations. Tandem, coaxial, meshing or variable geometry rotors may
require further study. From 2 more basic aeroacoustic standpoint, it appears that
the basic theories now in use should be checked carefully against noise generated by
helicopters in flight. This will require measurement of aerodynamic inputs for these
predictions. The oubjective of such a program should be a careful study of cause and
effect in rotor noise generation. Tail rotor noise requires this same attention, partic-
ularly the evaluation of interference between the main and tail rotor.

While it is not likely that a commercial transport helicopter, designed with community
acceptance as a goal, would ever produce impulsive noise, work is required to define
the design boundaries which will insure that impulsive noise .s not produced.

Noise reduction of complete helicopters has -only been demonstrated in ways that reduce
efficiency. Increases In weight for the modifications to date have been unacceptable in
a commercially configured vehicle. Work Is therefore required to develop noise re-
duction techniques with minimum Impact on perfoa mance.

In the subjective evaluation of helicopters, further work Is needed to improve the

accuracy of the existing units. Improvements to the EPNdB to account for the differ-
ences between helicopters and other aircraft are required. Some of this work may
also be applicable to community acceptance evaluation procedures.

41/42
 APPLIDI.X A
CA.P:,ULE REVIEWS OF SELIC[ED RElPRT¶

Rotor Nolie Cap-;ule St.;-Zries

.A 'ndt. R. E. A and B:rdr-ntia D:. C. , "Noise , adi'tiuin from ilei•c:o;ter Rotors (jIerat-
i.z at Hn!.:h 'Tip Mach Number". Paper presented at the 26tn Amuial National Forum
cri ihe American Ihiiucopter Society, Washingtcn, D. C, * June 1970.

The purpose of this paper was to present the resultz; of an investigation of high
:,iach nunmber effelts cm the noise generated by helicopter main rotors and ti, review
the role ol drag divergence and biade thickness in the noise radiation foom rotors
operating at high tip .Mach number. A matht.matical model for rotational noise was
developed based on an adaptation of the Gutin theory to the case of non-uniform inflow
(more specifically for the particular case of non-uniforrnity due to drag divergence
caused by operation of a rotor at a combination of high tip speed and high forward
.sipcid) and utilizing publiLshed drawg data for symmetri..al airfoil sectious operat:ng
through their critical Mach number range. Application of the mathen:-tl'cai model to
the case of rotors tested in the Ames 40-by-s0-foot wind tunnel gives good agreement
with the observed tremendous increase in the Ievel of the higher harmonies for a small
change in tip Mach numixer.

Su.rnmarv

The paper reviews several classic approaches to the calculation of lift noise
generated by a rotor including those of Gutin ,Garrick and Watkins 3 , Schlegel 6 ,
Lowson and Ollerhead7 and Loewy and Sutton1 0 . Although each of these approached
the problem in a different way, the results in general were not satisfying. A brief
review of other sources, such as broadband noise and thickness noise, completes the
background on helicopter main rotor noise sources.

The mail purpose 4•f this paper was to reviewthe role of drag divergence and blade
thickness in the noise radiation from rotors nperating at high tip Mach number. The
approach taken was to modlify the Gutin theory for non.-uniform inflow and consider a
particular case of non-uniformity, namely the drag divergence due to the operation of
a rotor -at a combination of high tip speed and high forwaird speed.. -

A Fourier series expansion of an assumed pulse loading is used in the development

of an expression for the harmonic thrust and torque coefficients. Following a develop-
trent of the velocity potential for acoustic radiation based on Gutin and applying several
simplifications, the rms value of the nth rotational noise harmonic Is given by the
expression

- )nuW ( rcos 6 4 bbM-- sin

n b•an M. J bnj e

*The nvmbera refer to the entries in the appropriate section of the REFERENCES.

43
 where b number of bladus
W - rotational speed of rotor
r distaoce to observer
a, speed of sound

J. Fourier coefficient in blade loading

T thrust
angle between thrust line and observer

-- Fourier coefficient in blade loading

Q torque
M - Mach number based on effective radius
e
Re effective radius

For uniform loading, all components are zero excepi for ao I and Pia = I which
reduces the above equation to the Gutin relationship.

The drag rise experienced by the advancing blade of a rotor wben the forward speed
is such that the tip Mach number exceeds some crit. .1 value is a form of nmo-uniformity
in loading investigated in the next section of the .- ,pe " %fterdrawing a simplified ex-
pression for a drag rise coefficient, CD, It is expaL~ed !nto a Fourier cosine eries
and the results substituted into the modified Gutin -; 'a for rotational Cibe.

As an illustration of the sensitivity of the drag Increase to Mach number and the
effects of tapering the blade tip, Figure 1 shows the calculated drag rise coefficient
plotted as a function of the rotation angle (where 90 degreee Is perpendicular to the
direction of flight). A large increase in drag is shown for a small cnpge in Mach num-
ber.

In closing the discussion, the authors present a few sample canculsUmsn for com.-
parison with measurements conducted in the Ames 40-by-80-foot wind tunneL Two
- comparisons, here reprodiced as Figures 2 and 3, illustrate the comparlson between
calculation and measurements for a relatively low tip speed, where drag divergnce
effects are small, and a,' a higher tip speed, where the drag divergence effects become
significant for both a standard tip blade and a tapered tip blade. Altbouh the results
show a large discrepancy in the lower harmonics, the tremendous ineresse in the higher
harmonics (about 20 dB) for a small change in Mach number is well predicted by the
theory developed by the authors.

The authors conclude that drag divergence cdn be important for Uip Mach numbers
above 0. 85, sources other than rotational noise contribute to the higher harmonics,
an improved analysis of vortex noise Is required, thickness noise is Important only for
the lower harmonics, and the use of tapered tips appears to be a good way to reduce the
noise at high tip Mach number.
44
 'i iTAN.OA T.-

'4 /"

• .i'Jt~.AN•GLI

FIGURE 1. DRAG INCREASE DUE TO COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS

':I.IAL LrbtI -"

SOVI
p I.XPV..0I.SE•
xT
Op
0
IAL.

ACe
LL.."
eioar0ctfr-n.
UAI.
L

12
S.
;*"A
tA A:.

tL" A. A

':~ I TbI•

,A; IS1 OA .16xP4e l16 L.1 r

I
~
1..as0.120
.A
rIf

f 11 " M1

FIGURE 2. SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL FIGURE 3. SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL

SPECTRA, THEORY VS SPECTRA. THEORY VS
EX PER I MENT EXPERIMENT
STANDARD TIP S LADE TAPERED TIP-SLADE
(Clomprislon With Smnlll:jr Pape'rs

hi.3 plpo'r pr.!;ents a maihematical model to explai.n the substantial increase in

the higji'r harnioniuc uf rotational noise oh:served in holi,.opter main rotors op4'rati•g
at ; rcbination
m of hi.'h tip spi'ed and fo•nvrd lilht. vhe analysis presents a cloted
form s;olution has',- oi Q i of -a periodie change I bil:ide loading due to
-u m;.p4unltionmt
,ompr- .4sbilitv e
exffe:t't
xp*rienced by the bMade advancing into the flow.

Others have attempted to vxplain the increase in the levels of the higher harmonics
due to non-tiuiform ltdi,'4 of the rotor blaidrws. Schielog-, et all' uiect a similar approach
in extondt-g ( ur in'.- :tn:imlvsi, ,ir,:tly to the .:t.-, of non-tintform Wlade loadir. Th]ir
expression, however, is not in closed form and a computer solution is presented which
requires blade loading as Input.

45
Comparison With Similar Papers (Cont)

This paper approaches the problem of impulsive noise due primarily to a fluctua-
tion in lift noise, in contrast to Lyon's 2 7 analysis to explain blade "pop" (i.e. , sound
generated by the compressional wave patterns that are produced at speeds near Mach
1) in terms of the fluctuating thickness noise caused by the periodic change of the
relative tip speed of the blade advancing into then away from the inflow due to forward
motion of the aircraft, or the blade/vortex interaction work of Widaal12 2 , Leverton 2 0 ,
and Filotas 24 . It is interesting to note that both Arndt and Lyon show comparatively
similar agreement with the same test data even though Arndt attributes the impulsive
noise to fluctuating lift and Lyon attributes it to fluctuating displacement due to blade
thickness. Neither Arndt's nor Lyon's analyses show excellent correlation with the
test data, primarily due to the neglect of other sources, with Arndt underpredicting
at low frequency and low tip Mach number and both tending to overpredict at high
frequuency and high tip Mach number.

Evaluation

The approach is sufficiently simple and stralglt-forwardto be readily integrated

with other, established rotational noise prediction methods. Compressibility effects,
however, may also result in other noise sources, such as the so-called Imzzmaw which
has been observed In supersonic tip speed fans. In this case, the rotating shock be-
comes a source of noise in itself, as well as causing a change In blade loading. Fur-
ther, periodic blade loading may arise due to vortex interaction. Thus, afthough the
theoretical development presented in this paper may be a valid model of the noise
generated by changes In. blade loading due to drag rise, it in itself is probably not a
complete and sufficient description of the sources of helicopter rotor impulsive nol.
This is, in fact, supported by the comparison with test data which shows only fair
agreement in absolute level, although it does show reasonable agreement with the trends
in noise level with tip Mach number.

46
(,uxV. It'. "Suhconmmtte'e Chairman's IMnort to Mexhbershin on Aerot .stamic Sources
x ±•.o.t,. :zi.e, Pce wntvd to 21th.Annual Furuim, Ameri:.in Helic;•ptzr S-ckletv,
M.l 1972.

lPurt)ose

vias rMp;i.rt.was prepared to summar!ze deiberations of the NuIimc SuL'ommittee'

uf the Amerikan lelicopt-r Sot'it-t', pertaining to no ,ieirom low dice oadail.g air' raft.
11,. :'bconmmte ttxc irtmi'td existing knoi'wh: about the aerodvyarnic sources of
nol.c and the ability to prodi.t noise, anti Alio couma'ered the ari-as wherc additional.
i:,•ic: rct*:statin ia rLcquirt~d.

Noise is defined in terms of mechanisma rathe'r than subjective characteristics of

the noise. Regarding :aeqluacy of theory, existing thc'ur!es or new analyses using
existing knowledge could predict noise if adequate werodvnamictdata were available.
Lark of awh .data is the principal shbtadt, paftkula.-l-•r tall. rotors. In "dditi'-.
the report "identifies advances in teSt instrumentation that are required to pro--,;-
milss-rg experimfental data. Research programs arc recommenrled to deveLk,, general-
izd rotor noise th~eori-s and basic experimental aerodynamic data. Specific areas
include dynamic surface pressure measuremebts onihe rotor blades, determination of
wake system characterisdics, and Investigation of flow field characteristics.

C.ro"arlsnn With .:imilar Papers

Thib paper Is Intended to summnarize, the state of rotor aeroacoustic knowledge

as of 1972 in general ttrms. In this regard, it differs from surveys nriente- toward
specific Investigators, such as surveys by lubhrd2 a and by Mor3ey'9.

Evaluation of Pap.r-

1The Subcommitt*'.,s fijidings apply to thte present state-of-the-art and offer Hound
general guidline0s fur continuing research.

47
Filotas, L. T., "Vortex Induced Helicopter Blade Loads and Noise,,' Journal of Sound
and Vibration, Volume 27, Number 3, 1973, pp 387-398.

Purpose

The author seeks to model blade/vortex interactions and provide the Fourier
coefficients of airload to be used in t•h3 Lowson a..d Ollerheadý expression for rota-
tional noise. The resulting method can then be used to define effects of blade/vortex
interactions on rotor impulsive noise.

Summary

A model is developed consisting of a finite aspect ratio wing and a series of Infin-
itely long, parallel vortex filaments. Spacing between vortices andthe height of the
wing above the vortex filaments are adjustable, as Is the angle betwee th. wing and a
filament. Linearized aerodynamic theory is applied to detarmine the transient wing
lift response to an encounter with a single filament, an! the total respoese to a com-
plete array of filaments is obtained by superposition. The response Is expressed As
harmonics of loading which are compatible with the acoustic analysis dt Lowson and
Ollerhead.

This model is used to calculate noise for a simple laboratory represeatnion of

blade-vortex encounters consisting of a wing mounted in a wind tubol with upstream
generated vortices convecting past the wing. Calculated sensitivity of the noise to
aspect ratio and vortex separation Is presented. Aspect ratio is shown to have a small
effect, while vortex separation and sp.-.ing strongly Influences far.-4eld noise. Noise
is inversely proportional to the third power of wing height and is greatest when the
horizontal spacing is about five times the height.

Comparison With Similar Papers

Other investigators (e. g., Wldnal12 2 ), have used a wing and vortex filament model
but the present paper extends this approach to a finite aspect ratio wing and cyclical
loading rather than a single encounter. Subsequent work by Widnail extended the present
approach and obtained good agreement between measured and calculated acoustical
waveforms for a one bladed rotor.

Evaluation of Paper

The approach appears to be effective based on preliminary results by Bausch 1 5

and Widnsi12 2 . If efforts to parameterize blade-wake ez'counters are successful,
impulsive rotor noise from this source should be fairly well defined.

48
 * ~,e.It. N., l'.:b:.
A\ i~uzil Nalwaal~ Fi tninifl, .ri..:. in 1, Iiit.AV.'r vlv,~ I' v;rttr~ inNo 0 ix: 1'74.

I1w, rt-posrt 'Ivs' t-iI.: a~:i to m:cztý.ji- icut',r noise t, d high frequernev Wu.de I ads
SirnUL. azwe:uld, ~:1111Ift, v--1'1.:1 .. AX ia IAtvvenf izieasured and prL-(heted noise.
9'.1:rIt'
E ffc t~z 11 t-korthiw st 1..3*
a. *.:' -t1`;' * :111;1
Z p i. onadii
e orref

Sumrn :.r

F1.~ 1 tul r'ti*j1 1:.cu aud Lxaltul iv-.1 r',ttional

noise. liest :i.rver.wint 1 .. .. ..... ~~(horaw.ise,
w kIia, whilte
le*at satisfaketorrvui: . .- *Li:war.hrie distribution.
Pha:s~ingr of the ii;ia'. Irt ,. w:a: r.r-at! !' ~--w ' the CACkuuhte. level of the
fundamental* noise. In:,aiiir. It~~i f:r~n
nn tivt the contribut ion of.
the aft.FY
Tof 6t hte YI:a.ý wt
I-, ih- ti%
4. o-'t-tficlit.r tendled t. worsen
.L.:0ir.4

agree~riwzf Ix-tween pr.*'.z#;t% 1 fli I..:;:1"'t~ d' 1.ejr;1.qonies. Airloads base~d uax the
1:'
forwa&rd 4**0 tif uINt I.: ti.,!u,*i*1 -.0a.h L... t!?EI* .-,;t-nfLa:ntt thdtn .airloacls tiased on the
d~.:i
entirte Owiril. N.pi~i.v *.**--t j.f r-n hizl- 411 (riA l e:ii4ioeffwivnts tsendeil to grossly
over-estimati*teIneit.,.lwri..i i eisl

* * ~~~Compari.son With S; ~: :a.

Cuprr'Iiati-in r ij'4ht!-'.a*..-; 'is IAx1c1.i::e1i w-t I iiu~jfljri tf IIIfviC?us work regarding

usefulnless of voneleeW~I :i.* : .. 'io s iu *lviI-dwise) for prl:'icvting nloise Irorn
aw~iin
a hovering rotor. lti*'rm(i11. ro*ý.ults agrevt with tother investigators that reetingrutar
chordwise Ionduing is .iwt %,,,.,w%1 :ipparomirwiticon ror isse in the acoustic model.

Evadu:,tion of IP.ijw r

T'he study~ is u'ielul :i :a :t. *.( Of 'siyrk~livnzCel iiuiso andh ujeirssid daitax attire~d
under onit .ro)[hul voni. [it i -i'% 'I r~if ltt good loadintg da.ta ~ed
1..4':11*tlts iflusrt.
91!iC.O5t
eIV'lat t,:i ;i:, I1.1n..L -t V.!1 :avoustid tawl vui:ivs is used. It niav the~nlw.
coneludeuI that. the aat PIre:.entl.l is the we~akest com~poneint of rototr noise
1IhJl;.&!iIA
Hubbard, H. H., Lansing, D. L., and Runyan, H. R., "A Review of Rotating Blade
Noise Technology," Journal of Sound and Vibration, Volume 19, Number 3, 1971,
pp 227-249.

Purpose

The authors seek to provide a general technical background related to noise from
rotating blades, and to present a bibliography of recent (post 1968) work In the field.

Summary

A brief discussion of propulsion/ventilation concepts Involving machines with

rotating blades is followed by a description of aerodynamic sources of both rotational
and broadband noise. The Importance of unsteady, periodic loading is noted for
rotational noise, while the need for a statistical random process approach is noted for
broadband noise. Presently, much broadband noise prediction work is based on gross
physical properties of the rotor system rather than on the underlying physical mechia-
isms. Effects of ducts enclosing rotating blades are discussed qualitatively, noting
changes in source amplitude and directivity. A comprehensive bibliography is pre-
sented for 1968-1971 dealing with propeller and rotor noies, compressor and fan boise,
and duct acoustics.

Compzrison With Similar Papers

Conclusions and recommendations of this paper are In general agreement with

other surveys of rotating blade noise technology.

Evaluation of Paper

The discussion is useful for an overview of the noise problems for rotatIng blade
machinery. The bibliography and referencea represent a good cross-section of signifi-.
cant information in the subject areas noted_. - -
LI

'C
 ~ H. ~. * 1 ~ .ienE o~f a i en'u:for IWA.~rI.i'3Z. Preddofý.lo isd E;ectronic
Snhssa) Mtlricsj'.ter itutur XjisL, USAMI TehiARpr 7 .6, A.lrh1573. J

''iksi report (k~~Ut~he devetapit~ntv of a method for predicting both broaidband

and rotaiticn~a[ rm..or ilmz.a* andl f~jr siitht-sizing the acoust~c waveform for d~ae In human

Sun, tivirv

An LdIakmorate. wtbued.ov- pr..t-if .tili,.irn -in -r~pir.cal data base to predict, rotor
nuise. Cox re-latjonjis::;hown f.ar two lt-wing configurations anid one Bell canfiguration.-
Predicted and nivW:asuraa :.pa16.:1 i i ir v.ut

C~nmpirisaon With Siroiirl'aj1 PNa1

The praest~nt stui~v is- amni jut. 1r h~aving- NW the niolse prediction and analog simaula-
tiOn cornbine'a. P'' tin ccurac y ar ear to be related to Inade-
ofsrtniifý pr-6
quate input data, ai pri-iuih.in~ cinnnionZ to :ta1 prt.siaflt me~thods...-

The deavelopmiret o~f a mI.*thod I') PN.:k'irt the acou~stic waveform of rotorcraft is*
highlv-dteirablva, baut it i., pirvinture to a (:ept tht! subject method As a djesign tfoci.
Correlation rinu:;t he -deiniAist'r~atd for multi-bIluIo-d rotors in hov'er and at hig~h for-
ward speed. If %roaod ri-saalts are aulitaiitad, liaja. methud- should becomne a useful desiga
tool.
Leverton,, J. W., "The Noise Characteristics of a Large'Clean' flotn.r, Journal of
Sound and Vibration, Volume 27, Number 3, April 1973. pp 357-376.

Purpoge

The present study seeks to measure the noise characteristics of a full-scale, two-
bladed rotor installed with the thrust axis pointing down to avoid recirculation effects,
and to compare meastircd results with trends given by theoretical and semi-empirical
prediction methods.

Summary

Three separate cumponent3 of rotor noise are identified: rotational (discrete

frequenzyj noise, low frequency broadband noise, and high frequency brordband noise.
Variations of rotor noise with thrust, tip speed, -and elevation angle are presented.
Leverton's data seent to depart from rreviously accepted behavior of broadband noise
and overall sound pressure level with both thrust and tip speed. Rotaional olse Is
not treated in detail. The author hopes to develop empirical formulae for each noise
component in future work.

Comparison With Similar Pape !L

The present paper is one of a limited number of reports on full scale rotor noise
with potential for defining noise directionality a& well as acoustic saUvItie3 to
changes in operating parameters.

EvIluston of Paper

Results are uaeful In compat lna the three source regions, but more Investigation
Is required to establish that the presented tbavior is not influenced by the test stand
configuration. Broadness of rotational peaks and behavior of SPL with thrust and
speed suggests that the inflow might be tu'bulent rather than "clean" as the author had
hoped. If the installation Is responsibie for these acoustic characteristics, the general
applicability of the results might be limited.

52
 .1 ~~ r. N -ý l:L*jrt Pak 1: ~ _.~
.xa,1 1;:~lt

,tI ,; 3 u riJt-'r:,;t~n to define~ wh~iai. ~:`n.;vn abtout biado slap and to altt-n,:t
Aiss
fraulaite
x~ critc.riai for ZLC ovvcurr-ni.t- Haid AIa.kp.

A re~view (A a,-.aiiahle Littvrature lexi:L Mth 1 t 1 . lo tdlentily ir~turactions but-ween

a.~rL~:i: :ad strong tip voriivos :1:4 thal Tfliii, a unit of blade s.ip. A "Blitcle Slap,
l-wI;- i~i ý:.-Vvtlaovi whkh jpt iri to a~rrec wit.4 ma .H1:dule data for tan~demn rotor
V'L.hidev_ ,ti for fi-w-WailA~ An!t rL-'tr The
" intt-nft of blkde slap iioite
.4 pvidicw'i. to Vary as thc s:ix~th puwvr cot fl,..: rolaitum-0a Qi oLd

('ornj;:.rj!i1 With Similar Imi.1rrI

Titis Ipalp'r Isa one oflittk*':riir effo rL. Ilo t~itdy Mat.1 I- (i mpul Aive rotor noise)
.stat)

-. ~ ---- --- -- causucI by bltuila %vort.*-xintertetion~s. It ý:crntaia test daita from'experirnents conductedI
-a - p-i,
-. Aa~I f (b1 ;i;w _p-1 u- -:u r v F *h:f
C tf ii hirii-Fpt
ýiPfr r:I r iticu r tra a zhI -,ql
i-W Srr~
'fhe*st ti~attt ouli lx- useful to othiwr invvstaj;itor~.'

r(!u.au in*survE:. t:g.(jn.iilAIj~ nwv!t.:uuij,fli:; Ct'spalAblki! for IJladL slap

jI~il~
anid Iztade/vofrtex ;zteAct 11,01:4 liv (ch kt ii he a sirntifhvant eaus. Atte'mpting to atpply
the. bjlade. :iIap [a-r 1-:ritaeria lIt. hia'h :;I..1ightg cd.1Angle. roto~r helivo-Fitu.t-i is~ not
considert-iar to hea rc.:al i:Iie, ijoc'e:'nlr.ili ii fc~art- lik-&'iy to s )Int roll the.i in -

Pulsive.a 3u~
 Le•-erton, J. W., tHelicopter Noise - Blade Slap, Part 2: Experimental Results,
N'ASA CR-13H.: March 1972.

lXirpuse

°1his report presents the experimental results of the overall study, including a
subluctive evaluation of the noise and a revised "Blade Slap Factor" design criterion.

Sut. .na

It is shown that the occurrence of blade slap generally increases peak-to-peak

rotor noise by 10dB. Blade slap components of noise are seen In nar'owband spectra
as long as it is subjectively detectable in the original noise signal. Model testing is
iouad to give data as informative and valuable as that obtained from full scale testing.
L inated subjective reaction data indicates that helicopter noise withotl blade slap must
Lt: approximately 6 dBA louder than helicopter noise with blade slap in order to be
equally annoying. A Blade Slap Factor (BSF) criteria curve Wi presented. although re-
sults may not apply to large, multi-bladed, single rotor helicopters.

Comparison With Similar Papers

T*he present report completes documentation of the study reported In Part 1,

NASA CR-1221, 19C8.

Efaluation of Paper

The collection of noise data for full scale and model hardware to useful. Subjective
ie.iults are too limited to be accurate but do give a broad-brush feel for the subjective
vffects of blade slap. The applicability of the blade slap factor criterion needs to be
du nionstrated.

A
- ,

5'
 r
I~. W*2 L'i73WW_ ýý, 61l-i2

1113IMit~;Wr :cjunp~lrus broadhand noise generated by ra-meA rotors'zin-d full-sc'ale~

rtutk.:r,. ISiuth lOW fLi !jUtVflV' :ihd dih irequi:~nev ibroadbhand nois c oxnpimcnts are con-

'I ar-:iivlfl noise datare :inal-j?.cd in~ tz~rnis (a Io%%**frequera'v broadlhand wadst. :n.:s
lLA-jh:ut! FWV broduimial[~ nijise. for bo0th fulI-.-!ahe and n,odeA rotor syhtemq~. ui
spi-vtrii fvr Ot!e twoi w.stvinfl: are similar, except (or O.Pctcd frequenoy Aluft:s bctwuen
,.v.itand I lll Scale. Solni.tivity (if low fritquenv'y brea-lImn'1i noise to vefc-vity ifi from
th.- .Aixtl it) tile pog~l)ttwer fnr ful~l ý:valt', ctintraste(l with the fourth to sixth power
f~jr modl " a' T*rt:~ Lehavior Is aiiffertinnt from other invetaitgators rcrorting a
volucityN 'Jiluarf-d uhapCndiiete at (ronntintthinzvt Flet-pinvence of noise frequency on
-idw-lty Iis fournd to vary in I StrouhtaI fitshion for inotio rotors contrastcd with no
eloar N-*Lavior f~tr iull -;ialc ro~torsi. Thinx! full-scale ruesults disagree with results

I tiigh fr-tqfut-uV brai~l.l and ii it., i!; found til fIit- 0t;rly lrindi~ptdi~iet uif thru.-t Ait c~on-
~.t~nt
~ iiji t i-, r ;l4 tI~efouth ;r*-ver (if tit) -Spieed A Comnstant thrust, alth-ough t'h-e
i'i:lxiiyj.,i- I.~) 1ilron.-Av oin meIiieu reuiivi lov:lt ,io rulative Ntolimit r(obir. Thev ilzeh.an-
av.n rt-iins hle fuor b Ilds)niw is not vilearly inf'Iriterntooi. Ilighi I ac' uentv brn~alhazul
P-E gene ~r~illv ides- not iaunt rol Olhe overall noisc le-vel, but it can lx, a sigrific ant
faictur in iuliwi-t ive i-.it ion to) Oth nol.is.

A-. ~ thev aut ors. fill

*.fae.ay he uloject resu~lt; alitfe a froain ttione of previotis iua't sti -
Iratirs ri-gra ruing' OWhe "It' ll m%#It so ifijiltude .,nd frelpiviuauw. Tlie ptr'setnt
' aloitv kmonoc.l

pap'*r uisl inhiI boti I*I.IS

mo andl itill :;ale data, wtilev mouiot -ither 1-:pers ame rucstricti-4l
tO
ueor Ow he tlir.

'l-u'u -. 1pjimulall utuly pe rvI~l,-i .1 u.'-f'ill I cx fill ~iifiler *~:rh nlafol:.v

"f.*eur~ffizalý iio'eh1:11IIIi :!' wil: !bp~~i il .pi ifriiin ,0w-i o n
t11ll siuahi Iug-Iot-'a'ur.. 11-i.'1 I u.'sua I ~ miy'tol 14athe A141.tulae SAouhi,'it lie rvictA toI1*

~ ~ ~ ~~~~
III-6.1-11111t.~~~~~~~~ 114 IiA111'11milmtit:
lm ilfl- i i-e-1
Loew•v R. G., and Sutton, L. It., "A Theory for Predicting the Rotational Noise of
Lifting Rotors in Forward Flight, Including A Compariaon With Experiment,"
Journal of Sound and Vibration, Volume 4, Number 3, 1966. pp 305-344.

Purpose

This work attempts to provide a method for predicting rotor noise from unsteady
airloads. Noise calculations using the developed analysis are compared to available
r! easurements.

Summary

Expressions are developed relating the noise field to oscillating pressures Imposed
on the air by rotor blades. A swept area representation is used in conjunction with
specified chordwlse loading distributions. Limited comparisons of measured and calcu-
lated noise show poor correlation.

Comparison With Similar Papers

This study is one of several that demonstrated the importance of unsteady loading
in the rotor noise problem. The prediction method Involves a numerical Integration
and therefore is slow and cumbersome to use, as are other methids using this approach.
The correlation between predicted and measured noise is somewhat worse than results
presented by other investigators.

Evaluation of Paper

The technical approach and final prediction method are similar to those of other
people studying rotor noise in the same time frame. The relatively poor agreement
between predicted and measured noise is probably a result of inadequate blade loading
data and questionable noise data rather than severe defects in the analysis.

56
r " q:;(11
M. O'lerhead- J.'B., cndf!ehcn;oter Rotor Noi.e," USAAVLA-i
cV.
Tit t.6-,O, January Vitb,).

Pairrnose

Objectives of the reported study are to analyze the problem of helicopter rotor
noise radiation and to develop analytical expressions for .calculating noise from rotors.
Existing theoretical and experimental information are the starting point for the study.

Su.mr'.mary

Discrete and broadband contributions to total rotor noise are described, and the
importance of discrete frequency noise out to several hundred hertz is noted. Experi-
mcnt',I data are reviewed and general trends with tip speed and thrust are noted.
Analytical expressions are derived for a simplified closed-form acoustic solution and
an "exact" solution requiring numerical Integration. The simplified solutlonis nearly as
accurate and much faster (I. e., requiring much less computer time) than the exact
solution. Design charts are presented for estimating levels of iotational noise har-
monics as functions of equivalent Mach number and elevation augle from the rotor disc

Comn.rison Wlth Similar Papers

This study is one of several conducted during the mid-to-late 1960's concerning
helicopter rotor noise. It agrees with the others regarding the Importance of unsteady
loading. The priasent study is unique in the development of charts for estimating rotor
rotational noise.

Evaluation of I'aper

This report is very useful, both for a technical overview of the noise problem and
for the simplified predictlun method It contains. The concepts of airload exponential
dccay laws, random, phaslng.-and spanwise correlation lengths have become well
accepted since they produce reasonably gdod noise predictions from manageble input
data. Banic shortcomings of the method are its Inability to simulate acoustic radiation
from highly unsiymmetrical toadlng on a rotor, and its Inability to model the effects of
.iubtle chanrges In "iIrfolls, planforms, etc. Much more basic research is required to
dievelop) the a•rodynamiIc data base and aeroacoustlc transfer function In order to remove
preRdictlio Iluiltations. The subject approach and t,implliled metiho will remain popular,
at htnast utill !he ne:c .:.ary reatnarch Is done.

57
Lowson, M. V. , Whatmore, A. R. , and Whitfield, C. E. , "Source Mechanisms for

Rotor Noise Radiation," NASA CR-2077, August 1973.

Puroose

The work was performed to investigate sources of subsonic rotor noise. Various
theories are reviewed for discrete frequency noise and broadband noise. Theory and
past experiments are compared, and results of present tests of a low speed fan are
discussed.

Summary

Fundamental theories rel-t1g to noise from turbulence and unsteady coherent

loading are discussed to lead into a comparison between theory and experiment. Parti-
cular emphasis is placed on velocity dependence and frequency dependence for dipole
and quadrupole source models. Theoretically, broadband dipole noise will tend to vary
as thd sixth power of velocity while quadrupole noise should vary as the eight power of
velocity. Existing dlkta, including that produced by the subject work. do aot resolve
the dipole versus quadrupole question.

Major conclusions are that discrete- frequency noise results from Inflow distortion
and large scale inflow turbulence, low frequency broadband noise results from smaller
scale Inflow turbulence, and high frequency broadband noise results from a mlf-inter-
action at the blade tips. This last source of noise is not Identified I& past liratAre,
aceording to the authors.

Comparison With Similar Papers

This study is compatible with other literature on aerodynamic sources of noise.

It Is somewhat unique in having hot wire anemometer data (rotating and fixed probes)
to define the input flow field that produces the noise data.

Evaluation of Paper "

-

This paper Is useful in establishing firm theoretical and experimentsl foundattons

for basic noise generation studies. Promising results for the discrete frequency
aeroacoustic transfer function and for broadband noise correlation help direct future
work. The quadrupole vs dipola question needs further Investigation.

38
 °.2::1, it.,: 1L., M a i' ; , 1). -W .1
.. .L
•. "r,
%. ........
t. of !iH =•:rR t r"i~
, -,;" Not -iv." J::urnai uf tl.-t Acouutlcal Scci'ty of Arercic, Voixne 53, Ncimbher
-. -j,:,, pp.0 -•l•

In order to reduce noise at lugh forward speed, the author seek to develop a caltu-
".IXIUn (.thod f-r generalized airfoil ,hiclkness and lift distributions that are predicted
i,)6, .-.ss noisy at Mach numbers approaching 1. 0.

"The present work extends earlier efforts by the authors to relate noise from the
tip region of helicopter rotor blades to blade thickness and blade lift. The contribu-
tiox o" lift to noise is shown to be much l.ess than the contribution of thickness, so
L.:,:,j.h-i is plavced un rnirmizling thickness noise radiaion. Some candidates for low
nolse tip distributions are presented.

Cum•parison With Similar Papers

'Fhe Stubject paper is more abstract than most, since it devclop;s generallzud thick-
ne-,s and lift functions that can be satisfied mathematically by many different designs.
Oth-.r papers tend to concentrate on reducing comp-essle drag cf specific airfoils by
chrn.ir.g ,:wcp. thi..kncss, and angle of attack.

F .ld.•ton off Paplr

"The,results ippvar to Valid In a i;athcmatical sense, but the practical validity

v•-
o; the :ipproa,:h must A- :;.:'mnistrated by t%&! design and test of airfoils based on this
mnethod.
Morfev, C. L., "Rotating Blades and Aerodynamic Sound," Journal of Sound and

Vibration, Volume 28, Number 3, 1973. pp 587-617.

Purpose

This paper is written to provide a survey of fundamentals of aerodynamic noise

generation by blades.

Summary

The author traces the historical evolution of current understanding of the noise
generation processes involved with rotating airfoils. Early work on propellers is
mentioned and advances Into unsteady aerodynamics and cascade theory are noted.
Noise generation and radiation from rotors in a free field Is emphasized along with
the effects of ducts on the acousti- field of fans and impellers. References and in
extensive bibliography are presented.

Comparison With Similar Papers

Historical development is traced somewhat more extensively than other papers.

Results of specific investigators are discussed in addition to gensralizations regarding
noise generation and propagation.

Evaluation of Paper

This paper contains a useful overview of acoustic technology for rotors and fans,
and useful bibliographic data for more detailed study In specific areas.

60
 ., ,
-. ,rS. .n, .K. , a.nd Evans T, ). "'•rai
j, natton of the Aeroiw;ainargic
'"..c.. :x f 'o-x,,' From L:ttinr Airfoils for A.pticuirion to th.i Analv-
. ,,. ,,Sh

--A lit...corr Nji:-."' n. •tr A!eplid Scence Assoclates, [ne. , IRASA Report

'l!.k p:r'..ent stud, '.':ihUndrtaken to e:,:..rinw.-ntafty define the characteristics of

vort.x shedding from ailrfoils in a. wind tunnel as a foundation for understanding wnd
preeficting vor!iwx noi.-ce of helicopter rotors.

*:ummarV

A;rfoils were tvsted in the rnited Aircraft lIc:search Laboratory acoustic research
turflei to gather blade surface pressure data and corresponding noise data. Surface
pressures were adversely affected by the transducers on the airfoil. Presumably,
noise data also suffered. from this effect. Two values of Strouhal number were found,
but reLpeatability of results was found to be poor.

Conurarison With Similar Papers

Present ruesults do not comip:re well with other Investigations.

Ev-Iuation of Paper

11ennistcneies in the t.est data m-'"o it difficult to apply the results of the study
to helicopter noise.

61
Schlegel, R.G. , and Bausch, W. E., IlHellcopter Rotor Rotational Noise Prediction

andi Correlation", USAAVLABS Technical Report 70-1A. November 1970.

Purpose

The program objectives were to measure airloads and noise simultaneously and
to use these data to evaluate correlation between measured and predicted noise.

Summary

The rotational noise prediction method reported in 1966 by Schlegel, et a16 Is

extendied to use higher frequency airloads and to use any arbitrary chordwise dlstribu-
tion of airload. Good correlation is claimed for the first 4 harmonics of noise. Cor-
relition generally Improves when the measured chordwlse loading distribution Is used
iastead of a hypothetical rectangular distribution. Source motion terms appear to be
important and should be included In the prediction method.

Comparison With Similar Papers

Results of the subject work generally agree with other reports In that high frequency
airloads and chordwise distribution were found to influencenoisesigniftcantly. This re-
port summarizes high frequency differential pressure data mes,-ired on the rotor blades.
Such data generally is not available elsewhere, especially for a tiight vehicle operating
at high forward speed.

Evaluation of Paper

Although the modified noise prediction method produces better correlation than the
original method, the need for high frequency airload data to calculate noise makes the
method difficult to use. This is a common problem with all existing methods that pre-
dict noise by integrating over the rotor disc. Since the needed loading data rarely is
available, the added complexity does not generally result In more accurate p.e•dictiona- -
than closed-form methods have demonstrated. The aliload data could be useful in
future etudies.

62.
 dr.:.i~.l, i
* :..I.L&It. F hta, . ,a~d~ rR. ,"Aii
1:("a.fN.;a "act
C1u-r.P
a .,r,. Pac't C
U.So. Anv
A ._earch
- i)urham Riepnnrt D2IO-10550-1, Novebrner 1972.

"ihs p:iper prosviLn results of a study to develop an improved version of Lowson

and Ollirlcal's novise prediction procedure called IERON I1. Experiment, analysis,
and correlation art! presented.

] S'.-; nn.:.
m ry

A noi:..; prediction computer program that predicts the acoustic pressure time
hi-.tory, from which noise harmonics are extracted by Fourier analysis, is duvelnped.
"iTh,.s Lasic computer prograni requires detailed input data to descriWe spanwise anti
chordwisv loading djsi.tribution as well as azimuthal loa|ding dietribution. Hypothetical
miputs were ushI and sbh)wed insensitivity of noise to spanwise'distribution. Amplitude
aad phase of loading harmonics were found toaffect noise significantly. Based on the
sensitivity study, simplifications were made to the noise prediction program to remove
ut, need for- c(nnrplicar-d- inpAt data.- - Simpiifying-assampti-is -of L6wsoni and O6ferhea~d
are validatud.

C,,mparisi;n of mudel and full scale rotor noise harmonic spectra shows excellent
agreement one diam,-ter from the rotor hub. Scale. factors believed to bxe critical are
thrust coefficient divided by solidity, C r /6, and tip Mac:h aumber, Mt. Broadband
no:,iise u.io:e. not scale as well, with model level. being lower than full scale.

Ei:periznental investigation of acoustic sensitivity to airfoil sectlon and planform

,,huwed no clear cut improvements over the total tip speed-thrust ranges considered.
Some noise reductions were noted at lower tip speeds (650 ft/aec).

Impulsive hover noise of an Isolated rotor is thought to be produced by shock

formation (-r movi-nvrit on One uppe•r surface above ift -- lvergetic•.: These shooks arc
:attrihutcd to th, passage of a tip vortex close by the b.•de in question. Blade loading
and tip spei are belihved to bx- Ihm: Important parameters than the airfoil section lift
diwV,:rg.'ii0; boandiary. Ability to predict the occurrence, and amplitude of this noise is
lifiitfd by a lack uf ad,.pluate information on vortex core size, strength, and location
relative to the blade.

Co•.-rjr-'rinon WI1h Yimiilar '1p1:1rf.I'

The Mkalylical approach paralhlels that of I..wson and Ollerhead 7 .• The present
p:aper choks many 4f the si rnplIfving amsumpt ions used by lowmon and Ohlerhr~ad to
dicv,:l-o th,!ir A;mplifi.-d, vlosed-form noise prediction mi.thod. Tl'hso ansunmptlons

63
Comparison With Similar Papers ('ont)

are found to be valid, and the number of IoadLng harmonics is found to be less thin the
mb (1 t )0specified by Lowson and Ollerhead. Experimental data for similar rotors
with from 3 to 5 blades are presented, but no attempt at comparison with other studies
is made.

Evaluation of Paper

The paper contains reassuring validation of the simplifying assumptions of Lowsoa

and Ollerhead, and some additional simplification are presented. Test data contained
in this report might be useful when comi*dned with data from Leverton and Lowson for
noise mechanism research and verification. f he role of oscillating shocks In single
rotor noise deserves further investigation.

64
 A. V.____ NtV.Son _________ Efet of Ground and Side Planes on,

P L.4
- I,.t .iJ to, NASiA CR-13'230;R IM"

m, :iuthor.1 nL'ek Lw SM~ULat the effacts of rotor/airframe interactiona on radiated

nu1,t- 10 ie its ol a si.Jnpil eywdel.

i,-sa ically, sid4eplaneis ireraselower ardor rotational harmonics significantly for

jutlie- j'rropvil.r -,'op~ai~aton5 lese than~ 0. 25 prop~cler diameters. Grou~nd Flanes
Vvtrv -,:10:-w to the rotror cain devr'Žase rotational at'ise lad Increase thrust cutpat

*iiw subjtvi t pa.per Is uaiiiue in deaaling -with side planes- and ground pianes represent-
in,-, f-:;elajg,: structure. Other papu'rs dleal ýýpcvlif~ally with guide Vanes and slipport
...trut, clcountercd in (omp;'ssors and ducted fans.

rhL acoustic effects of the side plane-rotor tip separatic.; .Ire useful for design
oft turboprop, jpr(.p-fari, prop-rotor, and propeliler instalilitiouai. The eff4 :et of tile
ground plane i~l not bv.ileveci to be applicable to rotor-fuselage Interactions for large
dilamneter rotors.
W_ a.l, .•. E..•"A Correlation of Vortex Nise From Helicopter Rotors", Journal of

Aircraft, Volume 6, Number 3, May-June 1969. pp 279-281.

purposc

The work waa dune to see if a genoral collapse of noise data coald be obtained
on operating condition and geometry of lifferent rutors.

Summary

Data from several references, including whirl tower and flight vehicles, collapsed
to a band approximately 5 dB wide. The collapsed data show a general trend with the
mean blade lilt coefficient squared (CL 2 ) aear typical design point and devilUon from
L2 for both highly loaded and lighty loaded rotors.

Comparison With Similar Papers

This paper takes data from several other reports. Parameters for the collapse,
such as thrust, tip speed, and CL, are those commonly applied for so-c.alld "vortex
noise".

Evaluation of Paper

The data presented in the subject papet are ,iscful for a "first pass" estimate i
the overall level of "vortex noise", with quotation marks indIcatLng that this Is the
popular name given to noise above 150 Hz by researchers through the mid to law
1960's. The data also are useful as a reference for measuring bi much nois re-
duction is obtained with new noise control rotor systems.

66
 ~*
,riiov
r vf.re'hi-iop for :,o!2e fromi Wadth-vorte~x

indAuc~L. '~v ftl w,-L~~gO1 fdIJ *''I A -( U ild Coin-pairison f r.. :-

I foll
ill~t~
~~,U~~~v£2~
;jj~ -blic.4d rotor w.Nith pr dictc .1 wvi~.-w~frms qh(,wtd gn,:sti alf t
(.,wtI~
mrnift.

This~ ;ipatr is wij vf several d!ealing with rotfur noiS,, -d~u( to blade, vortex inte'r-
J~1
;.t:~.1!Li mcp',.
r.:%ttn
L ah'nimixa;t, houw.ver, -;Inco~ fprediict.d .-iunI poer
v-\tf'~~
so-U1.id ilr(.Ptivit.- , a&nd :ioIund aqwŽccruiU ;&r. prv,~srawel, Also, theŽ comuparison with
-TP.1 IL-1ui'
1:1.~1,1 lddi!ionali crfPdil'Ality to the *!- ~ts4.
al~

Ev~eallstiun '). L

flWit.I
su iot p qw.r Jprt'-.4fl a~.fairly cornplit! s~f
oiaI~
Ihadv.-v )rtt-x ifatc~racimlj.
It .,houla~ Ie~p
1w 11:11G -1diii.Vr I£k I :1.4 sa rt~illr p(Illit. rctin whiri hto tXplurv .'ffc,-t:-. c

umif-ad' OnMIAicalmi~-L,#if adcvortx ii-r

Wright, S. E., "Spectral Trends in Rotor Noise Generation", AIAA Paper No.

73-1033, Presented at AlAA Aero-Acouutics Conference, October 1973.

Purpose

This paper was written to report trends observed la studies of measured noise
from fans, propellers, and rotors.

Summary

The author's analysis indicates that the "mdnimum"moise megerasted by a rotor

should depend only on thrust and rotor "self n•ise". The euor foek that only thie
minimum noise is readily predictable, since so-called "exests nWs" Is oasced
by so many environmental variables. Strouhal ecaling of bresasead frequmecy is
observed, and a data collapse to presented. Time depeadmewof pmrated mss Ls
noted to be on the fifth power of the velocity.

Comparison With Similar Paper.

"Wright'sresults should be checked for comoatibility with rsold imk by Laveukoall

and Lowson 14 regarding noise mochanlems and rotor sooustic bshauier. Be* ftaqey
dependence and velocity depeadewe are Ia dispute anong tuvstigetsrs.

Evaluation of Paper

The results presented in this paper are useful a" a base for fordw uea IN
noise from fans and rotors. In particular, the data sbould be ussemi Ia trying to defti
effects of velocity on noise amplitude and freq•as•y.

66
 - . 1.. .. .2 r5ultttll for. :s on ro2tor

t I.

4rituts,,, v~m-

ii ,. 1% t - .1. t''

Iii ~~ ~ ~ .:.b.. ~ . t d~ rot~ at ional aoimt gt'ncrat Ion of

.44
 "t.eCr
is'' :e Sizimartes

Eatoc fJ.
ti. ;,I1 .- :. 1 0 ';airt.b'ir-, J. A., "Designing Small Cas Turbine
Engines for Low . ':.Nn-;-- !ea!, EN'aaut" AIAA Paper No. 73-1154 Presented at
the CASI/AIAA Acivr.4utic. Nieetirtg, October. 1973.

Purp3.se

This report outlines wc.rk being, done at Pratt & Whitney Aircraft of Canada,
Limited on the control of noi.ze awn unmissiorns of small gas t.rhriLe engines to meet
FAA :.nd EPA regulatioas. Design features contributing to tne low noise signatures
of current J''1i5l and PTi ,-ngines a'c discussed together with some early results
from programs to minimize nise from advantcwe PTI; turboprop installations.

Summa ry

Although the P*I i. cngir.c was Iesigned before many of the engine noise generating
mechanisms were fully un,'cratood, it does incorpor.-te advantageous noise reduction
featu.res. The free turbine elixninatLs the clutch requirements for helicopters and
allows for selecting speed for minimum noise. Moreover, the gas path configuration
is diff':rent from the conveo'ion-l s ngine. This generally results in a buried engine
inlet with a multi!%icity of riglt angle bends which effectively impede noise trans-
mission. An example is shown which illustrates the effectiveness and importance of
installation ducting on inlet noise.

The measured exhaust noise spectrum of the I'T6 in octave bands is relatively
flat, with appreciable low frequency noise. This noise is internaily generated and
believed to result frots the interaction of turbine flow turbulence with the exhaust
duct. No attempt is made to separate combustion noise from overall noise. Over a
broad range of powers and power turbine speeds, the noise output correlates with a
V6 relationship where V is the velocity at entry to the exhaust ducts. However,
different exhaust ducts produce noise differences of 4 to 5 dB.

A broad correlation of exhaust noise from different shaft engines. suggest that
engine noise levels vary proportionately with shaft horsepower (SllH). individual
ehgine power/noise variations are less consistent as the PT6 follows a (SHP) 4 while
other free turbine engines vary from (Slip)I. 7 to (SLIP) 5 . 3 .

Pratt & Whitney Aircraft of Canada, Limited Is engaged in further work on engine
internally weneratid exhaust noise including the effect of exhaust duct geometry on the
overall generation and railation.

Comp,.r1son With Similar I'apern

Thii report Im of much n:,re !himiod scop, than the reports resulting from the
Air Force sponsored Turfoshaft engine study at Ailleaterch 5 . Also, the DOT
sponsored program at (;.a-,ral Electric" 3 dhscrlbes a more In-depth study of noise
generation mechanisms than found in this report.

71
is zi iinuited iiL.U~stc a of Ugw noiii of small ~;~~g•
ma.b.t~d

rii:.~. ::;--iotnt t-rfecns of it.Iaonare clerricretratad, jici

beit~~ ~w it's*t.( ;d-
zicrn~iation rupov,, Chi ;d. is 11--.--t- cf
C~ ~ti1 ct-nis-uti ucwift;AA v 4tLer .i~in ioin;ýe corktral or predcutlbio.

72
Grande, E., "-Core n. Noise", AIAA Paper No. 73-1026, October 1973.

Purpose

This paper a-;.,w.sss sources of core noise! i. a turbofan engines. It is concluded

that combustion e i:-; the dominant contributor to core noise, although turbine noise
due to is.teraction wiO h combustor-gernerated turbulence may be aignificant. A core
noise prediction prncx-,dure is formulated which considers the noise generation in the
•combustion chamber and the noise transmission through tne turbine ,tnd the primary
exhaust nozzle. ('otnp.ar=.on of the predicted and measured core noise leve!s for one
low bypass ratio mnd one high bypass ratio turb,,fan engine shows satisfactory agree-
ment. TM! wo'k on pA':diction method& of core engin.. noise, though not dlrec*ed
toward turboshaft erngines, i.i ot interest in hlidcopwt ;oIse prediction and will ye
discussed below.

summary

Core noise coroslsts of numerous and only partly identified sources of noise in-
cluding:

1. Combustion noise
2. Low frequer.cy noise generated in the turbine as a result of Interaction with
upstream turbulence for the combustor
3. No•se generatwd in flow passage discontinuities such as turbine exit struts
.1. Turbuhenve level and swi I in mean flow upstream of the nozzle exit

Combustor noise has been assumed to corstitute the major source of core noise
in two separate prediction procedures by Gerend, et &08 and He and Tedrick 4 . Gerend,
et al express the core noise as {auctions of combustor exit temperature, turbine Inlet
area, and turline pressure ratio. Ito-and Tedrick express combustor noises as func-
tions of temperature rise, combustor flow, and fuel air ratio. These prediction pro-
cedures suggest that noise generation Is dependent on the coinbustion parameters up-
stream of the turbine islet.
The remainder of this paper Is imited to considering combustion noise as a
source of core nol)is.. 'I hr'e(pseparate problems are considered in attempting to pre-
dict the core noise resulting from combustion. These are:

i. Noise generation in combustor

2. Nulso transmission through turbine
3. Noito transmlsslon through primary engine tailpipe

73
 IT~ -J the %"xtaustnuizzl int nuisvlOtr:,n:.nisaqion is aproximm~ieiy rnodeled
*ftL.
thu radci'nL fL :.tn tllei open~z itŽd ut a uniiorrm circukir pipe. ai~ing
:.!.L i!Iii3i.iUfl"t'IMolza it i .- dbA)'.f tha1 t Iwfri.quýzncy noiste t;ians.misioa
*r~t
* .. e vh.%iL
Ziu.t nzI. varirhs ifiver,.ely with naizzle tem;"ý(rature.

~iuf r~ovnerati-.r. is cixaxrniicd iy =-AldJcatimbf of the theooreti.zal model

'A r-.t L.%L
t~ rnditi:i~Lc with ictiaciial rt:.sults (A tuo iJ rodrl~k4 . It 1,j
* ;.,.r. l:or s
nnpirira. ,ru_-;A!!%on~aFrias WulY with thu. modified theoretica: model
for~ :~ of th'Ž, x.Uroot uf the conrLus*t'r tenr~rwrature.

I A1. priwl-diig analytaicai L~~pe t~he noise of two large turtbof:Lns wlth
f~ni~, ~raitlos are, preýJ.wtcd and cuinpa&red with rnt eýuretd acoustic data. The
*t~~:~tb r.('~.i r &t.-predi tted jet nmi c, appt-ar to ag;ree with tho- core
raoi-t pr, t.hrtiun to witl~tn r I till. fiowevcr, the ea~ioe parameteri used are based on
+1lifi. -d pti-rforrnance ev-aluuIatio.i~ for the two cngines, aind inay be somewhat inaccu-
rate. F ~rthrrniore, similar comparisuns with other egi~nes are necessary to assess
tbe %yAii .1!y Of the-predietior. n.,;Ahod.--

(~~rr..oriWith S~imilar Papi-r-

TI), anrialv;is and liri-eicticin scht.nic ch.scribted extend thit empirival work of Ho and
k.1virick Ifrorn burner conihoustor njoise to the core engine noise af full scale turbofan
e~igI.I*4.I lhe v.Atc-i~iOii of Ov.- th.eoretIc~al work id Siruhli,'1- to pvrrmit comparison ardds
cedt-ii to the! burner prediction method of fit, andl Tedrick, but the extension to the
.illi.d v ~ citzilitstiir flot:v- 1 rt-,rij tioni flhlhoil was. not oxamlned. Tlhe resulting
prifili v on method) of Iaa I' t'mi~rr(*kb in part with the prediction method of lto and
Tlarlrit-1 for burnui~ rigs, but not ior engine core noise. rhe derived predicton
ni-hx for tran~smission ('otfficivntts through thu turbine and exhaust nozzle have
niot bee. exainineil by other inves4tigrators.

I'vahiuatf-in of !ipeV1

ribe prediction methods fit thin. ri-port have not been mufficiently validated to he
')f rnuz:~h ti),' inI pri-iltlng rorv1 enghine noise uf helicopter.

74
G;rande, E., "Exhaust Nol:,' Fied Generated in the JT8D Core Engine - Noise Floor
Presented bin the Intkrr.-l Noise Sources", J. of the Acoustical Society America,
Vo!une 55, No. 1, ,Iaruar' 1574.

Purpose

This paper presc nts the results of an experimental/analytical study to determine

the strength of the acoustic radiation generated in the combustion and turbine stages
of a JTl'D core eng:nr and transmitted through the primary jet exhaust duct. Results
show that ititernally generated noise is a sigrificant component ot core engine noise.
The work is of interest in helicopter noise studies because turboshaft engines may
also exhibit appreciable noise from these sources.

Summary

The acoustic field within an extension of the core engine tallpipe of the JT8D
engine was measured by an array of microphones flush rn'unted on the duct walls. A
theoretical analysis was made to develop a mathematical description of the sound field
w:thin the engine to permit interpretation of the cross-power spectral densities of the
microphone signals and to d-ternine the amplitudes of the propagating modes. Good
agreement was determined between the measured and theoretically determined cross-
power spectral density. The transmitted power was determined and far-field sound
pressure levels were calculated using directivity patterns from model scale jet mea-
surements in which the dominant noise field was generated In a plenum upstream of
the jet nozzle.

The results show that internally generated noise is a dominant noise component
from the core engine at large angles from the jet axis for low engine power settings.
This suggests that in turboshaft engines, with their high work extraction in the turbine
stages and low core engine jet velocities, the intarnally generated noise is a signifi-
cant nolee source.

Comparison With Similar Papers -

This paper shows that observed levels of "core engine noise" measured in the
far-fieid of turbolfan vngine can be accounted for by measurements of the acoustic
field within the core engine tallpipe. This study adds additional validity to previous
work which has suggested that internally generated noise upstream of the exhaust
nozzle is a source of :iignificant noise. No attempt has been made here to determine
the source of Internal noi.4 nor to relate the noise generated to other engine operating
parameters.

Evaluation of Puper
No prediction methods, trends, or relation to other operating parameters are
available In this report. Thus the report is of limited'interest for direct application
to turboshaft angine noise prediction.

75
 T~~TT7Ci7?7T72.7rT.Z 7 iTli. Lai~.z ory Tvc::ia ~r

ia~ ~ix
I~a~&cpor *,unz :rizes the work conducted under contract F33b15-
j~u.~c ntho A~iR.-.;t'rkch M~Ni. -turing Comnpany of Arizona and the Air
\,'. ~LabW
-P01
.. LA;U tulr- . Th~Objective of-tlýL: work was the LjCrelpmenCt
*dvUc1t fl.,:noi.;i:
L~tv . 1", j S tureýavf sur"1l1 turtioprop
L.<
o
:,i. ýrbot~xa t-firiCZ to ufilfl jlrnL5 their dletectability in low altituoct reconnaissance!
.. I
.... I L, pro-,rani suznm.inri.,vd included 1) ilrvelop-ireflt
ivri~is.i~as.
fl cs of ~n~tur~oprcp (turhoshaft) and turbofan
it b'iiteS ~~~~~~~~~l
* 2) '' ~anentOf .a IAIUCL :1 t U.ý:tic treatrfl:nt du ,a~lrtai jtsso a
.i.t.aes, ..wOU:,tC dC
sii.1ct heS. -it a:,justic ttests of an unsuppressed turbofaif
.aAsn al ill
'\J.; in*~jtd.--c-tra, 51 accoustue t(-sts of*various inlet mutfflers
-a I .xh:;.UA iuct trca tiaxruat and i:) an analysis of the performance and weight panalites
for noise .'upp rt-s sIon.

:.1fi .at4rvoi Exer-utivae SuninmtryV.-(ume I

"'his voluniev 'iumrn:az izt..- the technical objectives and desired end products of the
prjgr'riim. it.*",utts of the tlsrv' ti.-it phases9 of the program and conclusions from the
u.Aerall ;~afaire imc'iudc~i. (;f inte-res-t is the overview of the program provided
in fig.-ire 1 j~ 2) of thiis %'.lurne. Hore it is shown that the work in the program a
-1`4k ii lato thit'- awor I :itegorivs, 11 (it- cloimninnt of noise prediction techniques,
21dt.vchyiO,gi Jioi:ie suporhssiofl tuchniu~~es including assochiite performance
I- !tlstivce
:,nd. wcirh11t dI
dtin.zite Mnd 3) coi'hal 'i;firat* tv-st:i to (iurnonm:istcat (orrelat~ion with
usti~ia of s1;J)prv -Siaon tetehij-uea~s developod in the other phastes (if the progr3m.

Vor u-inagae nloise pr~effiktitn, Owe -nglne noise sources are divided Into three main
arvas:. inalte t,'sI:e, *:xliau:t ajuise and niechanical noi.4c. Inlet noise is ithat produced
1)1.1 O-W fat1 .ondirfz IjPl!1 r~ad!j-d-tz'i hit-anv-ifd
br and rvarward -from tOW front of
- t,..k:r, I i t~ ; noij:,i. 'iptv rtnn cmi,, a .t suf Ii~iv:'reet trequene les- at thv f-111 :and com-
pi v:i~wr 1-dvl'i a,.iAnag Ireitlit:ikvy andI hartnunit-4 along withi broadhand noise. Yan and.
*uniprcvss-or nose' :are preslirtesi by ;in iamiprove'd version of the mnethodl develope~d by
:Saa. aiatlh in 11'.ii.wt ". Th.' lilsri)IAe4 '& p~iajresented Itinthis report Allowsq predictionl
ofl If(hit'i :a.4s - :-nt rifuga:. ccsnipri-ssors in addition to the axial compre.ssors treated

E
t.0;' l.;i1i n:.if.u ron'.:lit of pkt. ;ao:i- :;;)I! sssre nolse. Jet 11-Afao' s proshu t'l by the
primarya r,.I'/.o.iiA r":1
ii he1ifrae ;arad ainixing ,wilth Olhe:11bIent ar
av i ig. 0t1
Co z'a (IAisid 1.4 pr id.e'd within t~p vniirwg ateasd t-spels via thie pr~limary texhtutuat n~ozzleJ.
Summary ,f .,cit Su.,oa= r--.A .-lure I (. ont)
S•
. pocedur12.
Jet noise i. ps . . .... a n-tln, . Lased o.n the standard SAE procedure Core
noise is ,.F:suno,-d 11 rcI:.,rt ti be comul;ie, noise. liowvever, it is pointed out
that furthwr e:.,st .,. A tht, (c rt s. prediit tion methodoloy will result from the
DYr,/FAA sponsur:. cjogr:.,1
a 1o4G ted by (,eneral Electrict3- Combustion noise is
believed to be one ,f .+,. most sig.iil':ar,. or. tctigine noise eources in small turboshaft
engines.

Mechanic.al nois. -onsj:t:!-of gcar noise, auxiliary equipment noise, and casing
noise. In turbosaf: . gc.'ir r. n.r mnuat ,1econsidered, as gearboxes are used
to drive the pr!'pelhe,, rotcr 0r ;jaxiliary Lu,iiprtat. Auxiliary equipment noise is
that produced byv fu'. 'tni luiud'.(liUo p)u1J1)s )ni,.ArAE idon the outer case of tCe engine.
Casing noise is due '-. flu.tuat;iug Ir.. pr(ouced in the engine, either from aero-
dynamic or m,.chic'i! c'auscs which are transmitted through tWe engine casing and
result in extorr.:na tl :- rrdi'ition.

Gear noi•e is r-Aittitt,! l-.th an e.wpiki al i1coedure, since little basic work has
been done to atlow lri di.:;ons ironi ba•sic noise generating mechanisms. The spectrum
of gear noise i. donulnated by 4is, reet frequency peaks. For spur gear systems, the
dominant frequency t'..por crat corresponds to the tooth meshing frequency or its
second harmonic. The wide variation in gear systems makes an accurate prediction
procedure impossible to devvlop at this time. Therefore, the report recommends use
of measured spectrur.: shapes for gearboxes of similar geometry to the one of interest.
Then the empirical -,-(.zcdures can be used to extrapolate the spectrum to the desired
configuration.

Little information on auxiliary equipment noise was found In this study. An order
of magnitude prediction procedure is included based on a fuel Injection pump prediction
procedure. The casinrg noise predlztion procedure was developed from generalization
of Aillesearch arnl Boeing measurements and is considered to he a function only of
mechanical horsepower generated by the engine.

The procedures discussed above are Included in a computer program. Of Interest

is the correlation bet~cen measured and predi ted turboshaft engine noise shown in
figures L0, l1, and 12 of this report. Overall ,hireetivity In figure 10 is seen to be
generally goxd ,,xc',pt in the att quadrant from HO' to 1i5'. where predicted levels are
as much as (AriB high. Fig'ure 11 shows quite good correlatlonbetween measured and
predicted Itilct r 'h-re do(..,. howv,,r, ap)pear to lhtonos in the measured spec-
Thes•.
trum at 1O00 and .100)11z which are not prmdicted by the method. Figure 12 shows the
exhaust noise ,omparlson. Here, th, lack of agreement at mid frequencies around
bOO liz 1is 1trubing. 'I he lack of similarity in the measured and predicted spectrum
shape suggests that further work is required in predicting turboshaft engine exhaust
noise.

77
 j'pU. .*;:;! i*cs r d:.
di. . j in th-e. rcptýrt an awyticai/
a~
wni. h i.tt miL lku .i;-41n~urn liner imr.pediaace for soun~d
* . ** . ~:i :% t- ;i!:' 'Scr
. . Id which nnatchi,,g Chis ri2,ovirmd

* .. ~.u..
.~i .: z;,ian :mtpiri i(.±i .,rocivar bad on ;, neralization o
r '.;~:t~~tr in thet. J;ct Iiiwr d edrn
1 area. Curn-

I ~.-s~LI .t. *.t-; %vre L~li1.iJ'cLd With and! wifthout ý-a usprr i(.n to Show M1e

Ar!;L;.:11tjXI a I&jt."V(l ;J 9 ,1 ~
A . ~ lI is :-;unanartzvd. -A1io "Ile
*~ :;3-,UI.:
... ;1 fo.r ::Uiumarizje.d.
aveii'iifl. A fcw .: -.antlphlk are
.4 lk ~.. .'& tho apt ~i. a n.h hev~
i&;rite4d xt aL

... ... i~ ~the ):I st..ud.i. m~.:'esarv%. to~ doveIop tI-. e~ag~ine
~..c *~i I ~fipro(. !-:iuiý w,,I; h w..: i;ý ;,ssd uixweV in the Vrslum. e I siummrary.
at OW * tnot~ in ungizae floi~ gcnwratlon are
it:' iii I.- 1u a i. '1 :1 i-:f i:n A i Re -e;i rvh 4 ngi ne tv!3t0 hil evahilittd as
U, .I'jii. :wv'i ruat p r(ciicti. ;flfiiit-tiI),1 .I. Soev*ral comIparl~sans b ~t'wccn'
* .' ~ S ~ I. It. I !!rf-vti-itt'Je- :%ni ..;.i trr;i ~f Iur~AA~fii nnd turixIO±IikjI t.nglnes

Th 4r.1'I0irld fromn tt 1,ivr ii'r o~n d'urt llzier a~ttculafon

I prfedhctiom 14 re~viewed.
*1;~* £.*:Uli1., fa bw;iJ' 11:.12 ~ 11;'A ;lik..-' I t:1'tIt' h-t
( link-. nim.jtcr i~ak ;ire prescrit4AI.
2... . ~;
:.~utvI.;,Ii
*~ if.'w'::j ;j ttw r;ni -itic .M lAr£1if*eaV .air- - -

i1,w I.''it,!
U-.ovIt'J ; *a-;;mpIE , ai rbo.rric r..u~t ic atmbIrptitmn, alia rcI.fO.t ive 11( rvnd
w.
ai.t ive-tngI') f at' wi -.I)( Imp'd f
o:iI- *!. Iii',natiOn i-4 fi) V:111'( Iin cutaitgt!hin~g
*hir 1fo
' hulr liijin. ) vId ril',,mi hi, h;t mlm'*~I, ~ the optimJfum 1Lvier rj.~.1t4-:-taij
Sit, tht., 'dart Ii11h.j,' dc.ingn pr~uinfdsai. Ihv pvciitdtuntcx invit'mudofoiv.L;v diliscw'iud
il okl I t *.i's. jld !.':,Ii mu
j meuiL ()UI fu
.1 /3j ocav Ijaiii :tt inziti.nl levols

I~:im!if .4UA.mlttijI,.m):;hl..t i 't..,l

*3(' ! tE*h 1t to~ C1!t.M 1!Aii-the' Imvehli of iliwupp4fIr~i~u i
*t.:'ii., a10ird,; II'S2 eIN- if;?AV Ivalt114 val Adit.e
lijl liht and~ t'xhaiuit idicnevhay are
IlI'.uini-,
;i JAt i. t. 'l' Mplm C,i' I A aigit wimit~leth i rin untioh't101n of vaiut,01
A(~.1 tfol.,
 I

Sunrarv of Turf.opt'(.e-r- , onstriitiur 'It.sts-Volume IV jCont)

operating and coriigruration parameters are also summarized. The application of the
optimum inlet and exhaust silencer -onfiguraticri to turboprop and turbofan aircraft
initallations is shown in artists concepts (if quiet reconnaissance/survelllance air-
crait.

Summary of )a:tt: T iiLuiat'ons-VoIhrn 'N

All of the e.ngin. tt:t and cour1tic n:atte'ial:M trst data from the program are com-
piled in this volumi. ()c,,.rati'ig -unditions foi tl.., engine (luring the tests are included
to allow interprutation of the Ih',t data. 'hi-, is a .se' of definitive data, as the engine
is driving a quiet (INivn-rructcr 6uuing the t(.st sk, ovlE .-agine sources are present.

Summary of Nuis,' Pre.di-tion Program Users Manual-Volume VI, Part I

A computeLr p,'o,.r;,m listing of the engirn,, naise j.rwLhftion procedure is present.d

in this volume. This volume also includc.s distussion t,f operation of the program and
sokne samnple case.'s.

Summary of Duct ')c.sIgn and Attenuation Prttram Users M:nual-Volume Vt. Part II

Program listing.s for a the'oretically and an empirically based duct lining design
procedure are presented in this volume. A discussioh of the differences hetwt-en the
two procedures, discussion of thl. operation of the programs, and sample cases are
also included.

Comparison with Similar Papers

This report must Le '.on~pareriwithpapers In three arers: ") turboahaft tngine

noise predicton, 2) turtosha.ft engine nuise evaluations, and 3) duct lining prediction
methods. In nhe turhoshaft engine noise prediction area, the work of Smith and
liouse.16, whih' was used a.4 a refer,'nce, cannot Ix! considered complete, although
It was the pioneering re-port on engine noiise prediction. The work in progress by
Ceneral Electric•" Is a more In-4hepth treatment of turimshaft engine noise prediction
and als,) includh.s :in ,',phtasi4 ,n sourcte nolse and how the sources can Ix! suppretas.ed,
whilh this r;,'otr c'mnphaislzis the prdilction of c rrent techn.logy vngtnes. In the
turbohaft engin, ni elh'evalual ion arva.;, mainv Itest. have l..,n conductcI. Hioweve r,
thi data in tfhi:a report is w#.II d•icuminti.d and the engiae was driving a quiet ldynamomm-
eter, so th: d.ata will 1, of long term value to researchers In engine noise. Mwuly duct
lining pr4-diction methodls oii analytical or empirical nature exist. The value of the
method di.velop.,d in this study Is the remulting computer program, which can he easily
used by other duct liner designers. It IN not clear that any of the duct liner pred!ctlon
prcx'edures art the -,st at thti time. Many comparisons between measurements and
predictions ares shown which verify the accuracy of one or another method. However,
 oodrue of a prorpisor aa well as the wray inl which a duct lizer "f-Ae on
* ;: ,r~~;v:~ c4 ~rietlywwarsf.ocd arid tber"Icre aycurrenat pra-
'..~~tIi

~H~r.~~~rc±will hz.ve 1i;Muiira.c4 . T!w coatlnoilag wocik by Lc,,th governmrent

:1.1d iniiustrv rcetfarchers will. L&roquired for tbe developmien of accurate prediction

80
flu, P. Y. andf .Ariki, It. N. ' " 'N P di ion 1," r nail,
(;is Turbinte Engines'", Intur-Noui.:t 72 I, ()crdings,.Ortober
1972.

''his ri.port, is a preliin.irv rk. as•. of part af the work described in detail in Air
Force Aero P'ropulsion I..Joratur. "tchuinwii littport (AP.-'PL-TR-73-,79). The objec-
ti .-if the work :-'-ported vzis' t;, .i1 v, tls.':,
nt ,f noise factors tc predict the combus-
*ion nuiset of .nmall gas turhbne.s. I . :'r..a.Jwun which permitprediction of
.c-DusUt po'%.r h.:v' i g.;.neratth-i 1 a giv.n ,!v,..gn ;,nd farther, to predict the effects of
chang;ing engine (Icsi4n parinct.,.rs. Th- w,,.:1 .1:'jrfx~shaft engines is of interest in
hclicopter noise prt 'hi'tion a;dil i.s dlwi'i.,.,, , .. .

Sun;marV

one of the most significant sourccs of nis, friom m,nall turboshaft engines is the
combustion process. The tt-nperatiure, andi'ciLV,
Aica
, l3lty gradients that exist in
the high-speted ronbustion flow cause a vharý.ctcristic low pitched roar. This com-
' • j". i".-fl- l' I Cuym') e'x j.,cnOt;e.nun ioinolnt-d by interaction with the
bha-des of the turbine section.

To develop an understaniing of thf. cngine p:aramcters that ecntrol the generation

of com bustion noise, two approac hfrs ha%vnLen used in this report. First, an empirical
evaluation of potential noise factors aitfeting exhaust noise was coj.ducted. Second, a
,Amilar expression was uJts*ivi*d ,|m.-tnsit,nally based on the energ.y output and this factor
was cOrnparc (I with data from both conlhlustion rig and engine tests. j
"Tie equations ic vehlit'd provi'te a method f,,r the small turbine engine designer .j

predict the acuustic powvr gvni-rat d by .: given (it-sign and also to predict the effects
of changing design par;imntt6!r. llovcver, no attempt is made to determine the dif-
ferenc.(n between rig and . gine results.

Comnparison With Similar P':apers

This papir is disriv.,i from a;srrdtt AilI~s'merch Iteport No. S. I). .005, May 10,
flu'
19%72 1yvt:ensm autLur.i. if covers part. of ithe work described in,uetail in a six
volunm, r-i-',,- , alli, "Sruaa:i "urlaine v-Engin. Noise Iteduction," Air Force Report
AII PI.- l't - 7'5 %N t ill, in i,- .; vvr:iId :authors from Aillemearch .Manufaturli;i' Co.
in P'•':i. "I', , 'ri 'iLtiosi I', tor *l'vel'ep.d in Inli . i,:ipt'r Is used lor core e'o, ins± noise
pr,'tli.'lon in :.,.h:i'fv, ,t .ai" . A -vtr)u.;•ri:a n if this correlation factor with others
f.o, ,'vil!-,1J,.n vftj,•*-
i...h, pr,.,t
Snirilng. ion by Kazin, s. H .it ind
* : -; .. &;
.. ' - .i:. . . * *d. *. * - , . - rc:utlon Is oc sixiwn to tr hit:12ca038 to
.. .., . - *,.* tJu .:,2t.1 t [-Cd '1.Ih..rZ'C r-otwcea
* - . . .s... . . *. tc:st Uj..&.. 2t:., .,a' CZCVc i:ttLn .

.4
-'I

.3%

;
.49a
.9.

I.

ii
'3

I
*6

'1.
Huff, It. 6., (Clark, Is. J. and )_orsch, It. (. , "1I.turim Prediction .tL,.d for Low
-rufjuvncy (or. -r:g. Ni.-,m" NASA TMX-71f,27, November 1974.

Pu rro'

"The porpose of this• paper is to select a low frequency core engine noise prediction
method for interim use in the NASA Aircraft Noise Prediction Program. A review of
the literature and compilation of numerous avalIl:ble procedures shows significant
differences in prediction methods and suggests the primitive statL of core engine
noise understanding. The prediction metho'i selectcd for combustion noise Is derived
from turboshaft engine nois, data and is of p'irticular interest in the prediction of
helicopter noise.

Summ.ary

low frequency cour engine noise hias been oLserneI and measured on a var!ety
of existing engines. However, the core engine noise is difficult to separate from
other, more significant noise sources. In most cases core engine noise has been
deduced from turhl,f:in engine tests with suppressed fan noise and operating at low
power to minin: ,ie !#,t noise. Jct noise, estimated Iq existing prediction techniques
is deducted from th. total engine noise. The residual core engine noise is consequent-
ly limited asid (if questionable accuracy.

A survey of the literature shows in general that the source of core engine noise
is internally generated. Some of the probable sources are:

I. The romibustion proe.t ma

2. Flow around Internal obstruction.s

3. Scrubbirig of the duet wails

4. l.ocal temperature fluctuations or hot spots fowing through the turbine and

A number of diff.r" 7t correlations ard retulting prediction Rcvtmes have been

reporid eoverfrA llirnitted grouing"s of engn•w nizen and typep. A vartety of parA-
meter- , ith dtlbf.',it s, wr relationshlips have bo.'n proposed froim results of engine
1,.4ts, component lu't.', aend thiortli ait studies. The paramet, rn iffecting core noise
which are, mott fri.lu,.'tly found In lit,,rature are:

I ( %,in•tls, itIn',. n.il , r ti inpe r t•

r eti uanil fi| inm'raturm rime rnis•,d It; .•wov'ri
from "2to 1,.

-, %',;~nbuuti ,l l ha i's Iw:r p•r.'i, 4tiv'i i ;anil p|i-'v1,iurca ratio T.iO df ,I power" from
I to 3I.

113
 11..,h..a, 31.) ;.-I
i- :% 3. :.'.it
-Ch Al r: L i ; n ho. irnp;,mc t ia cwvrain,.7

itV :.4k:1
:`1
14 4. it n

* .i: id L;'1
u.fl. ' .ia J .... ., lv thc: U';: ~.n ; ivtin la that (A M.ti ,rr for Hthe
U1.i
,11 o 'siv
1..4.43 i - L;J.. iv'.eI. Aý;dck1 cutvi.i he dic ircutionaltly :rld

I&nt 01
k14
) A .. ! .1 1454
,1(1 wv i;i1 rhe ;-SA
i.i vz~svtnia
sixiit..3 j -p'.icr ftir frt
.. .: I: I3 '.~.s f;.sv t.- pexsk tit Ow~ s1A'('trum 1.4 ak.o t:lI.4al Ifron Dwan. antd Po',ut
4 O~~a *.* .43~3 ;1-t~ .H 03 fi:1* a [).-:i1. ,I,( ii.-fCv (,If .11)( j~. iw sub-
Ii Jt I k JIt' iw : ias.;sV f,1.,;: d31jul 3' lilt ralnrs ..f 'til) (1) 10:1. Hi.".

II "3It4.1 . . *. : i* hs 31 h' r f-:sx .1i .sj *)31*lt t);J c i~~ r.itilt- wnrk t 1 -tl-Ing
44.3: I-. 5f4':. I !o-ii..1, .41Idpi't.I3i I 1.331
of cort-i ena;hi3e tia 3:4 :An vxteooilve

~~I ~ , h. ra.t.'t 10 4 1101

pubi :Ii-ls 3ch
proviolt
1;..itI p.3L:ti;.il.1 in :d
14..Uio-w cm-
hi
till. ..Ilt -lU
t-' It rjsrcic -luivig C flsI:'1'ti. it3
N' 3Ic33 Vin 3n ii ~ ; l.iit%(

-ll f., r p o , 3... 3 4w.. I 33 ' b o:~ l;$oIl- il r ~ t;.1 m

.1533r 1 4343 I5.t Lit a ti I11 1 4 1. iv t

m4.~~~~~~~ i3tnI.'4:4
ICA13&r~.1s3 : 3'tej,1'~~i~
ii ~~p~~o...*I
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~134'pif~ ~ ~ ~ -I ',h34 3.tIf1iI
A cosv wnt: I I54U3
I t33 till. .33131,
v3t.13 vit 34

4 ,1. ' 4 o il lit jIl I

itI'1I34 1 1. I 1 3r
I414 113 1ol
D4434
I43 v.iii'I1.4
I3:I
I:43
I !:!i ftl
E,.luation of Paiper

The equations and curves contained In this report permit the prediction of core
er.g.ie noise of turix ihaft engines. While que,3tions remain as to the validity and
aCcuracy of the method It appears to be the best available at this time. The procedure
has the advantage of simplicity and commonality, but is probably limited In application.
Continuous improvements in the method can be expected for some time to come.

The review and summary expose the problems in defining and predicting core
engine noise. A short overview of extensive work In progress, numerous recom-
mrundation, and concluding remarks constitute a valuable commentary on primitive
state-of-the-art of core engine noise.
 'I II V..

.'. rs;i TA
I: U! : I .YTiw.
's rc pC~ co I-r t;j, os s

C, Ic 1-hi
VA 11 *rf1:. W.t
'k 2'lIf2 r
1..i h. s...a1 i
'I .o Il o 1. 4,11 ti1.

tit.t*. .2i. i.i~~r;;j;~~I~C e.i' 2;:~ k

(%,; !ls di2 ii-.; ko n s4 o i.f~ - p r - I-i a e

* ~ . .s:i?,, . ~ri. 1v ! , - ,nt
peed
! W uas r
not nv mratio, II Olt.; iL. pro-

0"1. Im i pr..vI. uniqu lit t*Iim- itic fud.

.. 1 5I~ -1! 2.! 1.*j .411 3) S rz1Zt-Laerr.'cI ,it t.41:4o pro Inar:2bo -2cr it-.

;. I ht l~~ 121sit. 2 . .' 2S I5S.iIyrvwtS'2 ofrf .0) ms 10,111 oveI2) a~ t -s'le

m.1 110. J11:114. li Ow 1-:111 si ! I ~IN I.re. ontvilc' burnerM~ai tIJU

a e
S,ýn-marv' (C'ont)

In order to completto the predic'tion procedure, spectrum and dlrectivity have

I.).tAt-enr preparvd. These were derived by examination of data from all three types
of aingi,•s and component data and represent a best fit to the data.

Comparison With Siimilar P:.pers

This pnper is d,:,ived from recent work by General Electric under DOT/FAA
Contract No. I)(Dr-FA7"WA-o'1023 1 3 . The emphasis here Is on understanding core
erngine noise o, larger engines. In contrast, the work of Shahacr, et a12 7 is concerned
with smnall turhopropulsion engines. The resulting prediction methods from these
tel, rences dufvr sil,ni!•h antly.

Rt1sults shown in this paix'r are Included In 3 3 volume report of the G. E. work
ander D(YT-FA72WA-3023. This collection includes idertification of most, if not all,
coanponent noise sources, noise generation and suppression, aad prediction methods
fu. all significart nc.lse sources from turbopropulsion engines.

F valuation of Paper

This paper pri, :nts new information regarding 'he corre"ation and p,'edlction
of core en•ine noise. The discussion Illustrates sorte of the difficulties and uncer-
tainties of available prediction rn.,thodn. Slnct- the information here Is limited the
reader Is referred to the final report.

o7
 ii ,14 tcli GL lic..,1 iEuport to t-he FAA (Contract Dc'r-FAA72WA-30)23)
V..:.I

.1 i;;~:':±n.
;I.~* .J1.i...i~ditu1-lig to (.' ir. No!!iC.

3*C i*rk
U. :1. ,j IA, :ýd-irditve, sumnvirUV m-port includin~g thc hatf.
SIII. c!:I:
hug i!cljia ~, unt Cifling utctc~ ~and pri.(![ictiofl ieethodas fur
V. j£Lp~ 1 ~nt.,.u c.~of J:arcnuiA.;e :c e widi prcpwgtio. aOfects.

t
ill..A1..Lrt:?.',lI. ~nSIi'-;f fi(4treve voJ~lumes as foliuw.:.

A"umie I -I. kentificaiton ul Camnpuieun Noise Source~s

- - u]:i.: H ii !-iifiatucin
t of No.5e c
s Giuertitn :and !;-upprc;ss1un Mul.iflb~isuis

%'t v iI --~ 4. itn

jo-mfcat J~ Cujm1!oz~vnt Nc~kti -eSourtris

.ri* I( lviIt'1-11:11 cuf.! 2 zIKg.al noui.;i` Ai. 11W CLOfruIHjUtion from' jet Iii-)h, c'ornuto~i.r

J~~r(-.:!~~~~9ant ~i~: iiji~ip.i

l*JIjul~I4, :-&-w. Ani hivi-AVi4iZtion W
wi ma.4dl.r to
d~t.-Irzlnir till ;-vilt-ral a g Ilw( 1 -ragi-;rrin , ceunzriJjI hu v~anrabIlQit, tile- ia (if ident ificat ion,
~,and lthe al-tec- III vn e bwi duig,,i, if reiductilnl %ero~ reajuirt-d f-or v*':aela e)ighta core vngine
£111.ICe SOUrICes. 'I'lle vial imis !.~tru I,-;~ are! ev~altiatec! and rark oriltered fly predicting Ilm
wit, .4;'(11triIhiarm AJ thi- itA,'virlivil comp~onenlt,. bv Il2w me Ititifni tcivotlP( 'urirtg the ('ouPtr~qe
I) ,1 "'ieIiUAII '.3oIn ('411t
I ii, 'l : ?iro-
J I') on;( arvIV aaill for -;icsh (if
;'tutilwii.. ;,I wo~ I v. for 1,-. 1 j.I.i.a of .1, 7, andii IsýIv
1 I. I itIV , wI hih were-
ftirt:ju ::I~o'f to ai-ivoin;)w..'.1 if coa;,a'roerdmualarer~dt powerplatnti. .
lithu I[ Is~ dttleri-minud
t!(~u~lj.f'l
i a'Inoiss, 1vt iObtlj, I hiI I Urime/1 je~t.
.e
adi Erta-r~acton IflolaP- andJEohzj4t flW -

1
f itii'
1;inj', ,;l - I fit.
i :1 0 11.
j I[.. J.;lp -..
IvA :r.I- f whilel vaF.eh r Mvcba:; rompre

l,,1: '1a'' !0 Il i'i1jj:k'jjII~ (i,'fl;; .4.1; if).io an 1I()ll);an:d 'lit rin

%1r1lzcbfmI pro-

.~dIju'jlsI~antt.IN)alii :eO...Ulta 4~ in~alyf~c;iI work to titlee-mins., Ilt& Isadev Iara.,1t4r

1,.ov41r-rliig )I(! vn~huIw! nilt
-4in :l o.Te n'titiIli; are- ;',ven ;n gewr
5 ':r formi to toii
*' 11
pj ah;:. to a wiItIv vats Iafy of .~me
\',.du; It - ,-ii.n: lfif',tni, of NOisCr Generation and Suppression Mechanics Cont)

Suppre'ssij: , ncets were identified by analysis and experience with prior sup-
pre.Žsion stu,.i, o .i huih velocity jet noise and fan/compressor noise research. These
conveptb were" v'.liLitcd through mudel, component, and engine tests.

,'Jtailhd expo rimental results and analytical evaluation are given for the following
ralJ or ,)ources•'I l tr0ffh.•'u :

Jet Noi-t"

Cuaxial Effects

Suppre.•sion Effectts
In Flight Elfecti

(Combustor Noiie

('ombustor Noise Generation

Combt~ustor Noise Characteristics

C(umbustor Noise Suppression

'Turbiitne N,)isc

Turibine .\oi4e (Generation

Turbiz;e N'nee (Characteristics

Int r;iction Noise

01)hit ruct Ion Not , --

(Cats ing aii'iat ion

(Cormpl~remio." Noi•ei.

VhiIuce Ill - I'i v'olt Ition MO'h'odoi

I'r *dhiit it lhiii! I,, Ii flor c'orTe enJlgn!e not N'± ar'e formulaItedi for low velocity voannulair
j0'., -oirnh~iit ,r.t, !ow preiiaurir•t urt-Ineit, ir.tAsir•eition imltween tirline tones stage-P and
fn/'or, ji'l ,it ra;ioi;, oIPr4tionru'WOn In the floiw pamatgem aund casing ruldlatlon. "rhi,
dli vl')opocint iu-tt1 "d ,.n an anliytical lnvw;tttli!o'a and rniAe;, corominnt, and vr.iine
tent deos'rll'im in Volume Ii. rho reoultee are In letnaral form to be applicable to a wide
variety of cycles Intluwling present and future turbfian engines. The prediction methods
were validated with measured mcouutic ltios where possible.

Hl
 * ;,j. .,,,-, jAzi %, .,nvfni(flj)m~ and is related to

* ~ ~ ..- ~'. ~ ~ : ,,iA, rut. thc .wi u jet lA or-.

. ~.. *.
* rt. -A .. ~ %.. b',5t
L! bvl a:Lr1 no e ~ jd.-itv ratio &.if the-

* PL e:
..I L~. m .. ~a.. .. *.~iiu:iA to :.Li-r 1.,wL- w~it.. air flow. r.4t,. ,
~ C~Cicw.p r;.-Uirc ri.. r;, n: triom zii.o u:t.n. a. d ole. daie:,.IL

* . ~
n :. .* .1 ~A e l'.' .
-L s hth
.1 ~
IoJfi l 1 a( h L wl J`-.f-2 ~
L~ 1 ) t a L31 t rv, : tr 4

* 4., ., i p ;.Ii . .11 :,haip, . I~ tI tV ik nlrvt:icted frtm1.~flm .::i-1 u.:

~~~Ua3m:~~ w,.~.~.
r.~ r thc. il* diction
,. of turbine nuisv. TlleLss, are: I- a

~i~
i:Ii ~ ~fIl- in. ,, It.) i :! !'Ni. Ltn I:.I.t~L.Utli' ,l :.4If il n i~i W Q)aL
pLdcE f - - - . . . .

.1.int:;W. ln:.,,ilvt
Pit. t 'Ah I Lir .-1 ain1c spcc(:tihn1s andic :) k~Itcluiuc for evaluat king
I . H . 1i .::1 hi miniPcI dl j .m var..riatfions tni the~ tnioa. gc'nt ration. Tia'

ir~int aI'.01Iii. i; pro.'. 'Ii. 5 hifigiI

ur prfdl Iisc,
lA4:JI speLctrai,an

Izgt~riat1,11(if
h :1 tll how t),w %%-til Owh fha,`V W~~n.. jet :trvafl tur1~t'iencti~ rinmiutL
1:i :1 .l1.-p 1.1 'hl. p, ... t111 piA : W.ir A:ii.d the
ilrlafill .6ildi dth, Thi.; I.
lla 11im
ft h........1 .!.t . ai, ! ui clsiulges illlULudiI) ii ai
l~it1:1 mr nnIC:nd a.wt.
dir.., tlvtýI~ maf- -jf .in
a tt JX-1-1 vjivuf Iif) ;J.. j' fl'dii tionI lunvatfI: .1iWl pi :e wt'ei~d t.) de1ter-
liii1.till uIduu-itaon in pivak loi:,e stillI OwI fri-quen-,- .iprc..m6ing. Thei vorrvlation is;

*U~d
I..6i .. i'# .. I'I- *I.LIiil* raddit loill dathn*dom :l ilatdI enxt
.j.Ipproxiatio IinjmiLL

HOW~.. NO)ollnein'i M-C ;Irl`0ViIeiI lo ýwc lilt-IudiiIP''tivi1tit'' thsit* no~iv source.,i.

*~~~~~~~~1 tvh:.ei;IL l'iiLia,Ju 1%*j

tt.aali~mAl~l 6 all ha1ve a1 ~t~~il.q.srlIt. 4aIfet t on
n-i'li.s* ::ci* A. -ill, (tilimt! I'
(a:; ng radvl sina : inai
wi gictly 11101tla tIoi-iiI !.(tiv .t out lai
Im~f)I * * *;iI p. .hin
l .IhinpiII. 41 p!i 'a1lrm tini proa.irilIr :i. *Iha' 1 ~ it -tmi~llI-1

P1ilI;,~a
11i-l Vlul e111ir WhIch r-jireitien't i thit work doni- foke.tt"tludIs
aon' v41P It4~inine
 ýnp..iarisn ,k ith Sinmii IrF'fa,!rs (Cont)

a: (;F. over a period of several years. None of the material is essentially new, but
hLis been revised, in'proved and va-lidated with new and additional data.

The report collects, summarizes, and updates information spread through several
It'1"t' l'VrICC.'L
..

i" a!:.ati •nof lk:p1 r

Working equations and curves are presented which permit prediction of core
c.n•r.,, noie using red.ily available engine parameters.

It JhoO. I b* emphasized, however, that extensive research work contliues in

progress at many centers and that analytical methods are adt advanced enough to pro-
,idh. ij,,neral soiutilons. Updating and revision of the recommended prediction proce-
dures will continu~e.
 v. i.I, .I t L: i.. I :it;In3 1 :I'C tien lgisst:.. ri rim
*im A **3*'33.
reie e.-

EA 3'
u: uz~:v1..2 1. _i .iali-d datza r.. -7 14.ý
hA tht-.v ~ ':3ge
.3. I .. ~i~Lfi
,3 **Iu~ 1 A~ .:~to coi rvdiat turb~ine mi-;i-,v i ;irvli, i.ttv
"*nd Fp.1:2
:1i . I;,!( -t io.1 'r I",' P;-.! tQ1 . *'i.' 4111d o~erazticmna I pni raint-t rs.

!1.I1i WOVI.:.
ý ~,.I i lljlcates thIt tluz; 'ijr.;t pu~illi.Thtd
'" 11i.. X l3j . "I.
III t~ 'IS::
3jt.:Zidi1pt~iiou thst tu rlirtc and lan fluiseL g3?Iwra-
Ila' A
J.3*..1 .ý -r *':
-1' i . I -:t'.. S:'4 (Eir-ct tunes, and broadba~nd noise.
'3 ~Ii. .. .~ I v. ii.I .1
. *o'
ki 1- .1to 1. L32oa.m3.323113 .-awre(sri %v:ts 131,itvt'v1 iii ,-orrellktinlg

I'!
1, A : ;
-A I!.1; tI-mali lIi'Iii L~.i 31423 da..i. I3
I).iZatilc;32 of1 data1: poiflt fzr.3r
j~j. I
*'~C. I I., .,:3Ul
WI I;; pi'.I i;,3r Oit- iurdamia3~~Ilu3 and .9~ d!S i3l Ihi'11.1.1bld;
;'14.

.%Oi13! I'ma:3 ii 4d.t

thi ma.ilal-it- ;,t N.kXA I .twk IWt.':t riit (viir twi :.a'vvral .i ra tt
2.'A W3 .1 10
1*~'3,, 01.3 ~,i''I, I l!-th2 I3)?
o2.
3
n a~3nd Pzit1'2rt. The vin)3uptri.im is in-
I"33i,Ili 1vv' :m,i.l iil*1iu '31114111:; ac. t;.ti prP33', i f~in.; w i''dd W,3 1e.''' fi3r turl3ru3.al tI-~

h33 fill- ll~ f e~il,'l:Wll 11

hljV333.Ii'jI.llI41 elu till, WIl~;~iie lraraI.3 pj)Ii31131iof
Ills~il \
.'2''3 I32332 .33.I I'3 ii 3 C33~.'3?33~l3:.1 it* ml 31133 ri tc31C i.' IL,.. N :,-A

1. . A23 A33
..* ;.'3I'Jill.- I't, .li.i iHo f I
tie of' tl.c':311A3,3
Il i ~r' l1:3f 3r

~3:,f1233
1.' .,33' l~I2l~
4~t3'11,33 Ill p4rui 111iti laW'.
pr)341111o 1233111
lurbil~lo h3,11l2
1
t" d3 j 4
3.A lo11 ll o33.' .111i
.1111* 1.. I
low 'cpi -ar~x1; t
-.y'i'. I3u2.:i-io 3it ii,,i!.t, i13;mi 3I('rl q
 I
I
1-

(>,rsparlson i'trh •)tt,.r Papers

Thi.i pip,:r revi•..'s the work of others on turbine noise and selects w"hat is con-
.-icrn.r to be the bi.st avafil.atl prediztion scheme. The review does not include the
l"te:t wcrk of the ut. •AA Core Engine Noise Control Program 1 3 or Mathiews and
Peza*h: 6 . T'he.. aIded results of these more recent experimental and analytical
,'-.," itflons s.hould .-,iuific'antly improve and extend the turbine noise predilction

I~.v.alu:,ti. of I'iper

turves inI figuac.is are presented which will permit prediction of far-field tur-
n, ~ewith
t,.: limitt-t t-,rdii•'icre. As a temporary interim approach, the predictibon
pro,. .,dures offer the advantage of -•implicity and commonality. Piblicatictn of more
recent work will prubably result In significant changes In the pretdiction scheme.

93
 1~~i 11E '. tu L s

*. .... .. : i k- .. iv uir Llast and 'o1 r ~ r tup~ bine, jet arl`:d --

¾i'' . 4 ,!1- .;j'* .. I . l:; i~t~t 2~ A

'-21 . ~ ~ .h.1 .. !It.!~flit az.

t wdL~x
'
hic ;1,Lý l .

112~ Itvl~r~
f. 2.. i ll.2. n*-.,:ier cJ'2 Ig n. ;) r
hawL~f nvce ~ ,2 11.1'A..
* i

1
I..'
:. r.:p;.2r-~I.*\ .t ;w~tjoxt uf work wifai I en (Joflo wh~ic .Lris that n

.. ; :.2Iri !P'::,': Zo. - ;i1:%i) :uri. t. Irmit~ !h cLk :uvel; sthe Itiadirng -
V. -. J 1 I 21c .p: II ,,. . . .2',- .11 ;10 01a.1PuLMr 1,41 byV Iaf-2fI 2c in
u~z2 ~:I*!~
lii: aitA il', sIit Iwihopu'i~.r 'nl
M0,;:,2 flic e1(,xt-c1itao,ýtrn211 ia-
1

2 1:1 ':lfj-
;;1.. I li!%l *j i2. 1.
S.t tU 10IVft .J~(2:Ii''i ~l'fl w2; . i . I ...
m

' .. 2 Anald 'd! do., :,, n;pi..ii. I 12)2,*iIr

rtm 'ii ii i ciw -I, Ikri t2i~c! .'W-ý
* *.h,'.'Ili-It'. f i 11!4- li i'.eu w& -:. I.v-j l w.aiIc, lI~o prv::or~t :t,&.,.AirI wif
I tfl :rI
Ii2~jgi ~s2 !.r hej(. Is. 211 a '-i t ;ai
b'it vqtrdi inwt'rni~t. Ai

2 !',.~
.~* 2 I:~ *:114
.
vm o I *uill Art,'~ . ,i -.I ii - . -J wi l f~iI
2rom22 fbi. r'r

-:w,
it .I j'40's 12.11II If*

2;,!
.* 2 r-., . ' -all I:1j212 I mt1. -miruc2 dI vili'llt,1,Il f,:

T! I .i * it I.,. 1*:1 r ': ;Ail

I: .~2. uh:II I,' .1 'ut .2 hi t') d, III illd~ .11,1 22;ij..I 2rdwit~22i~

ICI -62P 1 ,.1 1 w 11; ,I i, l

)I mati-rial
list, 1 m~~~tlo-it1-1d n cO il m h I,

iv .
 M.!..4 . .11 '...\, A.. *r(:~ in ('orc ln.,-rw an,! TurmineNoiseit
.. h..u... , , AA.. ',.r . I .- ts7 .

TIhis p.;Per setr~ef ~tw sn l1I9,4 -it-ittv-tf-he-:srt in both core ergine and
h

tu~rbine ntusr
itvvt'hn'lI;:v. 'I he oh:i r-ir tvristi' _.tf lNoth 1(,w fri-quenc~y cort: noise- aind
, i,.,h Irkt,.. ~' tus isir.. ; : -wi*v e dlelý n-%v~''~tral p(A,:sibIle noise g ine rating
;it
m.e( hanri:'ri . .are ijihid tl,~J. itcults of a tv.t p.rugran- using a vr~3b turlwAin engine
a rv ls rilwd %%Jucl. L..Athr cli
i t ti4i~
m:is n. sos ources and propa,4 ration. effects.I
\it- v onteol (if ~'u*~:iz.t:- ih, jiv*ed for I :rthoi, r r''-.%arch is dsused

I ,ore enjgar.e by a va.rikwtv of components inside the engineL

fuise ia, tli.,t g mwratc'I
ga:.s i~tflvatur adnt ex~haust s-. vtm, includiig, c'ombustors, turbinea, and flow obstrue-
tionh. l or thme pur-Pisv- uf thi%Paper, core en.n.irc roi~e i~s defined as the low frequency

1. isej from tht. 1urner itesu~ling from pressure fluctuations dluring

Di)5v nod

:'. ln'irtci huioncr nluij f'Irom velocityv and ittrrm-rature fluctuatifons4 inrractirig
W&ith 11it' i ii mii.,

3.Ni)!... djueto)Ii turlIt~l-ieitt atoll wwirl in the vxh~atit.

1. Nolte gvnitratc'f At the nozzle' lip by Intvraction with flow turbulence.

hart ct (tilt, iii:,f itipitu.1 ausel ly-tl.- flinit unste':ttiy heat rot-Laqv of th- (-on%-
i4 i1
b uithion procs:-4'. Thei' uotidjutgit, il ri lnw Is hlfghly- turhuient andi the fuel sprav eoflsasfs
Jof raondom mi/vditroeibis ~. ~reIprtei'x:it fluviu~ations Iinllc~atw a noise source which
ma v proliag.' te hroughl IN comtjOnn~ts to the fitr-fleld, Quantilative
eng~wsftamtineI
44 tiol Ii tems of diirl-vt ' ~itutfi. n o 't have hc'e'n illtricutis to ehi a in, but thai source inust
b~e f, -Adrl'le !eil ptfnli ~k~igis i ant.

l,.lIi~et
'dil'I ~. o~~m- t-of' bay Ow, -rav.- tti,u ili litirte gio ,*r ate~urkli.ssrCit'
~e:-, /,-,I tite~. r seetl ' I th'ire'lci :i whrlen_.
;an-Ilif'ngoer-if'ro Iliv.11i.1tj'up; DI.!,; lM-n tv

aneiptlxJ41 at rw'-I' a [ms dllo. ftor-

i: s,.ha'm1.t noiul/ It. if) tNMisae 1.3
roppty.ut Ii' if(11ti.
W.,V413 l'Iti tod, p- I)( ' ra a.rId jt4, -v"Isv.!:,r ltsi
Wills dif r is lst h I: is I
..'ý lhil:.rV u("Untf
i

-t 'ut niise is caused bY flow impingemient and flow separation from struts and
* th. r (.I1.L't il thOW
L'Xh:1Ut .tr'::m. EIxpe.rimental studies show this noise varies
ý.'ith tht, sixth pwer of th, .xit vt-l Itsiv and m-a :,vl•_ dipole in nature. Quantitative
roc-tiurs. :1'c not av'.tilable for prudicting the noise generated by separated struts
.'A a due't.

.;trut nloiStU it:v also 1e, "eiv•'rated b. flu.tilating lift forces induced by turbulence.
Thir, ,ppears to be no veriftid technique for predicting noisy by an arbitrarily shaped
1h,-ih in turbulent flow within a duct.

Nozzle lip noise is generally thought to be caused by the convection of exhaust

tirlulen'c p.ist a nouzle lip which imparts momentum fluctuations to the fluid near the
i .- S-vvtial theoreti'.al and experimental studies have suiggested lip noise intensity
'.:arivs;with the sixth power of jet velocit.ý. Cross-correlation studies have verified
that this type of noise produces significant contribution in the far-field.

lar-field noise depends not only on the strength of noise sources, but also on
propag.ition through turbine blade and vane rows and through the nozzte. It is unlikely
that transmission problem will Ixb solved rigorously because of t'.A complexity of geom-
etrv and flow in the core engine. Studies have determined that primary variables are
thu mode order of the inc.ident wave, the wave number, duct flow velocity and tempera-
ture. The structure of the shear layer between the jet and surrounding fluid is also
important as is evidenced by a difference in noise between single and co-axial exhaust
fluw configurations.

Because of the comphxity of the core engine sources and the torturous propaga-
tion path, several prediction methods have been proposed empirically relating core
nois(s to overall engine cycle parameters. These predictions may not apply to all
engines because of significant differences In component and installation geometries.
A review of several prediction schemes shows that these should be considered to-be
preliminary and further work is needed.

Some preliminary results from extensive tests of a JT3D engine are shown. A
low fr4!quency peak centered at 400 |lz protruding above the predicted jet noise spectra
is identified as core engine noise. The general spectrum of JT3D core noise is de-
picte•t, as inferred from many spectra at various angles and engine speeds. Cross-
correlation techniques were used to confirm that low frequency Internally generated
noise contributed to the far-field spectrum, which peaks at about 400 Iz. The mea-
sured turbine stage velocities and pressure drops, together with the rms temperature
fluctuations and the characteristic length scale of hot spots wtre Inputted into an in-
direct combustion noise theory. Predicted power levels were in good agreement with
experimental data. Predicted spectra peak at 400 Hz, as did the experimental data.

556
 P. : .I', . .. ,' ,
o': p . -1 .4 "t. (.)o-ltJOJ i1zi ar. shown to correlate well
;,::h p1i m r
I]
Ia •.a .. !'.. ai,:iI.;l.. 1 :',1 t-ngiva, noisq, levels increase ' ith velocity
It. .y: L:,iUl,,hi' !i.'. ".., .,. t*. :. ;.T charatcristieb of corz. engine noise
It,: til .1f: :'.."
Ik•a .. i. ".. . , , h.0•..s in directivity were ohserv•cd with varia-

\.tn th,' vrt, r,.,in. v-h:-us,I I... i,.. .•irroun led by the co-axial fan stream, a
-tediuttiun ..4" I
1., -i 1!1 wa:. :.t . aiq,i. of 1"'i h'um the engine inilet This sug-
ge.:ts th;at nf./zle
h...;.: uip,.,I:)'a t-v uW;atiaf... .,'t. :allectd.. by the external flow field. At-
tt.,pt.t It) deit I
hla)II't. !h- ,litrilutla,: -j! lip noise using the trailing edge noise analysis
oal il..,I,.n2-', vl-. '..• fil, " t u,,,Un thet. pri dik'tod spectra peak at a frejenc\v of
4100 liz. Estatblishia,: th.!- s.ig;fic:,n, of lip noi,;L. will require additional work.

""l'_
*rlif:,. noi:.L' ah.iSnatlt ,ld . ,.0rbini, tonres witih hrrodband "haystacking" that
itceur-; in th. r.gic n ,!t tha tone.-s. I Jr":-in( u.nae.. :ar" a':* rated by interactions of rotor
w:aks'..% - itti d,)wnv.: r a:i :.tators
-. as..iI wr:o itans of r.-.ho'" w"akes with downstream
rotors. ()thcr sou,-, t. , .lis•.rtett- turbine ioncs may include the effects of non-uniform
inflew Imro hurm'r .,u.uvate.' "hut spats" :ln(l turbulence. Factors affecting turbine
tonie in.e.n.itv ainluhiertea !ape..d, atzgIe work, size, turbulence intensity, stream
density., nunill-r of -n rotor/.ltatur spacing.
andtalcs,

Ri:'ent evidt.nle saiggest that "hay..tacking", the broadband noise from turbines,
is not internally g.n,.ral,..d, but is related to the propagation of turbine tones through
the turhuhlnt v.ha.'s, :luw. (;rowing evidenc,, shows that "havstacking" can Ito att rib-
, !.) scattering of turbint, tones by turbulence in the exhaust flow of both the core
.sd
engin, and fan stream:•.

srveral current prcdic-iin schemet's are in use which are based primarily on
.mpi rical cot r,.lation., r(Ati.t data. The procetdures follow those devwlol:tyM for fans
and compressor.. Pratt & Whitney has developed a prediction system O.y correlating
data from JIll), °i'r•'• anif .JT3D engine. Significant tolse reduction iu possible both
by modification of the sour",e :and by using acoustic treatment in the primary tailpipe.
The latter, is |,oth heavr and expensMv, Ibecause of the extreme environment.

Mi:asured far -liu!d tur~i'ne nolse spcdt. a tr1m I IlM) tests were examined and a
comparison to. prvditions from the P ratt & Whitney procodures show goodieorrelation.
Th," vrrl.ition inchi,4
a.. tht, effrts of a 4ignifi'ant contrilaution of the turb:rht work
parameter.

ibsa rý,vd dif&, ra,'n,' s maturbiinc !nui:,. :p-lrtr a ar' llteli!-('fvl relitd to difftern'(L.as
in the evhaust flows which the turbine noise propagates through. When no turbulent
shear layer is pr•.•s:nt, th, turbine tone Is highetr and the broadband "haystacking" is

9i7
.Saii: inl~i r'• 4( '.fl

h p't.I-Vlnt'ti than in sptlria obtained with a coplanar fan stream. The tone energy
0.4
is :i redistributt-d to adjacent frequencies by the added turbulence in the
anatttred
,.in shear laver.

Comp:arison With Similar Papers

This paper is derived from various experimental core engine and turbine noise
programs, including a recently completed extensive noise test program on a Pratt &
Whi'ney JT3D engine. Though similar in conte,-t and conclusions to other prior work,
additional information and understanding is presented. The importance of the indirect
combustion noise as a possihle noise source is emphasized and the effect of the propa-
gation path for both core noise and turbine noise have been demonstrated with increased
ticttil. From the survey presented here of prior core noise and turbine noise tee.inoloer,
together with results and conclusions presented in this paper, i t is clear that more work
is required to verify and extend the range of present prediction procedures.

Evaluation of Paper

This is a valuable summary of much of the work being done on core engine noise
by Pratt & Whitney. Only limited results are available, however, and neither the
core engine noise nor turbine noise can be predicted with the published results.
Moreoever, the emphasis is on engine noise of larger turbofan engines and results
have yet to be compared over a range of engine sizes and types.

98
 ,.'..;l'
.. , . r ..I;... . . . ,.. •.• .. ,,, P.,, t~ Engin,. and Driv'e "irain~
, iFr,

[. r p. " .1' .t,, I"*ti- .'me;,:ai'rrl' ' o| the p s..iible sources of

tlt
S!!.'.!iw wit ll:!I, Ii.: .• ., I1,t, I!..-j 1 ghk,,:..:,i.(on
that niJ% contrilnzte to the
ni.ise o1ls a' ih
I •,ht .' , ,I. I ii ',, i .a(. :.'.:,'li zk'iu-tcI• nnrfuit'e:('.
l.

'I fih .0u,111 !it , , 1 lA. i,,I ., I,•,a ra. ,;ai*.wzi,' r ina.i rnai combustion engine can be
.l-5u::'!d lJ lit p."p '.*- " .1.41 " I . ,'0 -1...,i:i ,t fwe nc , structuire area, and
t1". ifar:ati:an %Ia'him 0h .... tAi'itr,.. P|rin. ij,;,i iawurt..- ji vihrl.tion, in descending
iril'cr of imn)urt;.-:ia , |.|,- i J ý;l.L;til,rl proc "es pi'toa. slap. gear meshing and
NOck injvctior.. . Not i I :%.1i:aia dml i ...... ,, the structure. Obs:erved

:,io,'rcc due t j 1I,11.n ,|,. ,4 d. ." -;I I-wt vit'tl .,,.,

Combustion, a.lis." It r.'la.tedl to the rmal cfficienc'; of the engine. The most
aIeetIltt'cl nlvth(%.(! , I ,IWt :1,)l is 14 re'luc: .)ptratiaig spet,,. li-ton slap noise is pro-
duc.d liv the a ir:r,.-.:
p.Iias th;,t occur bt.twer, piston and cylinder. Gear mesh-
ing nuise is ijrnost evisitlit :at Irc.,;lju,.ies., rel:ated to the gear tooth contact frequency
and is most sensitive to luad changes and the precise, shape of the gear profile. Fuel
iavt ion noise Is c(- I rinharilv to pressure fluctuation within the fuel pump and
Sibr'ition within lite ii ie•, r.

For a wide varhtv of dii|sel engines, the noise generated by combustion is related
to operating sx•wcd "and cylind.r diametcr. An etuation and constants are given to pre-
dict :X-wt iglhitd d.-i1vlh.l :"ht*vt froil the, machine for several classes of engines.

rhe noise produc.-d by piston slap can he estimated frcm an expressIon for the _
ratio of the acoustical to vibratory power. Inputs must be determined from the physical
'haract.riatics of the r'adliatrng structure and the vibratory power from piston slap.

"The noise produ(cedI, by piston slap can bie estimated from an expression for the
ratio of the :aou.iticai to vibratory power. Inputs must be determined from the
phvsi,.al -h1arateri.sti,. o tht* radlating structure and the vibratory power from
pi .iton :slap.

"The noise' radiated b'!y an automotive, gearbox exiti-d by gear meshintg can Ixe (sti-
mateil uzirg -insihpc i.uatlon which provilh l:eve liar-.ral distrilution. Prvdietted
vi, ald
l-vll, ;are rIl'•at(,d to t r,:,,snilttid horsepower and gear speed.
 i7

.unimarv ;C'ontj

It is concluded that noise reduction by either reducing radiation efficiency or the

m:itnitude of the vibration forces requires an understanding of the mechanisms of the
source and a knowledge of the engine design parameters.

Et:luation of Paper

This is a brief overview of sources of noise in reciprocating internal combustion

engii.tc. Prediction methods are indicative, but too limited to predict noise levels
from helicopters using internal combustion engines.
 ,.'.'~i .. - .... .,,,iI iTviperit.. rt! lHiu~tuations

thu.. p:!,MF J1:44, Wg

A.' i~Pr...t I".1d wV11aia
k.. !%) thait sigriifivatnt low frequenry
~'~*WI.s4iIi..
v.a f fi h:' Co .L4 4,1 l"1
1"(11 :11141t'Impt'ralt.Lt' "e'ddies"' through
I k.,. ''..~-. is -N z, !. r t-iitijne. bbjI.s :;r4( vaae rr.wvs. te~..uits
~
fr£'': ~~~. ~ . ~ ~ ~':.riu, ~ ~ ~I:'u,
lii..I.~.1,L ~~~f~
~1'U. Pratt & 'liftney
1~~~~~
nice1'a*t 1
*f*' ~~ i1 ... ..I!l .'i I-$., '-vpa':K , core tojif da~ta.

VAi I'IOU'. 11-1- II.L't.'94, lha.v~t 1A.411 u4Iejp.%ý:a if- -... ptain tht, obsermeda low freiejuunev
noie-1S of turbtta... a'i.gi n. wm 1141 (*.aflalit iw ac . eI ournt if ',,I- In jet noise :alone. It is
ro':a .. in:taIv i~t) 4-:6p.*1 L.i. '104 54 sour. at 11r,
i rE;i-i' tit the nozzk'. whis n are pro-
.jaIt,.. tmsat .1% 11at,~.1%% imt. ractiti.g -. isi bijait,, vanes, struts an-I nozzle
v%.at. An :etaddiio,:tI. I-[. e*_1 1 ~rge4
flat, la fluctut..'Wids in temperature anti
* :~axial vve14)4it% vre. Iv- -1 1,%',L, 1.411 ner p~ass.inag throiug~h suvvýssive turbine stages.

a *I'~~ht
git'iaras .i.t prtasvrtud by Pauikett includies tacise genleration due to flue-
tai gilig lilt gand Ir v . . -it th1. v~ar~t (,a biri iii row art :iaz~tion toi thz' nolst. gene' :-ated
byv vortiettv (turi':. ::aaI 4Lltroplv auenflw raturv) voriecting thranugh thle dise. 'rh.
* t'~v)jIttrab~utiog' lut. Io, npier~ature is vonsiffered in de'tail. The me~thod eon-
ag~rIvir~
-1i.*hrs sniaII un--t.';aet p'*alu rba:ti4)ns of2the invai':n ow through :an .artuatcir disv- takt
* ~rtulat-sIn'ns cub.' r :I tur iia riit~ir or 1141/ /Ii guide4 vane stage. The anail%,i- .a.'lso :av-
"outOls for the' large' k~ig- iII flit . strv'ani flow var.iable that are'a design fea:ture
(if turbine stagegs :ainl ;I fauitor tit the noise ge'no'rating raiecharlsm. It it. shown that
tatike Ievelq f1w't. to Ivnpe r-ItUre fhjc-tuet ions art- dihpefl(14t ont the' rms intensitv -and
tr~arsvi-rqe' I'rtrr4+.l41)fl it-ngth ;atis t flu- , flut'tuations in ;additiori toI Meteit turbinte
opeI':Itinlg p:tr:imvIvtr.,. l'aaatliv'aaaeare, the pe-iak intensity or~curs at a fa-4equtunt'V thp-n-
enft on the :axlii tot rvI'atl4io Iv.ngth s'al' (if the temnpera~ture fluctuations.

I're-du-ta4' v:.1tivs, otf giner~i-te' noiolsv :ari' rmp~ared to mt:,sur'il .11*3i) low fre'cuvn'.%
Irolsv4. M1td,4IT4'( v'3I4M s of thet vtarlotas turbine stage veioitatite. anti pres~sure dtrolps
Wil4 IeI irnputtii1 144gothilr .vith Owhe rnis ti-nipu'r~iura' fluetuations :and the tehairmte'rist ie
'vngI h sfualvs oif t he hot spots tobtaini-da fromil vroms-rorrviatitin of a41jm-t-flt aiuivk-
4.4 tli'nai).
U')[5£ Itp~'4). 'v-'.li tvid po)wer li.'vc' oiEfnoise wur foun to h4i.i4 e in goodt
* .'geiawnt
i with 14i4:-:;4444 dioI&;i . . tli -~a' di*41i4t't .:IiIr1 : ,jIi
':r,' 1 f

tht(. axial hot-Sp'etleit !v-a~e4 andM:itxia:s l convt'c'tlon ve4st4,4itv, pe ik at -100 WI a4s dot4W

and Ij1 4 :.nurvt~il flois 4l'V#1 :ivli

HI$(-I.4'1U4- lilt pro-i'4'411jt' re in rea;son~able lagraeem, ntt,
it !s dediuredi that ('Prt, engine- noiv(I'tgII Im' avrtouzittd for by the temperature~ fluct-tta-
tioual convecting through the turbine'.
~.-
,;a.i.:i !;.-.,,n
.. . \It ii •imiLiar l':y' I,,;.

"}. ;)t.-bi litv that a tim:w :tr•'ing temperature were traveling through a velocity
.n...f:-t. :isanuther :..)urv-. of sound (entropy noisej has received little attention in the
:'!o'ratura*. Sfrahl,"' ,i,' cusselI entroi)r noise, hut made no evaluation of its contribu-
*n to tJr,, tengin, noise. St've.'. ricl-v.t theoretical approaches 3 0, 31 have studied
• i•. gene ration b%" convection of "hot spots" through a mean pressure gradient. The
.i:.s hy l'ic-kt-tt ctonsider.. both vorticity and entropy fluctuations. The application
o i,,,.kett's anal\ sis is perhap:. th,. first attempt to quantify the entropy noise. Pre-
*:k•- spectra :and power |e~t'l, from measured parameters compare well with mes-
-:r.'t.! Iata, in,rlit'ating another noise source to be included in core engine noise pre-
,i,-i on prowcedures. No attempt has been madtt to establish the level of entropy noise
, ,-i-tive to I he. mort gtlv rallv acce'pted direct buraer noise from the combustion

E'l-,uation of Paper

Thi.g paper presents an analysis and mean, of predicting the level and spectra of
.ntrop% noise in the c'ore engine. However it is unlikely that the procedure can soon
he integrated as a separate component source in usable prediction methods. The com-
phvx input parameters requi rted to evaluate 'he entropy noise are not generally avail-
abh. and results have not been demonstrated to be.universally applicable.

I",)
 * ,I . .h. .:ncJ Ilikhinbr~and, it. W. "Re( -tion of
* f*. -irsm~~~ l... . .. : i-: s , A AA Paper No. 74-59, Presented at
:.ýX!;~IiaA .. - .~' tr~ !ainuarv 197-1.

i. ~,.,rt
la~ - .*a . sc ribied in.ul'tail in A~ir Force Aero
14i.01- .. :
.q.!1it a,.,~, va ia I)
k~ P-i.a rI -7::v-7'Y'. 11-ý oi:Vctive of the
~..-
!hi dtw s -lrt]. ia.at!J I!~.tt'i~lt' I.asc neee-s:;ar-v !o reduce the n~oise signa-
tuft, w.; -'. 11' allIII.,Yr' :knaa I., plot.ai en.-int s to min imizie their uletectabilitv in low
ii uIr .*~~ur~'iil~ oa n ili iarv is;issons. The program summxa rized
~ai.n;:a
w:.- aaithtr tris :ir..d ~if( livio.1i d-' %c.f'lripi t i t4 pridfiction methods for all the-
~*.ju S a1Wa I tual .j Fop - at" ri-10.1 .1 ftj aw! Lu rILo? to. va;ine..s 2 developinento i
luL't :ciuustlc trt;Iltfl-11t dv-IIE.ln 3:mt!'4ts of xviaternuts suitable for acoustic
duut linvirs. -it acousti ti sts tI :ait ur uppres-led turbofan (the AiResearch TFF. 731-2)
:ind an unnu1 11 ,rvs-wdI tarh'iprop vni~sin (the Ai~est-arch TI-E 331-5-251) including corn-
pat114Mn V.ith 3acra(it to-d ~, 7)~t uu.%it tct:M (,I vairious inlet mufflers and exhaust
'a.

duct treaztint-nt, andth,; an ;anal. s:.s of performan.ce and wt-ight penalties for noise
~upprussionf. 'Ilh4 .w'rk 0.1 Lurb1.-.haft engines a iid their suppression is of interest In
lit-laaa-pter nohise' pred'ictiona anda will lit alasvissf-d below.

[';-if ii~d compir4s-vir i.'ta p redic~tion .nithexts are based nn work- reported by Smith
andi House" ' with erio.!iticatpi'rttitini prov( correlatlion with turboprop engine data ano
all'ow prudic;itiona of e-int rittigAl compressor noise.

let noise abovte 1000 It. /s,.c. exhaust velocities is pre-Aleted by the SAE~ jet noise
-I 1* 011l 1,11P
.'iapiI IretvtIvitv c~ut vi-.
1ia At exhaust velocities titlow 1000 ft. 4/5cc.
1
thipaper st~ate's that prvdioiti ian' are based! on Isushehl's method: . In this exhaust
ve.loemt region, the nua'ie i.s g- 1iteraited Intern~al to the engine anti is called core engine
11011.0. 'The onl% curt, engine' noise source' predicted explicitly in the paper Is combus-
for no!,,%-. It i,4 statlid t?..at e'ornlueistionrs fliSs ime of the most significant core engine
noise' source's for small turbulan and turboprop emgnilas. The combustion noise Is
jpredhictI'( 11)Ix- a feim tion of teit4'r:Iture risie in the combustor. combustor dischnrge
ve'locity, c'onihiixtor gli~mm'ter, NOe' and air weight flow, and a reference acoustical
outputf ;i! thev r-umblus;c;r ex~it.
aYV~l

Sina' :a-a;'.variox I-, 1te' 1Uirofei It) providvlINloripw 1 ~ -rt Inv pmiopvr rp'im to driv' a
propea'ller ofI~*rototir,,hhipe)j)r
I cons iaIe'r:i gvarbox nt.it!~ ;is pairt of the e'nginp. The
a s 'i-1 U v)
tat!- f Ili-- in' t en'foacli.hia App-nij)'1x for a ulhousvii.don of the gear
noiie' prtediction met hol! th-sirtxs!d.
 r V-1,1i:11.epnsa
-:111~sisc, sicUh I i:.d lubri'-ation pumps mounted on the
:1--i fuu:
1*;1,t Of Ill, *-n::t-il, ;1!1,.'i itcres
!:i or ~*.r 'v quliet systems such as reconnais-
. * Su. .t* 11.lidto.pr.qipI I- is -I htc In.11:4. :!t-,- probdaby unimiportaint ansia fa-
i
.*].-V The~ps:per states that verv. little work
1 -$ t Ot4.'
-I£?l (:I u , l ..t it dot'-! inclcudelt a preidiction i Ilt-hISI for a fuel

.s. 1-i--c is tliat wthiich is transnimttt-d to the far fivld thi-ough the walls sur-
w~,
-a6-, ina, fit
h.- jiginit, v03inrU-int-a. Iii L-mpiricaZl prcedi-tion prucedure fur sound power
:. .avIi.- pr.-i-nsi-uit- for turboprop engincs which is a funetiori of mechanical horse-
i eteates ha. the ctigine.

I Ihrt - .tdJ-oit u durt Lining ii'-. ign prntss-t-du re-~-ar, de-scribed bra.:!ly in the re-
Poirt with i'i-t.atter information :ivailable in 'A lAII'L-Ti-7:i-79. TIhe tirst method
1,t-tAon thu woirk tit (i-:-fl1:1 andi Nelson is -an~al-tical in nature, Iit, uses .-in tempirical
ianp-iied-s- rnioiel for iiiateri~als used in the linor design. The sec~ondI method Is only
ii-wtitint-ti brztaiv :sand it is stated that it is a self-optimizing method based on simul-
flitou."sol(.utionl uf the governinig diffterential equations and that it avoided some of the
* aimplif-in.4 assumrptions of the first method. A single comparison of a liner design
* ais .ri-sent.-d %hiuh show., that thet two) methods give significantly different results.
Thl.- diri rtimt-thodi is empirical and is hase-a tin gene-ralization of the results of many
ic- t-. of due-t Iine r vorifigur~at ions.

(;-nvrxal ri-s-uits of aicoustic mal~terial.,; tests :ire presented for zero flow, room
t.-ivap'-V-tur- voiwijtjons. S~ianplae results of interest are: 1i alddition of acoustic
Ai-a;urhimng m~aterials behind pierforated face sheets increases absorption coefficient
WAl ac-oustic res4istance, 2) little is gained in using sound absorbing material behind
* ~iii-t rinctat since( air cavities tuned to the design frequency providle significant noise
* *~iI*.a fl:ikof onver sv'vra-il octaves band-, :1) bulk, absorbers show onlM a slight frequency
driri n-11nce on matatrial thickness and absorb soumd across a wide range of freciliencles. - -

AcoL.ttae tests oif ann Ailb-search TPE :131-5-251, 8-1 0 811l) turboprop engine were
vow.ruute-a while: the- engine was drivinig a qIuiet udynamometer. llnsuppressed tests
.x. re- ( miuc-tell to establi sh c'onipa risons between predictedt and measured noise
!,preCtra. Fit! repjort indicates that gomid correlation was :'chieve'd. The engine wns
thvi; t. sttd with mioltil~ar hila-t, casing andi vxiaus t -stpression .syatemns as shown in
thl.- igu ri- fli tilt- Ie-xt pa e

Cashnj, stippression rv-nulls are not indiicate-d in the report. Inle~t suppressor tes'to
shanwtal splittrrs in la rge or .4mall inlet duct sections pro0vided~ little additional attenua-
tion, but marked by increased performance lossesH. Therefore, the best inlet suppres-
mor consisted of a relatively mimple large plenum designed with no direct line of sight
t-anoirninasion path.-

104
*.. ::r:.I'.(onmti

*... ! l a

*1 ~ ~ Il IN,.

EXPLODED VIEW OF ATTENUATION ASSEMBLIES

USED WITH THE TPE331 ENGINE

1h'I
Ie xhau'j,t ;atte'nuaitor t-')nee'-p* sch-ftedt4( for the ti'sting reported utilize- two
p.*inuip il t-c hn',juvii to reffid~t elow frIMquonv-, fani?;i'': 1) a~ length of tailpipe' which will
,,hilt t thi Iiin'Ia ntentai i *',ori.snvo if the. taillpip4 !'j a fruqluency where Ilu' ambuient ak
ground nok"v is higher -int tho-ri-lore iamlIIk- the entgIne' noiw inui 21)a1niultj-tube dlst.4gn
to, vonvirt low fr'riuo*ni'v noitiv i:irgi' wavive~ngth.sl to high frt-futrncv noise (small
wavi-hingth.4i which cien reqae~ilIx- a~*;la~iorheel. Twevr%( v.chau.9t duct conf igurations were
te:t..I)f j'ir rler sgin-J`1,:auwv Wi'
w he' t'i which -- howced thatL dIuuiing th~e lengt h
Ito
'if tIitrc~liviuI'.i P I...d'-tl .ihr i
TheO:':) ~IC4
riii In feimnd Iy t;ti-.*r rp--arct-t-r4.
W~Yith 016 0111`1e ~**4ei'l'v Ieinm, nn',r. I h:in 30o cil redurtion was~ obltained in the
wutInr
InIvt yju:eidrant atI frolil'nenu )1:e1(i
I 00 Iii. andI ;e've'. In 11w' exhaust qIuaudrant. aittenu~a-
tion of mort! than L') dil ait I!riliut~i i fI10)I, n hoewe ei'i

rho final Item mI'tret'ssi'i n the patwr lIs the vi fect of inlet and( exhaust muppremsion
equipment on perfoa-mavice ;andi woi.ght. Am i'xpec'ted, livi trendsx prrse'-nted sthow sup-
pri-mmor duct weight rising raplidly as frequiency of sup~pressor peak attenuation filli
1w low 100)0 liz. 'ibl:4 I.s 'hue lo th I4(U 1.1ei 'p1h (1hltknvami of the t re'atnient. Thi
requrv
 _____iunti

* . zt.tri.I.:-
..- ' r * ~is~tz~ti %ith various vxhau:ýt ducts is compared with calcu-
* .~t~ ~.rnt*isaigrct-riknt betwee~n valtul~itlon ;ir.d test is indicated. A maximum of
Ions in h.j1*C4U11 *.Iotra tht. full bwid high flow coflditiun is infl(i:td.-J

i iýnWith Similatr PaperIs

I hit:- pierisak drrv v** frijh a six volufht- r-port v.atIe "Suiall Turbine Engine
.%i, M{-duclion, *Air Forcu liepurt AFAP l.-'TH-73-71-i which was writtern 1w
i ,*r..l auth~irs from Aiuv .war; h Mainufacturinig Company in V)73. Also, a paper
ti.,L d 'Pro.gres.s in the De.~vlopinvnt of Optimally Qjuiet 'rur&Aoprop Engines and Iiistal-
Liti-jmn< SAF Ilipr 7312i-,~, A~pril 1973, by ft. %I. 'Vedrick and It. W. 1H11denbrand was
;,rr*r veel from the six volutne report.. 'rht Shah.iilv, et al p~aper is :i very grGtM sumn -
!:I~la*-, .:) tht- work reportrid in AFAI'I.-TI-713-79. While AIFAJ'L-Til-73-79 inclludes
ti4. e'mp~tAr prIograins dltvulopcil to predlict engine noise and design. duct treatment
in :i~fifit ion to :t grea.ter emnphaIsis on turoofan noise, the Shiahaiiy, vt al paper provides a
ln:tter ovvrview of the arceomplishnients of tOw program reported in AF-APL-Tlt-73-79.
(fllwr retports emtphasizing acoustic testing and dlevelopmtent of prediction methods for
s,un;sll turh',shaft engines (do not exisi. The recent work by General Electric under
11
l,1 I- -kA ('unt r.ct No. 'r'FA72W'A-30:!3 ' does include inivestigation of similar
:souri ves in great expeirimental depth, but the emphasis Ia on understanding turboan
-c.rvr engine nloise of larger vnginec:.

F>.-alu:it ion of .Paper

This is a veryv valuabie summary of theŽ six volume AFAPL report for a researcher.
6-*neral trends in turtx)sh:Ift engine noise will not be found. Also actual calculations
cannot be dlone with the limited Information reported'. These require use of AFAPL-
 ", .irvk, It. N. an -:;;I1!t:nitjrand, It. %k, "!Progre.is In the Di:velpmert of cptim.,Iiy
•':v.t i :•rto)pr,,p I.n t-.,-s .x,',,Iil.t:.lathn' S:\-F P'aper No. 7312.s7, Pret-..ie•td at the

I hi-.. rqpwrt :urmni:ari7r,. the turhoshaft enrgin, noise evaluation work reported at
A .At,.r ,i.4t, in rbor,. ui,.t.ii in Aiir Forre A,'ro Propulsion Laboratory Tectjc.,d He-
:prt A FA Pi.-T1-7:3 -7!. 1 h,. purpose uf the paper was to summarize the turboshaft
vngie 1af:)raIn pri,,r"i, lorcht;i uf thet final Acro Propulsion Lboratury Report
in ;. way theft would h,. us,.ful to m:nufac.turers of business aircraft.

Sunrnmarv

"Ihe following surnnirv i.%ihnited in scope as more Information wll be found In

tI" AL:A p):Il-,.r I)v Sh:ahai,,.l ;412 7 or the Aero Propulion Laboratory Report 5 which
:ir,. rteview,.l el
t.I,-w ' rv in thi. Apl nlx.

Co'mn~paerison With "irnil:ar Il'prs

This p.aper is linited in s(.oixp compared with the AIAA paper by Shahady, et al.
AlHo the predi(tion procclurt.. for engine noise and duct liner design which are found
in AFAI'I.-TiR.-73-79 are skot Included in this paper.

l- valazatinn of lil'p r

It is suu'ggested Mhat the reader Int,,rested in the numinary ot the results of the
Sma!l T'urbline E~ngine Noise Rteduction contract conducted by Alresear h Manufacturing
('Comrpanv for the. Air Force Acro Propulsion Laboratory refer to the AIA• paper by
Sha:dyv, et al or the ..xrutive Summary, Volume I, of AFAPM.-TR-73-791 as both of
these reports are m.,re complete than the report reviewed ht.re.
[hi,'n G. V.. "Noisu From l)iesel Engines", lnter-Noi.:e 73, August 1973.

This p~t-t'r discusses som. results of experimental vibration and noise measure-
mcnts on diesel engines. Vibration isolation of external engine parts, stiffening, and
::".uiud rIducing sh:-_0s are shown to be effective means of reducing noise.

In nearly all modern diesel combustion systems the combustion pressure Is the
-trongest exciting force for structure - borne and radiated noise. Noise reduction by
improverient in mechanical exitation sources is limited to 2-t dB(A) for technical and
e,'onomic reasons. It is necessary to improve the structure so that less vibration
tCeliahcs the outer walls to be radiated as noise.

All parts of the external engine surface contribute to the external noise. Seldom
,does one pai Lcontribute as much as half the noise. Nearly all parts must be treated
t. &Lchieveimprovement of 4 to 5 dB(A).

Noise near the oil pan can be reduced by aq much as 11 dB(A) by careful isolation.
Stiffeaing of external wall can.reduce local levels of noise by as much as 10 dBrA) In
-.ingle third octave bands. The most effective means of noise reduction are thin sound
reducing shells of low bending resistance and high critical frequency. Reductions of
19 dB(A) were measured with plain sheet steel and it was found that mounting is more
i..portant than damping. Sound absorbent material in the clearance between shell and
CLSe wall had little effect. Measured levels of engine noise were reduced 19 to 21
"JB(A) using a total enclosure with vibration isolat'ng attachments.
The best design solution for reducing noise appears to be a new design with
central support engine structure surrounded by a vibration isolated housing, "which
iorms a kind of wet enclosure".

iEvaluation of Paper

"thismay be of interest in predicting the case radiated noise reduction which can
bei achieved with relatively simple enclosures. No means of predicting sources noise
levels are contained in this report.

108
 (ct r Noi•e Ca:ipsule Sta.arifes

l___,ly, it. if. and .1;it'nu.n__.M., , "(4-arbox Noise Reduction: Pred.iction and Mea-
sure mtnt of Mceah-!.rcquh c.( - Vibrations Within in Operating Helicopter Rotor Drive
e.. T'!•", \.AS;.,i:pt.r No. 73-DET'-31, St-ptemher 1973.

The purpose of this study wis to verify the accuracy of anal'-1ial methods for
* predicting the vibration and noise generation of gearboxes by determining correlation
between prcilicted and measured data.

S~Summary

rITis stud% %ka perforrmed on a CII .17 main rot..w drive gearbox. However, the
* analvsib is applicable to gearboxes of all kinds. The paper presents a rood descrip-
tion of the seve ral analyses required to make the prediction of total noise and vibra-
tion emi,.sion at gear clash frequencies. Also, the correlation between predicted and
nmeasured responso of :,evera! parts of the dynamic gearing system is presented. The
list of reference~s covers the work sponsored by USAA.MRDL over the past few years
in developing analysis and noise reduction techniques for transmission noise.

Comparison With Similar Papers

This is an extension of the work perfor'r:ed by Badgley and Laskin3 , Laskin, et all,
and Sternfeld, et a05 .

Evaluation of Paper

This report shows 'hqt an application of detailed dynamic analysis to a transmis-

sion can identify near resonant condit'ons for components. This study shows examples
of this and also shows the results of corrective measures which yielded noise and
vibration rAduction. The anal),is Is 'eiigthy, but necessary to locate possible vibra-
tion/noise problems in the-preha,.dware stage. It considers dynamic system torsion
and bendir.g plus casing response.

109
L
B:,l•'iiy, RIý., and l.askin, I., "Progiram for !elicopter Gearbox Noise Pretiction
aniil itedUuction', UISAAV1.ABS Technical Report 70-12, March 1970.

d'urpose

The work described in this report was done to demonstrate the application of
analytical tools to the CI1-47 power train to predict noise levels. Actual CII-47 trans-
mission noise levels were measured for comparison. C--47 transmission casing
vibratory response was measured. The sensitivity of noise level predictions to several
transmission design parameters was determined and investigation of tooth profile modi-
fication as a means of attaining reduced transmission noise was explored.

Summary

- This work shows the ability of the previously developed analyses to predict
differences in transmission noise radiation via modifications to reduce torsional
excitation and gear tooth dynamic force levels.

Comparison With Similar Papers

This is a follow-on to the work performed by Laskin, et all.

Evaluation of Paper

This a slightly refined analysis compared to that of Reference 1. However, it

still does not treat the lateral beading dynamic response of transmission components.
It appears to predict the spectrum shape of noise and vibration, at least to the extent
that some clash levels are higher than others, using torsional vibration of the system
with some empirical conversions.

110
 Barlow, W. If. , M'(lu.y', W.C. and Fcrris, II. W., "O'I-6A Phase II Quiet lleli-
copter Progra m", USA:\.1I)RL "rthric'al Report 72-29, September 1972.

Purpo•e

This study was conducted to reduct. detectability of the Ol1-6A Helicopter by

reducing externally radiated noise.

Summarv
This report prt-scnts external noise narrow band spectra showing the presence of
main and tall rotor gearbox clash noise for the, version, where this gear noise is
not masked by rotor and engine, nois.. It sh': gearbox noise levels of 59,'55 and.54
dl1 at 150 feet In hover for the tail rotor gcirLox, second stage of the main gearbox,
and the neces:;ary drive sc. tion of.the inaij g,.arbox, respectively.

Comparison With Similar Papers

-.............. The-werk-descrit rt-wasper-srpaedffctl• same general effort as that

tundertaken by ljo-es 7 .

Evaluation of Paper

This is one of the few repcrts available showing the presence of far-field gear
clash noise from a helicopter. Gear nclse was unmasked by reducing rotor and en-
gine noise. It provides useful data for estimating far-field radiated gear noise.

#in
Bowe•s, M. A. -Tr"estanid E.valuation of a Quiet Ihelicopter Congiruation l1H-43B",

US.AMIRDIL Technical Report 71-31, January 1972.

Purpose

"rhe purpose of this effort was to reduce detectability of the llH-43B helicopter
by reducing externally radiated noise emanating from the main rotors, core engine,
and gearboxe.s.

This report presents external noise narrow-band spectra showing the presence of
main transmission gear clash noise. Levels at 200 feet in 10 foot hover were 74 and
64 dB for the input bevel and planetary system clash, respectively. Changes to the
transmission resulted in reductions of 10 and 8 dB for the two clash peaks. Trans-
mission noise reduction measures incorporated were: Installation of a selected gear
set exhibtt ng good wear patterns and minimum tolerances, plating of the teeth with
lead indiu..i, use of high viscosity oil, misphasing of left and right bad rotor drive
gerrs, ela.*tomeric isolation of planetary ring gears, removal of some auxiliary
components, and partial sound proofing of the transmission.

Comparison With Similar Papers

This work was performed as part of the same general effort as described in
Barlow, et a18 and Pegg, et a19 .

Evaluation of Paper

This is one of the few reports available which shows the presence of far-field
gear clash noise from a helicopter. Gear noise measurement was made possible by
reducing noise from other sources (rotors, engine) which normally masks it. It con-
tains useful data for estimating far-field radiated gear noise.

112
Grandte, .. , 0l a!, -ai,,A]i i'urhant.I.nginv Noise ltuluction, Volume 11, Noise Predic-
.fithod.-',
M .r 1I'i t- At -ro. PrIulsion l.aboratorv Technical Report AFAPL-TR-
.3-79, Volumv 1 J1,.Ot-tlh r i'i7:.

The secttion ,)I concern hr. .Sucti:n 11 - I'irt :, (;ear and Mechanically Radiated
Noisvi revitews the lit'.1lurct iai .,a'i'i.' lioi:. prldi-tion and gt:nerates a basic noise
pr(diLteion nithodn via char ts.

Suns mi rv

(.earing. n.1so, pr' di. Coni-i .. W..-.. r .r'. sJI I",a. , x'itation through meLhanical
radiation. ",'h a ii,., h.vzic iti'ul-.,il v. ith ,:.-t .tAion, including unbalance,
tooth impact, frit , Ion, and git|,f'.'ting,, arc ti*..-ci it t (I .nd analyzed. It is determined
that tooth ainpa.t is the dl,,ni..:int inct.h:n:m.-si for ct.re.'i:,li, radiated gear noise which
occurs at meshing tr',u-nc'.

Tooth impaict ,(,i.itif'ni. causcit lov initptiect meshing of involute gear teeth.
This imperfect mneshin,-, i-' vau.vti by ilinh( urait.s in both tooth spacing and profile,
by deflections of the It ,.th ca.'u.. ,v hloads, :and by movement of the pitch circles of
the gears (lue to sh:ift, It.:,imn.-, anjd a-iing deflection.

Tooth impact 'au-e',tMesh ft..'tutV1.v vibration to be introduced into the system.

This vibration is tran.m.,itted niechnrical1v through the system to points where It is
dissipated through fla;,apiug or :av ousti. radiation.

The dt-tails of tocth impact excitattion are discussed and dependence on operating,
design, an(' qualit% tujtrol p.ardia',ttrs are identified.

A prediction niiethxiA is oleriAi to arccot'nt for as than%" of the pertinent excitation,

transmission, :and radiatran :iranic'ttrs ai-tre identifiei in the cited literature. These
Include, in part, power transmitted, tooth loading, pitch line velocity, tooth profile
errcrr, tooth profile roughro.s.4, tooth spacing error, tooth alignmeat error, pitch,
contact ratio ,,pproa:-.h ,,d recess angle, pressure angle, helix angle, tcoth face
width, backlash, phasing, housi.¢g responise, bearing type, Installation and lubrication.

The authors concludel that "the wide va;'iatlon in gear system construction makes
accurate prediction (if the g'.ar rnoise s.ct.run -in impossible task, at least with the
present level of knowh.ig, of gaa.tr L. isa generation and radiation." It appe.irs that the
est. ;available mwthods uor gua:r noise predliction constitute only a rough cut at the final
Spe•'ctrum. It is cv:aimedl that tht-levls of the dominant meshing frequencies can be
,prt..ietttd within ('IlI which is hil.,"4 IIuc.-t ion:.l; Ie le:.sed on tho know;n variatitty of
casing and related -tUrfaiveI r:adi:atlon properties.

113
C(omparison With Similar Papers

This report teviews the detailed gearing noise prediction methods of References
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and others and concludes that they are of limited usefulness.

Evaluation of Paper

This is an excellert summary of gearing noise prediction methods including those

that require eonsiderable detailed knowledge of the transmission design and those
•%hichare more practical anti more easily used. The prediction method proposed is
applicable to a uide range of gearing types, sizes and quality. Helicopter transmis-
sions occupy only a small portion of the range of variables covered.

114
 ~,o

liartman, R. and Badgley, R., "Model 301 lILHATC Transmlssion Noise Reduction
Program", USAAV.-ABS Technical Report (Contract DAAJO1-C-O0j-0), January 1573.

Purpose

This study was conducted to reduce Heavy Lift Helicopter transmission noise by
identifying problem areas analytically and making design changes to .reduce clash
i'rt-quency vibration and noise.

Summary

Dynamic testing %as perfornmed on a GH-47C helicopter transmission with inter-

nal Instrumentation to nmatsure stra1,9, aeecC!eratlons, and displacements of rotating
components, and external instrumentation to measure case acceleration and noise.
Test results were used to v, rify prediction methodology which, in turn, was used to
analyze the dynamic response of the HLH transmission components.

Comparison With Similar Papers

This is a follow-on to work reported by Laskin, et all, Badgley and Hartman 2 ,

and Badgley and Laskin 3 o

Evaluation of Paper

This xeport provides some of the most detailed analysis of transmission clash fre-
quency dynamics to-date. iHcowever, details of tLe computation methods used for sys-
term coupling (except for torsional) ard casing response are not Included,. R provides
good tracking of the flow of clash frequency energy from the source to ultimate points
of radiation.

115
L.skin, 1., O-cutt, F". K. :Land Shipley, E. E., "Analysis of Noise Generated by UH-1
iHLlicopter Transmission", USAAVLABS Techrdcal Report 68-41, June 1968.

lhe purposv was to dev.lop effective technology for the computation of helicopter
",,.:..box operating noise and to apply the derived technology to an analysis and evalua-
ti:.n of the [:1I-1 helicopter inain transmission.

In this report, tv(o basic programs which were developed for the prediction of
gearbox noise at clash frequene.es are described. The first program consists of a
torsional (liolzer) analysis of the system taking the compliance of mating gears into
acco unt. The second program determines the excitation introduced into the system
at the various meshing points based on the geometry of the system, including the
various types of error occuring in aircraft quality gears. Noise is determined em-
pirically, equating clash frequency torque oscillations with noise generated.

Comparison With Similar Papers

This study forms the basis for the analysis of gearbox noise carried out in sev-
eral follow-on programs including those reported by Badgley and Hartman 2 , Badgley
and Laskind, and Sternield, et a15 .

Evaluation of Pa'per

The work required to predict transmission noise ia prohibitive, considering the

poor results attained in forecasting absolute levels. However, the technique. If It
can be made to work, is helpful in td ntifying possible torsional resonances at up to
clash frequr.cics. The comnphete lack of consideration of lateralbending of compo-
nerts and dynanle component mounting lmpdances eliminates one very important
part of the overvll problem from any consideration.

116
P- ... J.ilfLi-tndrsun, ii. It. and HfiltoD,
I. A., "'Results of the Flight N'olse
Mt :.nur•tm,_lIt Program Using A St: ndarrd and Modificd SiI-3A lelieopter", NASA
I ch:•t-cal Note D-7;33j, Ik.•'vibt.r 1t73.

"1his Technical Note reports the noise characteristics of a standard Sii-3A hell-
copter and a version mudified for lowt-r noise generation.

Summary

This rcport presents hover external noise narrow band spectra E: -.- ir-g tall rotor
gi ,ox nfolbe, level ,f 55 dB at 750 liz and at a lateral distance, of -.. If-ot r d 270
Idegrees azimuth at Lu foont hover. Power to the gearbox is approximately "00 horse-
power at this condition.

Cami
-sonf ithS! m,!ate-Lra-- __

This work was performed as part of the same general effort as reported In Refer-
en.es I and 8.

Evaluation o)f Paper

This report contains far-field test rotor gearbox noise useful for estimating pur-
poses.

117
Scilgl, It. G. and Mard, K. (G., "Transmission Noise Control - Approaches tn
Ht livoptcr ASiNn",l'apt:r tJ7-i E-5s, May 1967.
ASME

Pu rpise

This effort kas condlucted to define a number of methods which may be em-
pluyued to rteduce the level ,of (.lash frequency noise generated by transmissions.

Su niim ry

This rcplyrt provides design criteria for severaw schemes proven to be useful In
retducing transmission noise emission In helicopter and other tranrmissions. Tables
(it icribe the degree of noise reduction available through the employment of each of
thestt nia.;ures.

C'niparison With Similar Papers

This reV)rt covers a broad spectrum of possible gear noise reduction measurau ,
some of which are treated in more detail in other reports.

Evaluation of Paper

General guidelines are presented for low noise gear design. The only apecific
tectinique detailed is that of ph.asing planetary system gear clash for cancellation In
the ring and sun gears.

118
 Ii , h..ai --r J. It. 'An" lnvi-stigation 4 fit.'l i pler Tranas-
---
,) I' by Vil,riatl*-ri AYh'jz'lers :andl Dmping", UAýAMPi)I. Tt'c.h-
!1eii'il,.n

'I tI purp' ,Mt' of thi s tu&.' A:s !4. fit triw.'zaa: tht. trlinsmission noi '-v reduc'tion po-
i:tv.:l d.)I y iI.jn( Lt'ar vilbr:titio a.ahoitrb.' and gcar damping by tes~ting in a helicopter

.',*t'I'.ILJ till1:; .1tt.iain'd %kert :is .i'gli :as -s 111 f'jr some of t~.t siiacrnes te,;tted.
if~ r tht'. -:ex''uctj DIIs %%v- I. .ca: in earl'. y all cases, resulting in little or no
ch.amegs' in flt-e t'tal now:e :andE vibration output )f the transmission sy-Aern. Further
.41idur!Ii't var't:llc' f-jr to idt-ntify the reasons for this result in termsb vf casing

.:e
awrit-ri With Sinidar Papt rs

"IIll.- iS M-1 ;Ar)piieatior .#f the' gcar n'ilst' analysis techniques of Refer-ences 1 and 3
t-) rtiluc'tion of cl-isMItI eliJ''ncy andl not ýe.

Tito-' ri-poil iI shoA, INAt somt! naoise i'aluc'tlans are attainable %daunergy absorbing
~yi'a. .lloweva'r, tlit relatively small reductions achived Indicateta h oa
flynamic systi-m biehavior must be better understood If significant reductions in net
nuis.' rnalditio~n are' to) be ac'hieved via the technIques evaluated.

1 191120
 :jUbjective Reaction Capsule Stu-ries

AtdcOck, B. D. and Ollerhead, J. B., "Effective Perceived Noise Level Evaluated for
ST. 4. and Oth,..r Aircraft Sounds", FAA-.NO-70-5, May 1970.

Pui •S

Tht- author's intention was to determine the ability of the Effective Perceived
Noiise Level (EPNL) and other scales to predict the reponses of subjects to the sounds
uf a variety if aircraft, including those powered by turbofan, turbojet, piston and tur-
boprop propulsion systems.

Summary

Testing indicated that the differences between the various ratiig scales are typi-
cally( of the same order as the experimental error incurred in performing the tests.
It Is sIuggcsted that future ,fiort be directed to explaining the deficiencies of the vari-
uus rating systems which cause them to yield substantial differences between the
ratud aid judged noisiness of the various classes of Arcraft.

Comparison With Similar Palpers

The conclusions generally agree with others (e.g., References 1, 2, 5, 6 and 11)
that dBA is a rea.wonable compromise unit for quantifying helicopter noise annoyance.

Evaluation of Paper

The most significant result from this study is that all of the rating schemes
tested attained similar standard deviations about their regression lines, indicating
similar accuracy for forecasting the subjective annoyance-of the S'TOL and CTOL
sounds tested. The rating scales evaluated were: PNL, PNLT, LL(S), LL(Z),
SPL(A),-SPL(Bi), SPL(C), SPL(V)), and CASPL. Ihence, for turbofan, turbojet, and
ptopelter driven SFOL aircraft, any of the above ratings is equaUly goad .(or-bad) at
predicting subjective reaction from the community.
 .v.~:.::.U~,1Ij~I't trit~.rr~cie14a Ntise Inicluding Implications of ldentiffyIna
*±2At AV'u ~lfu~u.ai lct M sure', Erivirounmintal Prutection

I Le~ J)urhE)51 of this n(As,ie study was to determine the merits and shortcomings .af
.:.t~.'k thueiacti-tri/i. ti.v Impact of noise of present or proposed alrport.'aircraft
*Iiqtr:it41sn:. on the public IVealth itnd welfare, determine which ineth-id is most buitable
1tdvrA1 (uivernment, and detcrmine the implications oIf issuing
.. ar:e!'';~I)%'.? thfe. LX
. n ' -ifriUlairi-.im a standlard method for characterizing the noise from
I~th~hn
.itircr:la~ iirport 11).qwi'ti'ur.S MAn~ Of specifying maximum permissible levels fur the pro-
Itei.-4 0". pbic61t Lvalth :aii1 -'lefare.

This report propoxses the use of LdIn for the objective evaWh;t.UA of enztnpmntsl -

tjolst.. it rectillfleflls a, level of L( fl 60 as realistic and acceptable for control of

hea~ring luss, spetech communication, annoyance and general health. It recomitends
thellowable level bjy from 2 to 5 dli for environments where pure tones
(J~ai~
Vic
art- kiv'c.tn to he. pri-strt. The constituents Of Li~n are -given, including a single event
1jurameter called Soaa)Lnd lExposurc Level which is ap~plicable to a single aircraft pas-

This dlorument forms a strong, wedl supported case for the use of the recoin-
mi-nded comnrunity noise criteria. It forms the basis for the studies reported by
1linterkejs.er and Sternfed' 0 and Munch and King"1 whicb wcre aimed specifically
-4t the- helicopter application.

Evaluation o~f aqr

Ii "-rt forun4 mav exciflnt catie for theo adoption of JLdn 60 as the ultimate
ei':
;f,pal hor the nois'e environment. hlowfiver, it does riot take fully Into account the
rvalitics of the current noise environment Where this limit Is commonly exceeded and
whvrs- Its Impti~tion would he Ymeaninglems and would Impose severe Ilimitations 4n
many scgments of the ljusinef-H community. It acknowledges that, the proposed goal
A1al.11ld 1w :'I1)Jle'ct to a. rhe'l'Ae for Imjlementation but does not detail such aLschiedule

122
 ICox, C. R., ."Ieilcopter Noise Reduction
and its Effects onOperationse , Paper
352, Proce~ihngs - 25th American No
Helic_.ter Societ Forum. Ma- 1c969
Purpose
" To present the factors that influence the reduction of helicopter noise and discet
their effect on helicopter design and
operation.

Summary
This paper compares helicopter noise
with other types of environmental
indicates that certain flight conditions noise,
are associated with above-normal
noise generation by certain types levels of
of rotors, and presents trends of the
rotor noise with several operating variation of
and design parameters.

Comparison With Similar Papers

Noise parametric trends presented agree

the literature. generally with those of the remainder
Flight conditions generating higher than average noise
levels are
covered in more detail in Reference
15.

Evaluation of Paper
This paper uses only Perceived Noise
Level as an Indicator of h~elicopter
annoy-
ance and deals only with the 3 0 0 0-pound,
two-bladed, single-rotor helicopter.

123
 £dge, P. M., Chambers, R. M. and Hubbard, H. H., "Evaluation of Measures of
Aircrat. Noise", Proceedings of NASA Aircraft Safety and Operating Problems Con-
ference, NASA SP-270, Volume 1, 1971.

Purpose

This report discusses the status of development of measurement units to properly

represent human responses to aircraft noise.

Summary

This paper identifies various ways in which aircraft noise affects people inculing
annoyance, speech interference, etc. It summarizes subjective testing procedures,-
types of rating units, peak versus effective measures of noise impact, and referenoes
the relevant studies performed up to the date of ihe report.

Commparisnn With Similar Papers

None.

Evaluation of Paper

This is a suLnmary of the state of the art in messurmest of htumm respmas to

noise in 1971. Quantitative data is not presented.

1
/
¶

biI

'I

124
Fidt 11, S. arnd Pearsons, K. S., "Study of the Audibility of inpulsive Sounds", NASA
CR-159.i, Ma'v 1970.

This study was conducted to perform experiments to investigate the. effect of

phase, duration, intersignal interval, repetition, and frequency on the perceived
noisiness of impulsive signals.

Summary

Six experiments were performed in an anechoic chamber to investigate the effects

of ph.ysical parameters on impu!sive noise subjective noisiness. Five transient wave-
forms (not repetitive) were used for testing. It was found that: the phase spectrum of
an impulsive signal is irrelevant in establishing its perceived noisiness, the ear's
sensitivity to noisiness of impulsive signals resembles an energy summation process
for which no specific time constant was found, and tlte common coirection contours
(such as dBA, dBN, and PNL) may undercorrect in the low frequency regions.

Evaluation of Paper

The work presented is not necessarily applicable to repetitive impulsive noise

such as that from a helicopter. The psychoacoustic consequences of these results,
which were performed for single transient impulse noises, are not substantiated for
repetitive impulses.

125
 labAe., D. R., "Fliht 2perations to Minnirize Noise", Vertififte (Ameriean Hell-
conoer S•ociety), February 1971.

pu rpso

To determine thu flight conditions which c~ause high noise levels in a metimm
transport helicopter.

Sum~mary

A Beli 205 class helicopter was flown through an extesiw feW pagm Wl
tify the flight re,-tmes whic& generated blade slap noise. These regtze are presented
in the form of an area to be avoided on a plot of airspeed versus rate of climb or rate
of descent. There were four categories of blade slap Identified: IntermitteM slogh
c-ntinuous slap, I',ud slap, and maximum slap. It was found that the areas gomeratimg
the higher blade slap levels can be avoided by making pilots aware of thm awMl alter-
ing their flight tachniqLes uppropriately. Reductions of Perceived Noise Level oa the
order of 10 PNdB were attained by using the modified fligM profile.

Comparison With Similar Papers

This paper aupplements the work on trajectory effects in wUch may be 0MA io
Reterencea 9. 10, 11, 13 and 14.

Evaluation of Paper

This paper provides a clear indication of the impo•rtc ot blads "I p dad.
nating helicopter noir. levels when it occurs. Biwc PlL was used to evalhsatg doe
i elative annoyance of the helicopter with and without blade siap the salami )jsevs
difference to observers is probably much greater than the mseaared frhremos I&-
dicates.

126
i1eck-or, N1. It. L. anti Kryter, K. 1)., "Comparisons Betw.veen Subjective Ratings of
Aircraft Noise and Various Subjective Measures", FAA NO-6h-33, April 1968.

Purpose

This study was undertaken to evaluate various estiblished and proposed objective
methods of measuring aircrai .noise relative to their ability to predict subjective
ratings vf the ace!ptability of noise produced by present-day commercial aricraft.

Summary

Paired comparison tests were performed using tape recorded flyovers of several
types of aircraft during take-off and landing operations. Objective measures were
computed for the level of each sound and for a comparison (reference) sound for each
aircraft operation. The relative accuracy with which the objective measures pre-
dicted the subjective ratings was expressed in terms of the variance in the computed
values of each objective measure. The smallest variance was associated with a
measure that takes into account the spectral properties of a given flyover for its en-
tire duration and also the presence of pure tones or other narrow-band energy con-
centrations.

Comparison With Similar Papers

The data suggests that A-weighted SPL is a practical compromise to rate air-
craft noise annoyance. The results presented herein are consistent with those of
Pearsons 1 , Sternfeld, ct a15 , Ollerhead 6 , Adcock 7 , and Munch and King 1 1 .

Evaluation of Paper

The paper .indicates that, for maximum or peak values, a weighted Sound Pres-
sure Level (SPL) is as good or better than the Perceived Noise Level (PNL), which
requires a calculation rather than simply a direct readout. A tone correction seems
to improve correlation as does a duration correction (an integrated duration correc-
tion is preferable). It appears that the use of a tone correction w1th diminished
weighting below 500 Hz and an integrated duration correction applied to any one of
several basic human hearing response weighting functions results in a relatively
accurate objective noise rating scale. Attempts to "fine tune" a rating scale from
this list of requirements seem to constantly run into the law of diminishing returns
in terms of reduced standard deviation between objective and subjective measure-
ments of noise. Impulsive noise is not treated at all here nor is any low frequency
helicopter type'rotational noise.

127
l1int,,rkeu.ier, E. G. and S'trnlf.lI, If., "Subjective Response to Synthesized Flight
Ntnise oif Several Trpes oif V 1'l 01. Alrcraft", NASA CR-1118, August 1168.

To evaluate subjtctliv response, to the' tur-field noise characteristics of several

types of V "ST(L aircraft sized to carry G;Opassengers over a 500 mile range.

Surnmary

The acoustical slgxitures of several V/STOL aircraft were analytically predicted,

and tapt- recordings synthesizing these sounds prepared. Test subjects rated these
sounds on a PNL basis against !et sounds. The various V/STOL configurations are
rated against one another for terminal ann cruise operation with the results varying
for each yp(- of operation.

Comparison With Similar Pape~rs

This paper does not provide as much information on the validity of the various
rating scheme.; as do other references. It rates types of V/STOL aircraft for rela-
tive noise generation.

Evaluat•on of Paper

All comparisons were made on the basis of PNL and rated aginst jet noise.
Evaluations were made In an untreated room where the reproduction of low frequency
rotor noise, particularly blade slap, may not be good,

128
ilinterkeuser, E. G. and Sternfeld, H., "Civil Helicopter Noise Assessment Study -

Boeing Vertol Model1347", NASA CR-132520, May 1974.

Purpose

To forecast the certification and community noise acceptance criteria for heli-
copters in the 1975-1985 time period. To determine the noise reductions required on
the Boeing-Vertol 347 helicopter to meet these criteria and the means of achieving
them.

Surnmary

The certification limit recommended is 95 Effective Perceived Noise Level deci-

bels (EPNdB) at points located 500 feet to each side of the touchdown/takeoff point and
1000 feet from this point directly under the approach and departure flight path. Com-
munity acceptance would be measured as Equivalent Noise Level (Leq), based on dBA,
with separate limits for day and night operations. Modlidcations required to the model
347 helicopter to meet these requirements Include: new blade tips, rotor blade geom-
etry modifications, increased fuselage length, and engine silencing.

Comparison With Similar Papers

This is a parallel study to that reported by Munch and Kingal with basic differ-
ence only in the recommendation for use of EPNL over dBA in rating basic helicopter
noise.

Evaluation of Paper

Tii-ds was a comprehensive study which considered many current systems of rating
aircraft and community noise annoyance. It concludes that the A-weighted sound
pressure level provides the best means to denote acceptable community noise by al-
lowing the helicopter to generate a time average noise level equal to the noise level
in the community without the helicopter in cases where the community ambient nole
is greater than the allowed Leq levels of 60 and 50 for day and night, respectively.

129
SL.,,.rt., .). .,"Wlvi,-• ,'" r Nu)is- - Ar. Existing Methods Adequate for Rating
A..r,.tnct, or l.,)udnls.. *'", .Journ.a of Thli American lielicopter Society, April 1974.

To) est'.llish the validltv of using Perceived Noise Level (PNL) or A-weighted
soundl pr.s.u.•ure Ic.vel uBAI for rating the efft-cts of helicopter noise on listeners.

Surnm:arv

Tlhi.s Aurk dlemonstrates that thu existe.'nce of blad., slap or tall rotor whine In a
h,.livC,,jter noise :,p'(trum mnake:s I he rating nicl.ures fair from accurate. The paper
rekujnnimnds that a nv% :tpprav'h to thte rating (f heli.opter noise be developed.

C'omp:irlson With Similnr lPaprs

It is possible that a biad.i slap noise rating factor could be called for in this paper.

Evaluation of Paper

This palpcr makes a g(xod cast- for the Inaccuracy of conventional noise rating
.Schtem4s in dvaling with spectra containing impulsive noise.

130
Munch, C. L. ""Prediction of V/STOL Noise for Application to Community Noise
f•)sure", kDtpartmunt of Transportation Report No. DOT-TSC-OST'-73-19, May

The objective of this program was to develop a computer program for the predic-
tion of Effective Perceived Noise Level (EPNL), tone corrected Perceived Noise
Level (PNLT), and the A-weighted sound pressure level (dBA) of a V/STOL vehicle
as it flies along a prescribed takeoff, cruise, and landing flight path.

Summary

The objectives described above are achieved. Procedures used to predict noise
radiation by helicopter rotors, propellers, turboshaft engines, lift and cruise fans,
and jets are described in detail. A program and users' guide are furnished. Impul-
sive type rotor noise from helicopters is not treated, nor is noise from deflected jets,
augmentor wings, blown flaps, and other high-lift devices for which definitive predic-
tion methods were not yet available.

Compariaon With Similar Papers

This is a good program to evaluate operational and design change impact on noise
levels of a variety of aircraft.

Evaluation of Paper

This report shows excellent correlation for turboshaft powered helicopter and
turboprop STOL cases which were the only ones checked. it is considered a very
useful program for providing aircraft noise input to V/STOL port planning studies.

h~t
.,Iu:;,'h, C. L.. and Kilg, .. un.mn ity Acccptafle of helicopter Noise: Criteria
.an,! \[,pl ca'io". NASA (CR-132430, lT7.1.

I,od'liic criteria for n init of, ivil ht-lic upt rsito make tIheir iperations accept-
dW. to tO cm,1 muL1itity- ignbo r•rg t'r'ininals :an flight paths an:d to evaluate a current'
.i-mTrAtio!l Vivil transport h.licopt,.r against this crittrion to dutermine the operating
u.nitlitions, teriminal arva rtcquirntments, and a:'oustical modifications necessary for
co n iIl rimcu .

1:k ry
Su n__I

" h•
.ritj.rion found to lic uiiiipatjihl - ith '-intimuiuties was the Day-Night Noise
I.Lvel ILDtN at a constant hv'. i 116;0 dBA for ,nmbients up to :-, dBA and an "impact
to ambient" ,f 2 dBA for ambients above this level. This criterion was found to be i•n
accordance %%ithmultinational aircraft noise regulated levels, with state regulations,
and %ith 'onmioanity noise ordintances In existence at the time. It was determined that
the unmodiurlhd helicopter met the ( riterion in cruise flight at typical alttudes, but
modifications to the main ant tail rotors and the engines were necessary f3r terminal
area operations to attain reali!-tic land area requirements.

Comparison With Similar Papers

This is the best case made' for use of d1lA and LDN in evaluating aircraft noise
and community impact. The study is p)arailhl to that of Reference 10.

Evaluation of Paper

*rhis was a comprehenlsve study which considered most current systems of rating
aircraft and community no)ise annoyance. It coecludes-ttiat the A-weightm. sound
pressure level provides the best comi.,riation of accurary and practicality for use In
rating community reaction to helicopter noise. It uses this number as the basis for a
comnprehin.9ivv rating zicht-mt ',mji-h cortibnes the ,,ffecta of sound level, soun,- dura-
tion, ambicrt rxnlse I.evel, time of day, numix.r of flights, and the human hearing
response. A unique criterion is also developed to identify the presence of rotor blade
slap in a helicopter noise signature and to quantify the effect.

132
,.I!,rhead, J. B., "Acoustic Considerati'ns in the Dc.sign of a Quiet Helicopter",
\k - L; Lalxoratories Technical Report MR70-3.

The purpo.e of this study was tu relate certain helicopter design and operation
parameters to the production of noise and its resultant aural detection.

Sumniary

This paper reviews acoustic factors to be considered in the design of quiet heli-
copters and the basics of aural detection, discusses Lowson type methodology for
rotor noise prediction, and presents some trends for design and operation parameters
to yield up to 20 to 1 reductions in aural detection distance relative to conventional
helicopters designed with no regard to the aural detection problem.

Comparison With Similar Papers

Although quantitative comparisons of annoyance versus aural detectability are

difficult to make, this'paper could supplement References 9, 10, and 13 in outlining
design practice for low noise generation in helicopters.

Evluation of Paper

No unique Information Is presented, but a good review of noise prediction and

aural detection prediction techniques is provided In this report.

121'
oliorItY.Lt. J. B., "Scaling Aircraft Noise Perceptfon", Journal of Sound and Vibra-
ti.n, \',u:'.•c 26;, No. 3, 19(J7J.

'u rpo se

T. p'rformn extensive e'xpvrimentation to deter.nine the practical differences be-

t-.%k.,,n .•;t,'rous alternativte methods for calculating the perceived levels of individual
Jai rcralt ;l)ov(Jr sounds.

Sunm.mar

Or•w- hundrtv.l and twenty recorded sounds, including jets, turboprops, piston air-
(ralt, and hvlicopters &ere rate-d by a pantl of subjects In a p-ired comparison test.
The rtsults wer,: analyi.cd to evaluate a number of noise rating procedures in terms
of thcir ability to accurately e(stimate both relative and absolute perceived noisiness
over a ,id.r dynamic range (84-115 dB SPL) than had generally been used in previous
experiments. The performances of the different scales were examined in detail for
different aircraft categories, and the merits of different band level summation proce-
dures, frequency weighting (unction, and duration corrections were investigated.

•__)mparison With Similar Papers

This is a short form of the author's report. Reference 4. This is an extensive

study using lA.-tter noise reproduction than most others.

Evaluation of Paper

Several conclusions from this study are: perception of low frequency harmonic
sound (from helicopters particularly) needs further study as poor correlation was
attained; the influence of doppler shift on perceived noisiness Is not conclusively
know, as it seems important in laboratory simulations-but not In auctual-aircraft fly-
overs; tone corrections are not particularly beneficial below 500 Hz and ahould be
ignored it. this range, three dLB per doubling of the number o,1 exposures Is accurate.
The data :shnws slight superiority of PNL and EPNL over dBA and EdBA (effective
A-we-ighted sound pressure level). Standard deviations.between subjective and
ohJecti%,v data were 4.6 and 3. 5 for PNL and EPNL, respectively, and 4.9 and 4.2
for dBA and EdIIA, respectively for helicopter noise.

lv'
 .... . . .....
. . . .. . .. -

O',Li-rhead, J. B. and Lowson, M. V., "Problems of Helicopter Noise Estimation and

Heduction"i ALUA P:ipcr No. 69-195, February 1969.

To present a solution for the prediction of helicopter rotor rotational noise and
cicisgn charts ior reiuction of this type of noise.

Summaray

This paper presents a closed form solution for the prediction of helicopter rotor
rotatiokal noise and design charts identifying parametric changes for its reduction.
)oise reduction requirements are derived on the basis of aural detection of the heli-
copter.

Comparison With Similar Papers

This paper discusses noise reduction as keyed to aural detection, as was done by
Ollerhead t 2 . Aural detect!on is generally controlled by rotor rotational noise in heli-
copters. This type of noise is also significant in annoyance in some cases.

Evaluation of Paper

This paper does not deal with the subjective evaluation of hellcopcar noise as a
whole. However, it is useful In defining criteria for and the means to reduce rota-
tional noise at extremely large distances, where it Is first detected aurally.
 P,"".oas, K., ".ouiirt'.s Judgiv:';,t.s of iulhcuprA.-r Flyovers", FAA DS- 6 7 -1,"

"Nu dtiturmint th.e :q)Jlicability of' several objective rating measures In predicting
t.c .h;bj#,ti%(v' respistse to helicopter flyover noise.

Su'wmnarv

Tests %ere conducted in which 21 college students Judged the noisiness of eight
recorderd hcelt.,pt,.r flyover noises versus a jet transport flyover noise and a shaped
n.k~*. T'%sts were c'i)Tf'i cted Ini an ani'cholc chamber using primar'iy the
oIa.:,l
of
methotd ,f pa:ired comparisons. I hft- rx.sults in licat, that the calculated Perceived
Noise Level (P.NL) is the be-st predictor oi noisiness, followed closely by the N-wlght-
ed sound pressure level jdi.N) anfl the A-weighted sound pressure level (dBA). Dura-
tion anti purj.-tonc corrections applied to the ca:culated PhL did not Improve the pre-
diction accuracy of this measure.

Compari.son With Similar Papers

"Tfhus wi•rk was aime.d solely at helicopter noise. The conclusions are similar to
th :-' (if kfr.rei-ces 2, 5, -;, 7 awl i 1.

Evaluatlon of Paper

Tlu.- report indicates that dBA is approximately the same accuracy as PNL in
judging the subjective annoyance of helicopter noise.

'.I %
pears ins, K. S. and Bennett, R. L., "Htandbook of Noise Ratings", NASA CR-2376,
A 1974.

Purposc

To provide compilation, in a concise form, of information describing the multi-

tude of noise rating schemes which are in use today.

Summary

This book contains descriptions, title, unit, definition, applicable standards, pur-
pose, background, calculation method, and example of usage for rearly all current
noise rating schemes. Categories of rating schemes covered are: direct ratings of
sound level (Sound Level Meter type weighting functions which are not amplitude vary-
ing), computed loudness and annoyance ratings (including those variants dealing with
tone, duration, and number of repetition corrections), commurication interference
ratings, and community response ratings.

Comparison With Similar Darers

This report provides a su imary of all of the noise rating schemes discussed and
evaluated in the papers su:n'•ai~zed in this section.

Evaluation of Paper

This is an excellent "single source" of material on all of the significant methods

of rating noise effects on mau.

137
Stepnit wski, W. Z. and Schmitz, F. Ii., "Possibilities and Problems of Achieving
Community Noise Acceptance of VTOL,, International Council of the Aeronautical
S,'ienccs, ICAS Paper 72-34, September 1972.

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to investigate the reduction of the acoustical annoy-
ance of VTOL aircraft by reduction at the source through aircraft design and by flight
path management.

Summary

This paper presents first a review of noise standards. Typical transport aviation
noise standards are shown which project 85 EP"dB by 1985. As current state-of-the-
art rotary wing VTOL transports indicate an annoyance level of approximately 95
EPNEdB, this goal requires a 10 dB reduction in noise level. However, recent studies
have shown that a relative elevation of the noise level above that of the background
represents a very important criterion of the acoustic tolerance. The results of the
study indicate that up to 10 EPNdB above daytime background noise level will result
in essentially no reaction from the community, whereas a 20 EPNdB increase will
cause widespread complaints. It is also pointed out that PNL or EPNL may not be
suitable for true indications of subjective reaction to the noise from different types of
aircraft.

In the second part of the paper, the reduction of noise at the source is discussed.
Although an attractive overall criterion for assessing the penalties of noise reduction
is the direct operating cost, it is difficult to calculate and does not permit a direct
step-by-step evaluation. Thus, the authors present their results as weight and/or
performance penalty vs. noise reductibn attainable. They present the major noise
sources, which are in order of decreasing importance: blade slap, tail rotor rota-
tional noise, main rotor noise, turbine engine noise, and transmission noise. The
phenomenon and alleviation of each-source are discussed in turn, including a discus-
sion of the associated weight and performance penalties for noise reduction, Rotary
wing, tilt rotor, and lift fan concepts are discussed.
It is concluded that for two typical suburban communities, a reduction in noise
level at the source of about 10 PNdB is required for current state-of-the-art rotary
wing aircraft, and more than 20 PNdB for lift fan concepts. However, reducing the
rotor tip speed (the most powerful noise reduction effect) for a 10 PNdB noise reduc-
tion will result in large weight and performance penalties. Flight trajectory manage-
ment has potential for reducing "footprint" area, but there are too many variables
(specified level of annoyance, whether buffer strips are used, ambient noise level,
etc.) for general assessment of the benefits of this approach.

,139
('otnt;:rison With Sin'ilar ,I•aprs

This paper presents a general overview of the major noise sources in Hellcopters
and other VTOL aircraft and their alleviation. Other general noise source mechanisms
2 3
areC discusst)d by )llv1rhead1 , Cux1 , and others, and this paper presents no new in-
formation in this area. TLiC data from the Model 347 has been discussed elsewhere by
Hinterkeuser and Sturnfeldl 0 as has the use of trajectory changes by the same
authors 1 4 .

Evaluation of P.apeUr

This paper presents a good comprehensive review of the major noise sources in
VTOL aircraft and means for -alleviating the noise at the source and through take-off
and landing flight path olptirization. Although essentially no new Information Is pre-
sented, it does give the reader a good overview of the VTOL aircraft noise picture.

The major elements in assessing the community acceptance of VTOL aircraft

operation are well presented. However, this paper would be strengthened if it ad-
d(resaed the basic problem of assessing subjective reaction to very different noise
signatures (i.e., from. rotary wings to tilt rotors to lift fans) using PNdB units,
which have been shown to be inadequate for helicopters in general, particularly
1
in the case where blade slap occurs ' 2,8,11

140
Stlvrafeld, H., .linterleuser, E. G., Hlackman, R. B. and Davis, J., "Acceptability
af VTOL Aircraft Noise Determined by Absolute Subjective Testing", NASA CR-2043,
June 1972.

Purp~ose

To d(etermine the relative subjective acceptability of two VTOL aircraft sounds

using absolute subjective testing methodology and to investigate the effects of the
application of noise criteria to VTOL aircraft.

Summary

A program was conducted in which test subjects evaluated the simulated sounds of
a helicopter, a tilt wlng and a turbojet aircraft (used as a reference). Over 20,000
evaluations were made while the test subjects were engaged in work and leisure activ-
ities. The effects of level, exposure time, distance and ndrcraft design on subjective
acceptability were evaluated. It was found that the helicopter and tilt wing sounds had
to be 4 to 5 PNdB lower than the reference sound to be judged equal In annoyance for
sounds 15 seconds in duration. It. was also found that the effects of noise duration
decrease when durations exceeded 120 seconds and that good correlation was obtained
between subjective ratings and acoustical measurements of helicopter and tilt wing
VTOL sounds. Peak PN L, dBA, and dBC produced similar correlation.

Comparison With Similar Papers

The results presented in this paper correlate with those of References 1, 2, 6,

7 and 11.

Evaluation of Paper

This report*indicates that PNL, dBA, and dBC produce similar results in pre-
dicting annoyance of VTOL noise and that they all underpredict the annoyance relative
to subjective evaluation.

141
 L.I'S, 1t. J. , "Jury' W..tings of ('umpk'x Aircraft Noise Spectra Vers.us Ca.lculated
Ratings", ACOUSUtica Society of America, Soth Meeting, Novenmer 1970.

Purpost*

This paper present&,d the r..suit. of a study which had the objective of determining
the accuracy of several noise rating systems in prý,.lictlng the annoyance of several
fixed wing aircraft noie spectra.

Sunimarv

Engine noise spectra (15 in all, vere relcruduced inside at, anechoic listening
facility and judged by a sound jui'.ý ,: :mn-yac. The method of adjustment proce-
dure was used by the subjects tj st.( lidt tvst sonild iulaiivc to a :onstant jet noise type
reference sounld. The objective noise rating .aeasureb tested 'Mere: PNLT, ANL
(Annoyance level), PNI,, dBA, dBB, dBC, and dBI). It is concluded that the ANL
seems to rate actual engine noise spectra better than any of the other measures con-
sidered in the study. ft is als,; concluded that the close agreement between results
obtained with the two parallel methods of analysis (i.e., electrical signal analysis
versus analysis of the acoustic signal in the test chamber) indicates that, with suffi-
cient care, precise electrical atalysis can be made and may actually be better where
questions of tUnc correction "t:. involved,

Comparison With Similar Papers

The ANL parameter has not attained general usage as have the PNL and spectrum
weighting functions evaluated in References 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 16 and 17.

Evaluation of Paper

Duration was not one ol "he factt a considered in this studý. Orly the spectrum
weighting functions and pure 'ones were used af: variables. Only .o of the. sevefi
rating scales yielded standard deviations :ut of llr.e with the rest. these were dBC
and 41BB. Of the remainder, ANL produced the lowest standard deviation (1.17). It
appears that the addd complexity of computing the values of P1LT, ANL, and PHL
are not worth the extra trouble considering the similar correlation aqtained with the
simple weighted functions dBA and dBD. It also appears that dBA would be preferable
from the point of view of availability on sound level meters and analysis equipmer.t.

142
 RE FE RENCES

Rotor Noise

1. Gutin, I.., On the Sound Field of a lIotatmng Propeller. TM 1195, National dvisaory
Committee for Aeronautics, Washington D.C., 1948.

2. Hubbard, H. H. and Regier, A.A., Free-Space Oscillating Pressures Near the

Tips of Rotating Propellers, Report 996, National Advisory Committer 'or
Aeronautics, Washington D.C., 1950.

3. Garrick, I. E. and Watkins, C. E., A Theoretical Study of the Effect of Forward

Speed on the Free-Space Sound Pressure Field Arouad Propeller, Report 1198,
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington D.C., 1954.

4. Watkins, C. E. and Durling, B.J., A Method for Calculation of Free-Space Sound

Pressures M-tar a Propeller in Flight Including Consideration of a Chordwkse
Blade Loading TM 3809, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,
Washington D.C., 1956.

5. Lowson, M. V., "The Sound Fleid for Singularities in Motion," Proceedings

of the Royal Society, A. Vol. 2h;, 1965, pp. 559-572.

6. Schlegel, R., King, R., and Mull, H., Helicopter Noise Generation and Pro-
pagation, USAAVLABS Technical Report 66-4, October 1966.

7. Lowson, M. V., and Ollerhead, J. B., Studies of Helicopter Rotor Noise,

USAAVLABS Technical Report 68-60, January 1969.

8. Schlegel, R. G. . and Bausch, W. E., Helicopter Rotor Rotational Noise Pre-

diction and Correlation USAAVLABS Technical Report 70-1, November 1970.

9. Wright, S. E., "Sound Radiation From a Lifting Rotor Generated by Asymmetric

Disk Loading," Journal of Sound and Vibration, Volume 9, Number 2, 1969,
pp. 223-240.

10. Loewy, R. G., and Sutton, L. R., "A Theory for Predicting the Rotational Noise
of Lifting Rotors In Forward Flight, Including a Comparison With Experiment,"
Journal of Sound and Vibration, Volume 4, Number 3, 1966, pp. 305-344.

11. Sternfeld, H., Bobo, C., Carnklch.ei, D., Fukushima, T., and Spencei, R.,
An Investigation of Noise Generation on a Hyovering Rotor, Part 11, U.S. Army
Resear'ch Office - Durham, !Ieport D210-10550-1, November 1972.

143
i.. iHosier, 0. N. .and Ramakrishnan, It., and Pek'g, R.J., "The Prediction of Rotor
Rotational Noise Using Measured Fluctuating Blade Loads," Presented at the 30th
Annual National Forum, American Helicopter Society, Preprint No. 80L, May
1974..

13. Leverton, .1.W., "The Noise Characteristics of a Large 'Clean' Rotor,"

Journal of Sound and Vibration, Volume 27, Number 3, April 1973, pp. 357-376.

14. Lowson, M. V., Whatmore, A. It., and Whitfield, C. E., Source Mechanlama for
Rotor Noise Radiation NASA Contractor Report 2077, August 1973.

15. Bausch, W. E., Sikorsky Methodology Review and Recommendation Ragarding

Prediction of Helicooter Rotor Noise, Report prepared under NASA Purchase
Order No. L-5723A, 1974.

16. Leverton, J., and Pollard, J., "A Comparison of the Overall and Broadlbad
Noise Characteristics of Full-Scale and Model Helicopter Rotors," Journal of
Sound and Vibration Volume 30, Number 2, 1973, pp. 135-152.

17. Ffowcs-Williams, J. E., and Hawkings, D.L., "Theory Melatng to Noise ai

Rotating Machinery," Journal of Sound and Vibration, Volume 10, Number 1,
July 1969, pp. 10-21.

18. WlClnalk, S. E., "A Correlation of Vortex Noise Data From Helicopter Main
Rotors," Journal of Aircraft, Volume 6, Number 3, May-June 1969, pp. 279-
281.

19. Munch, C. L., Prediction of V/STOL Noise for Application to Community

Noise Exposure, Department of Transportation Report DOT-TSC-OST-73-19,
May 1973.

20. Leverton, J.W., Helicopter Noise - Blade Slapi-Part 1: Review and Theoretical
SuyNASA CR-1221, October 1968.

21. LUvertonr, J.W., Hlelicopttcr Noise - Blade sla.1 Part 2: Experimental Results,
March 1972.
NASA CR-1983,

22. Widnall, S. , "Hlelicopter Noise Due to Blade-Vortex Interaction," Journal of

the Acoustical Society of America, Vc ume 50, Number 1, 1971, pp. 354-365.

23. Bausch, W. I-., Munch, C. L., and Schlegel, R. G., An Experimental Stiday of
iic0copter Rotor Impulsive Noise, USAAVLABS Technical Report 70-72, 1971.

24. Fliotas, L.T. , 'Vortex Induced Helicopter Blade Loads and Noise," Journal
of Sounj.,and Vibration, Volume 27, Number 3, 1973, pp. 387-398.

144
 Noise Assessment
25. ilinterkeuser, G., and Sternfeld, Ii., Jr., Civil Helicopter
D.C., 1974.
Studs, Boeing Vertol Model 347, CR-132420, NASA, Washington

Rotors
26. Arndt, R.E.A., and Borgman, D.C., "Noise Radiation From Helicopter
Operating at High Tip Mach Number," Presented at the 28th Annual Forum,
American Helicopter Society, June 1970, Preprint 403.

27. Lyon, R. H., Mark, W. D., and Pyle, R.W., Jr. , "Synthesis of Helicopter
Rotor Tips for Less Noise," Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,
Volume 53, Number 2, 1973, pp. 607-618.

28. Hubbard, H. H., Lansing, D. L., and Runyan, H. R. , "A Review of Rotating
Number
Blade Noise Technology", Journal of Sound and Vibration Volume 19,
3, 1971, pp 227-249.

of Sound
29. Morfey, C.L., "Rotating Blades and Aerodynamic Sound". Journal
and Vibration, Volume 28, Number 3, 1973, pp 587-617.
 Englne Noise

1. Lighthill, M.J., "On Sound Generated Aerodynamically: I, General Thecry,"'

Proceedings of the Royal Society, A, Vol. 211, 1952, pp. 564-587.

2. Lighthlll. M.J., "On Sound Generated Aerodynamically: 11, Turbulence as a

Source of Sound," Proceedings of the Royal Society, A., Vol. 222, 1954, p. 1.

3. Bushell, K.W., "A Survey of Low Velocity and Coaxial Jet Noise with Applicatloa
in Prediction," Journal of Sound and Vibration. Vol. 17, No. 2, 1971, pp. 271-282.

4. Ho, P. T. and Tedrick, R. N., "Combastion Noise Prediction Techniques for

Small Gas Turbiae Engines," Inter-Noise 72 Proceedins, 1972, pp. 507-512.

5. Grande, E., Brown, D., Sutherland, L., Tedrick, R.. Small Turbine Engine
Noise Reduction, Vol. U1, AFAPL-TlR-73-79, Air Force Aero Propulsion
Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, 1073.

6. Motainger, R., Prediction of Engine Combustor Noise &adCorrelation With

T64 Engine Low Frequency Noise. Report No. R72AEG313, 'eneral Electric
Company, 1972.

7. Nietzel, R. L., Lee, R. and Charay, A.J.. 9SY,'1. Trak n1 Firal Report.
Engine and Installation Preliminary Design CR-134738, NASA, Washington
D.C., 1973.

8. Gerend, R. P., Jumasaka, H. P., and Roumdhill, J. P.. "Core Engine Noise,"
Paper No. 73-1027, American Institute of Aeronautics asd Astronautics,
October 1973.

9. Grande, E., "Core Engine Noise," Paper No, 73-1026, American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, October 1973.

10. Dunn, D.G. and Peart. N.A., Aircraft Noise Source end Contour Estimation,
CR-114649, NASA, Was~hington D.C., L973.

11. Huff, R.G., Clark, B.J. and Dorsch, R.G., Interim Prediction Method for Low
Frequency Core Engine Noise TMX-71627, NASA, Washington D.C., 1974.

:2. Anon, Jet Noise Prcdiction, Aerospace Information Report 876, Society cl
Autornotive Engineers, 1965.

13. Kazin, &.B., 0't. a!., Core I.ridrz Noise Ccontrol PrcgrKm. (3 Volumes),
DOT-FA72W-3023, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington D.C., 1975.

146
14. Strahle, W.C. 0 "A Review of Combustion Generated Noise," Paper 73-1023,
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronauti:s, October 1973.

15. Pickett, G.F., "Turbine Noise Due to Turbulence and Temperature Fluctuations,"
Paper presented at the 8th International Congress on Acoustics, London, July 1974.

16. Mathews, D.C. and Peracchio, A.A., "Progress in Core Engine and Turbine
Noise Technology," Paper No. 74-948, American Institute of Aeror.autics and
Astronautics, August 1974.

17. Smith, M. J.T. and Bushell, K.W., "Turbine Noise - Its Si inificance in the Civil
Aircraft Noise Problem," Paper No. 69-WA/GT-12, Amer.can Society of
Mechanical Engineers, 1969.

18. Smith, M.J. T. and House, M. E., "Internally Generated Noise from Gas Turbine
Engines: Measurement and Prediction," Transactions of the American Society
of M•echanical Engineers: J. of Engineering for Power, April 1967, pp. 177-190.

19. Burdsall, E. A. and Urban, R. K., Fan-Compressor Noise: Prediction, Research

and Reduction, FAA -RD-71-73, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington
D.C., 1971.

20. Benzakian, M.J. et. al., Fan/Compressor Noise Research. (Four Volumes),
FAA-RD-71-85, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington D.C., 1972.

21. Gutin, L., On the Sound Field of a Rotating Propeller, TM-1195, National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington D. C., 1948.

22. Lowson, M. V., "The Sound Field for Singularities in Motion," Proceeding of
the. Royal Society, Vol. 286, 1965, pp. 559-572.

23. Lowson, M. V., Theoretical Analyses of Compressor Noise CR 1287, NASA,

Washington D.C., 1969.

24. Allen, C. Ii., Noise Reduction, (L. L. Beranek, Ed.) McGraw I1ill Book Company,
New York, 1960.

25. Bowes, M.A., Te'st axd Evaluation oi a Qcuiet fellcopter Configurat.on HTII.42fl,
Technical Report 71-31, U.S. Air Mobility Research and Development i.ar4oratory,
Fort Eustis, Va., 1972.

26. Tyler, J. M. and Sofrin, T. B., "Axial Flow Compressor Noise Studies," Pbper
345D, 1961 SAE Aeronautical Meeting.
- -•'g. --- • '.- .""-.. . --- ' • •-- .. . ... .•- -•... . .. m ,,. • ,..-,

_7. Shahady, P.A., Lyon, C.A., Tedrick, R.M., and H!idenbrand, R.W., "Reductioa
of Noise from Small Turbopropulsion Engines", AIAA Paper No. 74-.9, Preaeted
at the AIAA 12th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, January 1974.

2?. Kazin, S. B., and Emmorling, J.J., "Low Frequency Core Engine Noise", ASME
Paper No. 74-WA/AERO-2, November, 1974.

.v. Haydden, R. E., Nolae from Interaction of Flow With Rilgd Surfaces: A Review
of Current Status of Pred.tlon Techniques, NASA CR2126, October, 1972.

30. Caadel, S. M., Analytical Studies of Same Acoustic Poblemas of Jet Ezignss
Phd Thesis, Califorana institute of Tochnology, 1972.
31. Cumpsty, N. A. and Marble, F. E., The Generation ot Noise by the Fluctuations
in Gaa Tenperature in a Turbine, Cambridge University Department a Engimer-
ing Report CUED/A TURBO/TR57, 1974.

32. Priede, T., "Noise of Diesel EnWAg Injection Equipment", Journal of Bound ad
Vibration, Volume 6, Number 3. 1967, pp 443-459.

148
 Gearbox Noise

1. Laskin, I., Orcutt, F. K., Shipley, E.E., Analysis of Noise Generated by UH-1
Helicopter Transmission, USAAVLABS Technical Report 68-41, June 1968.

2. Badgley, R. H., Hartman, R. M., "Gearbox Noise Reduction: Prediction and

Measurement or Mesh-Frequency Vibrations Within an3Operating Helicopter
Rotor Drive Gearbox", ASME Paper No. 73-DET-31, September 1973.

3. Badgley, R. H., Laskin, I., Pr& a for Pelicopter Gearbox Noi3e Prediction
and Reduction, USAAVLABS Technical Report 7t#-12, March 1970.

4. Hartman, R., Badgley, R., Model 301 HLH/ATC Transmission Nuise Reduction
Program, USAAVLABS Technical Report (Cuntract DAAJO1-71..C-0840 (P40)),
January 1973.

5. Sternfeld, H., Schairer, J., and Spencer, R., An Investigation of Helicopter

Transmission Noise Reduction by Vibration Absorbers and Dsmping, USAAMRDL
Technical Report 72-34, August 1972.

6. Grande, E., Brown, D., Sutherland, L., Tedrick, R., Small Turbine Engine
Noise Reduction, Volume II. Noise Prediction Methods. Air Force Aero Pro-
pulsion Laboratory Tech. Report AFAPL-TR-73-79, Volume II, December
1973.

7. Bowes, M.A., Test and Evaluation of a Quiet Helicopter Configuration HH-43B,

U. S. AAMRDL Technical Report 71-31, January 1972.

8. Barlow, W.H., McClusky, W. C. , and Ferria, H.W.-, OH-6A Phase II Quiet

.Helicopter Program, USAAMRDL Technical Report 72-29, 1 ptember 1972.

9. Pegg, R.J., Henderson, H. R., and lilton, D.A. , Results of the Flight Noise
Measurement Program Using a Standard and Modified SH-3A HIelicopter NASA
Technical Note D-7330, December 1973.
 ilelic'-pter N Pjciredic~or

1. D)unn, D. G. and Peart, IN.A. , Aircraft Noise Source and Contour Ectimation.
CH-1146349, NASA, JulY 19713.

2. Munch, C. 1.. Prediction of v Is-roi.-Nt'iise for Applcation to Commatynt Noise

EýLoaure, 1X-pt. of Transportat~on freport No. D)OT-TSC-OST-73-19, May 1973.

3. Lowson, M!. V. and Ollerhead, J. B. , Studies of IHelleopter Rotor Noise,

LSAAVLABsS Trectmic:.i HReport 6;5-60, January 1969.

4. Sc-hlvgel, R. , King, R. and Mull, H. , Helicopter Noise Generation and Propa-

giUn SAAVLAIJS Technical Report 66-4, October 1966.

1.50
F
Helicopter Noise Reduction Techniques

1. Hirsh, N. B. and Ferris, H.W., "Design Requirements for a Quiet Helicoptcr",

American Helicopter Society Preprint 604, May 1972.

2. Barlow, W. H., McCluskey, W.C. and Ferris, H.W., OH-6A Phase II Quiet
Helicopter Program, USAAMRDL Technical Report 72-29, September 1972.

3. Bowes, M.A., Test and Evaluation of a Quiet Helicopter Configuration HH-43B,

USAAMRDL Technical Report 71-31, January 1972.

4. Schlegel, R. G. , Hush Final Report - Quiet Helicopter Program, Sikorsky Air-

craft Report No. SER-611478 (Contract DDA J02-69-%.-0020), January, 1970.

•..o

.......-
t-.- ~- a-.---

151
 Subjective lesponse to Helicopter Noise

I. Pearsons, k.S., Noisiness Judgements of Helicopter Flyovers, FAA DS-67-1,

5 January 1967.

"2. Hfecker, M. H. L., Kryter, K. D., Comparisons Between Subjective Ratings of

Aircraft Noise and Various Objective Measures, FAA No-68-33, April 1968.

3. ollerhead, J. B., The Noisiness of Diffuse Sound Fields at High Intensities,

FAA-NO-70-3, August 1969.

4. Ollerhead, J. B., An Evaluation of Methods for Sealing Aircraft Noise Perception,

NASA CR-1883, October 1971.

5. Stv'rneld, H., Hinterkeuser, E.G., Hackman, R. B., Davis, J., Acceptability

of VTOL Noise Determined by Absolute Subjective Testing, NASA CR-2043,
June 1972.

6. Ollerhead, J. B., "Scaling Aircraft Noise Perception," Journal of Sound and

Vibration, Vol. 26, No. 3, 1973.

7. Adcock, B. D., Ollerhead, J. B., Effective Perceived Noise Level Evaluated for
STOL and Other Aircraft Sounds, FAA-NO-70-5, May 1970.

8. Leverton, J. W., "Helicopter Noise-Are Existing Methods Adequate For Rating

Annoyance or Loudness," Journal of the American Helicopter Society, April 1974.

9. Munch, C. L., Prediction of V/STOL Noise For Application to Community Noise

Exposure, Dept. of Transportation Report No. DOT-TSC -OST-73-19, May 1973.

10. Hinterkeuser, E.G., Sternfeld, H., Civil Helicopter Noise Assessment Study-
Boeing Vertol Model 347, NASA CR-132420, May -1974.

11. Munch, C. L., King, R.J., Community Acceptance of Helicopter Noise: Criteria
And Application, NASA CR-132430, 1974.

12. Ollerhead, J. B., Acoustic Considerations in the Design of a Quiet Helicopter,

Wyle Laboratories Technical Report WR70-3.

13. Cox, C. R., "Helicopter Noise Reduction and its Effects on Operations", Paper
No. 352 in the Proceedings of the 25th American Helicopter Society Forum, May
1969.

152
i.
14. Schmitz, F. H. and Stepniewski, W. Z., "Reduction of VTOI: Operational Noise
Through Flight Trajectory Management," AIAA Journal of Aircraft, Volume 10,
Number 7, July 1963.

15. Halwes, D. R., "Flight Operations to Minimize Noise", Vertiflite (American

Helicopter Society), February 1971.

16. Hinterheuser, E.G., Sternfeld, H., Subjective Response to Synthesized Flight

Noise of Several Types of V/STOL Aircraft, NASA CR 1118, August 1968.

17. Fidell, S.', and Peasons, K.S., Study of the Audibility of Impulsive Sounds,
NASA CR 1598, May 1970.

153/154
 HELICOPTER NOISE BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adcock, B.D. and Olierhead, J. B., Effective Perceived Noise'Level Evaluated for STOL
and Other Aircraft. FAA-NO-70-5, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington,
D.C., 1970.

AGARD, Fluid Dynamics of Rotor and Fan Supported Aircraft of Subsonic Speeds.,
AGARD Conference Proceedings No. 22, September 1967.

d'Ambra, F., Dedleu, J. P. and Julienne, A., "Measurements of Helicopter Noise in

Flight (Measure de Briet d'Hclicopters en Vol)" TP No. 1136, Office Nationale D'Etudes
el de Researchers Aerospatiales, France, 1972.

Amiet, R. K., Acoustic Radiation from an Airfoil in a Turbulent Stream, Report

N111208-2, United Aircraft Research Laboratories, East Hartford, Conn., 1974

Amor, C.B., and Leverton, J.W., "An Investigation of Impulsive Rotor Noise Using
a Model Rotor", J. of Sound and Vibration Vol. 28, pp. 55-71, 1973.

Anon. " Effects of Noise on Commercial V/STOL Aircraft Design and Operation",
A68-44938, Boeing Co., Seattle, Washington, 1968.

Anon. "Frequency Weighting Network for Approximation of Perceived Noise Level for
Aircraft Noise", SAE ARP 1080.

Anon., "Helicopter and V/STOL Noise Generation and Suppression," Report of the
Results of a Joint U.S. Army, National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of
Engineering Conference, Washiagton, D.C., July 30-31, 1968.

Anon., Impact Characterization of Noise Including Implications of Identifying and

Achicving Levels of Cumulative Noise Exposure, Environmental Protection Agency Air-
craft/Airport Noise Study Report NTID 73.4, 1973.

Anon., Jet Exhaust Noise Prediction, (Proposed revision of AIR 876), Rolls-Royce
Limited, England. Second Draft, October 1973.

Anon. , Standard Values of Atmospheric Absorption as a Function of Temperature and

Humidit, for use in Evaluating Aircraft Flyover Noise, SAE-ARP-866, 1964.

Arndt, R, E.A., and Borgman, D.C., "Noise Radiation from Heliccpter Rotors Oper-
ating at P igh rip Mach Numbers", Paper presented at the 16th Annual National Forum
of the American Helicopter Society, Washington, D.C., June 1970.

Arnold, James S., "Generation of Cowbustloa Noise," J. of Acoustic Soc. of Amer.,

Vol. 52, Number 1 (part 1), January 14, 1972.

155
Arnoldi, R.A., Near-Field Computations of Propeller Blade Thickness Noise. Report
R-096-1, United Aircraft Corporation Research Department, East Hartford, Conn.
August 1956.

Arnoldi, R.A., Propeller Noise Caused by Blade Thickness. Report R-0896-1, United
Aircraft Corporation Research Department, East Hartford, Connecticut. January 1956.

Baczek, L. "An Experimental Investigation Concerning Trailing Vortex and Helicopter

Rotor Blade Interaction", M.S. Thesis, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., 1970.

Badgley, R. H. and Hartman, R. M., "Gearbox Noise Reduction: Prediction and Mea-
surement of Mesh-Frequency Vibrations Within an Operating Helicopter Rotor Drive
Gearbox", Paper No. 73-DET-31, American Society of Mechanical Engines, 1973.

Badgley, R.H. and Laskin, I., Program for Helicopter Gearbox Noise Prediction and
Reduction, TR 70-12, U. S. Army Aviation Material LaboratL, les, Fort Eustis, Va.,
1970.

Banerian, G., "A Look at the Duration Correction for Computing EPNL", J. of Sound
and Vibration, Vol. 23, No. 4, 1972.

Barlow, W. H., McCluskey, W. C., and Ferris, H.W., OH-6A Phase II Quiet Helicop
ter Program, TR-72-79, U. S. Army Air Mobility Research and Development Labor-
atory, Fort Eustis, Va., 1972.

Barry, B., "Subsonic Fan Noise," J. of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 7. No. 2, pp. 207-
220, 1971.

Barry, F. W. and B. Magliozzi, Noise Detectability Prediction Method for Low Tip
Speed Propellers. Tech. Rept. AFAPL-TR-71-37, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,
Ohio. June 1971.

Bateman, D.A., et al; Compressor Noise Research, FAA-ADS-31, Federal Aviation

Administration, Washington, D.C. 1965. 7 - _

Bauer, B. B., and Tcrick, E. L., "Researches In Loudness Measurement", I.E.E.E.

Transaction on Audio and Electro-acousttcs, Vol. AU-14, No. 3., pp. 141-151, Sept.
1966.

Bausch, W. E., Munch, C. L., and Schlegel, R. G., AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF

HELICOPTER ROTOR IMPULSIVE NOiSE, USAAVLABS TR-70-72, U.S. Army
Aviation Material Laboratories, Fort Eustis, Va., 1971.

Becker, R. A., "Noise Reduction Design in the Small Helicopter", Vertiflite, Vol. 16,
No. 4, pp. 14-18, 1970.

156
B01 Helicopter Company, A Study of the Origin and Means of Redhicing Helicopter Noise,
Unites States TCREC Tech Report No. 62-73, Nov. 1962.

Benzakein, M. J., et al; Fan/Compressor Noise Research, FAA-RD-71-85, Four Vol-

umes. Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C. 1972.

Beazakein, M.J. and Kazin, S. B., "A Theoretical Prediction of Aerodynamically Gen-
erated Noise In Fans and Compressors," Paper presented at the Acoustical Society of
America Conference in Cleveland, Ohio, November. 1968.

Benzakein, M. J., and Morgan, W. R., "Analytical Prediction of Fan/Compressor Noise,

ASME Paper 69-WA1GT-10. 1969.

Bishop, D. E., Frequency Spectrum and Time Duration Descriptions of Aircraft Fly-
Over Noise Signals, FAA-DS-67-6, Federal Aviation Agency, Washington, D. C.

Bishop, E. E., "Helicopter Noise Characteristics for Heliport Plarning," FAA-ADS-40,

Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D. C. 1965.

Bishop, D. E., "Judgement of the Relative and Absolute Acceptability of Aircraft

Noise", J. of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 108-122, 1966.

Bishop, D. E., and Horonjeff, R. D., Noise Exposure Forecast Contour Interpretations
of Aircraft Noise Trade-Off Studies FAA NO-69-2, Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, D. C., 1969.

Bishop, D.E., and Horonjeffi R.D., Procedures for Developigt Noise Exposure Fore-
cast Areas for Aircraft Flight Operations, FAA-DS-67-10, Federal Aviation Agency,
Washington, D.C., 1967.

Blazier, W. E., "Criteria for Control of Community Noise", Paper presented at the
meeting of the Acoustical Society of America, November 1967.

Blum'enthal, V. L., Streckenbach, J. M., Tate, R. B., "Aircraft Environmental Prob-

lemt, " AIkA Paper 73-5, 1973.

Borsky, P. N., "Noiso as Perceived by the Coimmunity", Proceedings of the SAE/DOT

Conference on Aircraft and the Environment, Washington, D. C., 1971.

Borst, H. V., "Review of V/STOL Aircraft with Tilt-Propellers and Tilt Rotors,"
of the Royal Aeronautical Society, Sept. 1968.

Bowes, M.A., "Test and Evaluation of a Quiet Helicopter Configuration HH-43B",

J. of the Acoustical Seciety of America, Vol. 54, No. 5, pp. 1214-1218, 1973. Also, T
TR 71-31, U.S. Army Air Mobility Research and Development Laboratory, Fort Eustis,
Va., 1972.

157
lirt-gman, 11. L. and Pearson, R.R., Development of a Noise Annoyance Sensitivity
Scale, CR-1957, NASA, Washington, D.C., 1972.

lirown, D., "Analyses of Propeller Vortex Noise", Paper presented at the Slat meet-
i:•g of the Acoustical Society of America, April, 1971.

llrwk;n., 1). and (llerhead, J. B., Propeller Noise at Low Tip Speeds AFAPL-TR-71-
55, Wr•.-ight Pattersen Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio. 1971.

Burdsall, E.A. and Urban, R. 1l., F.an-Compressor Noise: Prediction, Research,

and Reduction Studies, F"AA -Rl)-71-73, Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, D.C., Fcbrua'ry 1971.

Burpo, F. B. and Lynn, R. it., Measurement of Dynamic Airloads on a Full Scale

Semi-Rfigid Rotor Bell Helicopter Company, TCREC Technical Report 62-42, U.S.
Army Transportation Research Command, Fort Eustis, Virginia, December 1962.

CAL/AVLABS, Proceedings of the Third CAL/AVLASS S3-mpsium, Vol. I: Rotor/

Propeller Aerodynamics - Rotor Noise, June 18-20, 1969.

Carpenter, P. J., Lift ano rofile Drag Characteristics of a NACA 00.12 Airfoil
Section as Derived from Measured lielicopter Rotor Hovering Performance, NACA
TN 4357, Washington, D.C. 1958.

Carter, N. L., "Effects of Rise Time and Repetition Rate in the Loudness of Acoustic
Transients", J. of Sound and Vibration, Vc.l. 21, No. 2, pp. 227-239, 1972.

Chandrashekhara, N., "Some Studies of Tone Generation in and Radiation from Axial
-Flow Fans," PhD Thesis, University of Southampton, 1970.

Chestnutt, D., Fetler, C. E. and Hubbard, H. H., "Trends in Noise Control for Air-
craft Gas Turbine Power Plants," NASA, Washington, D.C.

Chichester, Miles, and Romer, D. R. M. "The Impact of VTOL Aircraft on Airpoit

Design and Development," J of the Royal Aeronautical Society, Vol. 75, August 1971.

Christensen, C. M., "The sound Field of a Compressor Rotor," Masters of Science

Thesis, M. I. T., June 1968.

Civil Aeronautics Board, "Direct Exhibits and Direct Testimony of Pioneer Airlines
Inc. in the Reopened Waebingtor,-.Baltimore Helicopter Service Investigation", Docketr
17665 et. al., Washington, D. C., July 19, 1971.

158
Clark, D. R., and Leiper, A C., "The Free Wake Analysis, Method for the Prediction
of Helicopter Rotor Hovering Performance," J. of the American Helicopter Scclety
Vol. 25, No. 1, 1970.

Clark, L. T. ,"Noise Generation by Turbomachines," D6-20393, Boeing Co., Seattle,

Wash., April 1965.

Clark, P.J. F. and Ribner, H.S., "Direct Correlation of Flactuating Lift With Radiated
Sound for an Airfoil In Turbulent Flow," J. of the Acoustical Society of America.
Vol. 46, No. 3, Fp. 802-805, 1969.

Clark, F.RI. and Kryter, K. D., Perceived Noisiness Under Anechoic, Semi-Reverh-
erent, and Earphone Listening Conditions, CR-2108, NASA, Washington, D.C., 1972.

Cohen, A., "Airport Noise, Sonic Booms, and Public Health", Proceedings of the
SAE/DOT Conference on Aircraft and the Environment, Washington, D.C.. 1971

Cohen, A., el. al., Correlation of Objection ability Ratings of Noise With Proposed
Noise - Annoyance Measures, N 66 24828, U.S. Department of Health, Education and
Welfare, 1964.

Cole, J. N. and Engi d, R. T., Evaluation of Noise Problems Anticipated with Future
VTOL AlrcraLft, Al. L-TR 66-245. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio,
1967.

Conner, W. K. and Patterson, H. P., Community Reaction to Aircraft Noise Around

Smaller City Airports, CR-2104, NASA, Washington, D.C., 1972.

Cox, C. R., "Aerodynamic Sources of Rotor Noise," J. of the American Helicopter

Society, Vol 18, No. 1, pp. 3-9, January, 1973.

Cox, C.iR., "Full Scale He.icopter Rotor Noise Measurements in Ames 40 x 80 Foot
Wing Tunnel ," Bell Helicopter Report No. 576-099-052, September 1967.

Cox, C. R., "Helicopter Noise and Passive Defense," American Helicopter Society,
19th Annual National Forum, A63-18693, p. 156-163, 1963.

Cox, C. R., "Helicopter Noise Reduction and its Effect on Operations", Paper No. 352,
Proceedings of the 25th Amnerican Hlihlcopter Socinty Forum, May 1969.

Cox, C.R., "Rotor Noise Measurements in Wind Tunnels." Proceedings of the ThiJ
CAL/AVLABS Sympostum, Volume 1, Aerodynamics of Rotary Wing and V/STOL Air-
craft. June 190.9,

159
Cox, C. R., "Subcommittee Chairman's Report to Membership on Aerodynamic Sources
of Rotor Noiso," Presented to the 28th Annual Forum of the American Helicopter Society,
May 1972.

('ox, C. R., and Lynn, R. R., A Study of the Origin and Means of Reducing Helicopter
Noise, TCREC-TR-62-73, November 1962.

Crirni, P., "Prediction of Rotor Wake Flows," Propeller and Rotor Aerodynamic. ,
Vol. of the CAL/USAAVLABS Symposium Proceedings, June 1966.

Crosse, G. W., et. al., "A Controll3d Experiment on the Perception of Helicopter
Rotor Noise," J. of the Royal Aeronautical Society, Vol. 64, pp. 629-632, 1960.

Curie, N., "The Generation of Sound by Aerodynamic Means," J. of the Royal Aero-
nautical Society, Vol. 65, No. U11, pp. 724-728, 1961.

Curie, N., "The Influence of Solid Boundaries Upon Aerodynamic Sound," Procedures
of the Royal Society, 231A, pp. 505-514, 1955.

Davidson, 1. M., and Hargest, T. J. , "Helicopter Noise," J. Royal Aeronautical Society,

Vol. 69, pp. 325-336, May 1965.

Davies, D. O., and Coplin, J. F., "Some VTOL Powerplant Design and Development
Experience," J. of the Royal Aeronautical Society, Vol. 70, pp. 977-986, Nov. 1966.

Day, H. P., A Theory for Tip Stall Noise of Helicopter RotorsReport N412344-1,
United Aircraft Research Laboratories, East Hartfort, Conn., 1974.

Dean, L.W., "Broadband Noise Generation by Airfoils in Turbulent Flow," AIAA

Paper 71-587, Palo Alto, C2lif., June 1971.

De Belleval, J. et. al, Studies of Coherent and Incoherent Structures of Noise of Aero-
dynamic Origin, TTF-14,091, NASA, Washington, D.C., 1971.

Definitions and Procedure for Computing the Perceived Noise Level for Aircraft Noise,
SAE AIR 865A, Aug. 15, 1969.

Doming, A. F., Noise From Propellers With Symmetrical Sections at Zero Blade
Angle. NACA TN 605. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington,
1). C., July 1937.

Deming, A. F., Noise From Propellers with Symmetrical Sections at Zero Blade
Angle, II, NACA TN 679, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington,
D.C.

160
D1.-r.ing, A. F., Prpe•ir Roatation Noise Due to Torque and Thrust, NACA TN 747,
Nanlonal Adviliory (orr.mittee for Aeronautics, Washington, D.C., January, 1940.

Denning, R. M., "Propulsion .for V/STOL," Presented at the British Air Line Pilots
"I'L.chnacal Symposium, London, Nov. 1970, GP1006.

De~partment of Transportation, "Transportation Noise and Its Control," PB-213-007,

June 1972.

Dickerson, D.O., et.al., Transportation Noise Pollution, Control and Abatement,

.NASA Contract NGT 47-003-028, 1970.

i)iprose, K.V., Some Propeller Noise Calculations Showing the Effect of Thickness and
Planform. Technical Note No. M.S. 19, Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough,
England.

Doak, P. E., "Acoustic Radiation form a Turbulent Fluid Containing Foreign lodies,"
Proceedings of the Royal Society (London), Vol. A254, pp. 129-145, 1960.

Doak, P. E., and Vaidya, P. G., "A Note on the Relative Importance of Diserete Freq-
uency and Broad-Band Noise Generating Mechanisms in Axial Fans," J. of Aound and
Vibration , Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 192-196, 1969.

Dodd, K. N. and Roper, G. M., "A Deuce Programme for Propeller Noise '.Jculations,"
Royal Aircraft Establishment Technical Note No. M.S. 45, January 1958.

Dodson, A. D., "An lnvesAgation Into Rotor Rotational Noise of Helicopters in the Single
and Tandem Rotor Configuration," M.S.C. Thesis, University of Southampton, England,
1969.

Dunn, D. G. and Peart, N.A., Aircraft Noise Source and Contour Estimation, CR-
114649, NASA, Washington, 15.-C., 1973.

Eastman, S. E., "Comparative Cost and Capacity Eitimates of Vertiports and Airports
1975-1985," ALAA Paper No. 69-208, February 1969.

Eatock, H. L., Plucinsky, J.C., and Saiatsbury, J.A., "Designing Small Gas Turbine
Engines for Low Noise and Clean Exhaust," Paper No. 73-1154 presented at the CASI/
ALYA Aeroraautical Meet.!ng, October 1973.

161
!-:dgc, P.M., Chambers, It. M. , and Ilubbard, H.H. , "Evaluation of Measures of
Aircraft Noise", Preceedings of NASA Aircraft Safety and Operating Problems
Coa.ervncc, NASA SP-270, Volume 1, 1971.

Einsweiler, R.C., "Planning for Compatibility of Aircraft and Environment," Proceed-

ings of the SAEiDO)T Conference on Aircraft and the Environment, WashingtonD.C.,
1971.

Elias, f., et. al. A Study of Turbo-Engine Compressor Noise Suppression Techniques,
NASA CR 1056, Washington, D.C., 1968.

Ernsthausen, W., "Influence of Aerodynamic Characteristics on the Solnd Field and

Radiated Power of an Airserew," Akustieshe Zeitschrift, Vol. 6, pp. 245-261, 1941.

Einsthausen, W., The Source of Propeller Noise. NASA CR 1056, Washington, D.C.,
.May 1937.

Evans, T.D. and Nettles, W.E., "Flight Test Noise Measurements of a U-IB Hellei-
copter," Paper presented at the AlfS/UTA Joint Symposium on Environmental Effects
on ITTOL Designs, Arlington, Texas, November 1970.

Ffowcs Williams, J. E., and Hawkins, D. L., "Theozy Relating to the Noise of Rotat-
ing Machinery," J, of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 10-21, July 1969.

Fidell, S., et. al., "The Noisiness of Impulsive Sounds," J. of the Acoustical Society
of America, Vol. 48, No. 6, pp. 1304-1310, 1970.

Fidell, S., and Pearsons, K.S., Study of the Audibility of lJiipulsive Sounds, NASA
CR-1598, Washington, D.C., 1970.

le Filieul, N. S., "A Study of the Origin and Means of Reducing Helicopter Noise," -

J. of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 3, pp. 147-165, 1966.

Filotas, L.T., "Approximate Transfer Functions for Large Aspect Ratio Wings In
Turbulent Flow," J. of Aircraft, Vol. 3, pp. 395-400, 1971.

Filotas, :. T., Theory of At 1,oil Response in a Gusty Atmosphere Part II - Response

to Discrete Gusts of Continuous Turbulence, Report 141, University of Toronto
institute for Aturospacv' Studles, Canada, 1969.

Filotaw, L T., "Vortex Induced Helicopter Blade Loads and Noise,'"J.. of Sound and
Vibration , Vol. 27, No. 3, pp, 387-398, 1973..

162
Fink, M. R., Predicted Noise Decay of Transonic Compressors with Sharp Leading
Edges, Repoit No. I:AR-2173, United Aircraft Research Laboratorties, East Hartford,
Conn., 1970.

Fis-'k, W.S. "Creation of Pseudo-Pure Tones and Sensitivity of TPNL to Tolerances on

Noise Spectra or Level of Background Noise", Memorandum of November 20, 1967 to
Member of SAE committee A. 21 from W R. Morgan.

Flemming, D.M., and Scholten, I., "Noise Problems of VTOL with Particular Refer-
ence to the Dornier DO 31," The J. of the Royal Aeronautical Society, Vol. 73, Aug.
1969.

Fr ;1en, P.A., Kerwin Jr., E. M., and the staff of Bolt, Beranek and Newman, InC-.,
Methods of Flight Vehicle Noihe Predictiorn. WADC Tech. Rept. 58-343, Wright Air
Development Center, Wright-iPaterson Air Force Base, Ohio.

Fricke, F.RL., and ".-evenson, D.C., "Pressure Fluctuations in a Separated Flow

Region," J. of the Acoustical .ociety of America , Vol. 44, pp. 1189. 1968.

Gach, M., "Appraisal of Community Response to Aircraft Noise," Proceedings of

the SAE/DOT Conference on Aircraft and the Environment, Washington, D.C., Feb.
1971.

Galloway, W. J., "Noise Exposure Forecasts as Indicators of Community Response,"

Proceedings of the &AE/DOT Conference on Aircraft and the EnviroaŽ.ent, Washington,
D.C., February [971.

Galloway, W. J., and Bishop, E. E., Noise Exposure Forecast, Evolution, Evaluaon.L
Extentions, and Land Use Ir.'erpretations, FAA-NO-70-9, Federal Aviation Auminlstra-
tion,-Washlngton, D.C., 1970.

Galloway, W. .. , and von .iferke, H.E., "Individual and Community Reaction to Air-
craft Noise; Present Status and Standardization Efforts", Committee No. 4 Report,
International Conference on Reduction of Noise and Disturbance of Cival Aircraft,
London, November 1966.

Garrett, R.M., "Determination of the Loudness of Repeated Pulses of Noise," J. ot

Sound and Vihr;'tion, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 42-52, 1965.

Garrick, I. E., Watkins, C. E., A 'l'hcore'tical Study of the Effect of Forward Speed on
the Free-Space Sound- Pressure Field Around l'rop,4lers. U.eport 1198. National
Advisory CommIltce for Acronz'uties, Washington, D.C., August 31, 1953.

163
 .... . .....Z ...= ..l ,..
.. ......... . . .. ... : •2

utch-an, J. R., The M ,an•s,

. of F'recasting the Community Noise Impact of a Trans-
portation System, A)-73•6-4, The ... d Corporation, 1971.

6t-or'ge Washirgton U;nivrsity, &)cial Impacts of Civil Aviation ;ýr..d Impleatftons for
.u P~olicy (CA1__.. LA)T "iST-10-6,and NASA CR-1988, Washington, D.C., 1971.

fIcrent,
H.P., Kuinasaka, 1i.A., and Roundhill, J. P., "Core Engine Noise." Paper
7-1027, Am.rican Institute of Aeronautics and Astruna'ltics, October 1973.

Guldt:nherg, S.A., &adPelven, V. S., "The Influence of Pressure on Rate of Flame

Propagation In Turbulent F'low," 7th, Sympodium Combustion, London, England, pp.
590-59.t, 195g.

Graham, J. B., "ltow to Estimate Fan Noise," Sound and Vibration Vol. 6, pp. 24-27,
May 1972.

Grande, E., "Core Engine Noise," Paper 73-1026, American institute of Aerorautice
and Astronautics, October 1973.

Green, D. M., "Psychophysical Comparison Mehtods", Transportation Noises,

University of Washington Press, 1970.

Gutin, L. J. On the Sound Field of a Rotating Propeller. Physikallsche Zeftschrlft

det sowjetunton. Vol. 9, No. i, 1936. Presented as ARC paper 3115 or HACA Tech.
Memo 1195.

164
____________________-P 1 -- q---

iafrin'r, I., "Sympxosiurn on the Noise and Loading Actions on Helicoptcr, V/STOL
Aircr 61t, anc Grouad Effect Machines", J of Sound and Vibration Vol. 3, p. 336-339,

Ilalwcv,, I). It., "Flight Operations to Minimize Noise", Vertiflit., February 1571.

Halwvs, I). P. and Cox, C. It., "Noise Reduction Possibilities for a Light Helicopter",
S;k' Paper 6ti06,3, October 00l;9.

Hanson, !). B., "Measurements of Static Itlet Turbulence", H'amllton Standard

Engiieering ReUport 6554, May 1974.

Ilargest, T.J. , "V"'s ;I. Aircraft Nolce, lFluid n•n'imia of Rotor a; J Fan Supported
Aircraft at Subsonic Speeds", AGAiRD CP 22, Paris, France, September 1957.

Itartinen, It. and Badgiey, P., R., Model 301 IPLH/ATC Transmission Noise Reduction
ogram, Report aac Contract i)AAjOI-71-C-0840, U.S. ;Nrin' Aviation Material
Laboratories, Fort Fustis, Va. , 1973.

Hazard, W. I., "Predictions of Noise Disturbance Near U.rge Airports", J of Sound

and Vibration, Vol. 15, No. 4, 1971

liealy, G. J., Investigation of V'copellcr Vortex Noise including the Effects of Boundary
Layer Control. CALAC Report 23329, November 1970

Ilealy, G. J., Prediction of Rotor/Propuller Rotational Noised Lockheed Report

LR21206, June 1968,

Ilealy, G. J., Prodi'.tion of Rotor/Propeller Rotational Noise-Nor.dimensional

Parameters, Lockhe.d Report L1122200, March-1969,

ilealy, G. J., "Prwpeller/Rotor Rotatinal Noise Analysis Including Time -Vorying

Blade Forces," Paper FF5, 76th Meeting of Acoustical Society of America, November
18-22, 1968.

Ilecker, M ii. L. and Dryter, K. D., Comparisons Between Subjective Ratings of

Aircraft Noise and Various Objection MeL4ures, FAA NO-68-33, Federal Aviation
Administration, Washington, D.C.

Ifeller, Hi. and Wilihll, S. E., Thn. tlme (if F) tietuatlmi Forces in the Ger.r-.rtton of
Compressor Noiav Cli 2012, NASA, Washihgton, D.C., 1972

ilcrah, A. S., Acous.tic and Aerodynamic Investtition of Leading-Edge Serra.tions

on iAftLng Suarface, Holt Beranek & Newman, 1971.

165
 lhirsh, A. S. andl liyouen, it. E., Aerodrynamni' Noise from Airfoils With and With-
out l.,adling ,dge Sc-rations, lReport 2095, Bolt, Berauek, and Newman, Cambridge,
N:a:;sa•ehuswtts, 1971.

Ilildchrand, It. W., vt. al.. Small Turbine Engine Noise Reduction, Vol. I - VI,
AFAPL-TR-73-79, Air Force Aero Propulsion Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air
Yomrt! Base, Ohio, 1973.

Hlilurn, 1l. A., iIendersoIa, I1. R., and Pegg, R. J., Ground Noise Measurements
Dluring Flyover, hlover, Landings, and Take-Off Operations of a Standard and a
Modif•ed III[-4t:;B i, lieopter, TM X-2221;, NASA, Washington, D.C., 1971.

Ilhnterheuser, E. G., "Synthesis of Aircrfft Noise", Progress of NASA Research

Relating to Noise Alleviation of Large Subsonic Jet Aircraft, pp. 537-545, 1968.

lliatcrkeuser, E. G. and Stcrnfeld, H., Civil Helicopter Noise Assessment Study-_

Boeing Vertol Model 347, NASA CR- 132420, Washington, D.C., 1974.

llinterkeuser, E. G. ai]d Sternfeld, If., Subjective Response to Synthesized Flight

Noise Signatures of Several Types of V/STOL Aircraft. NASA CR- 1118, Washington,
D.C., 1968.

IHirsh, N. B. and Ferris, It. W. ,"Design Requirements for a Quiet Helicopter", Paper
presented at the 78th Annual National Forum of the American Helicopter Society,
Washington, D.C., May 1972.

lb, P. Y. and Tedrick. R. N., "Combustion Noise Prediction Techniques for Small
Gas Turbine Engines", Proceedings of Inter-Noise 72 pp 507-512, 1972.

Hoffman, J. 1). and Ve!hoff, H.R., "Vortex Flow Over Helicopter Potor Tips", J of
Aircraft Vol. 8, pp. 739-740, 1971.

Horlock, J. I., "Fluctuating Lift Forces on Aerofoils Moving through Transverse and
Chordivise Gusts", J of Basic Engineering: Transactions of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (Series D , Vol. 90, pp. 494-500, 1968.

Hlosier, R. N., Ramakrishman, R., and Pegg, R. J., "The Prediction of Rotor
* Rotational Noise Using Measured Fluctuating Blade Loads", Presented at the 30th
Annual National Forum of the American Helicopter Society, May 1974.

Howes, W. L., Loudness Determined by Power Summation, TM X-2300, NASA,

Washington, D.C., 1971

Howes, W. L., Relations Among Loudness, Loudness Level. and SPL. TM X-2298,
NASA, Washington, D.C., 1971.

166
.v.

"lubbard, II. 11. Proptcller-Noise Charts for Transport Airplanes. NACA TN

296'. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington, D.C.

V1 Hubbard, I1. Ht., l.ansing, D. L., and Runyan, H. L., "A Review of Rotating Blade
oil.Technology", Loughborough University of Technology, Symposium on Aerodynamic
$.- Noise, Loughborough, England, September 14-17, 1970.

"*!. lHubbard, I1. If. and Maglieri, D. J., "Noise Characteristics of Helicopter Rotors
at Tip Speeds Up to 900 Feet Per Second", J of the Acoustical Society of America,
Vol. 32, No. 9, September 1960.

"Hubbard, It. It., Regier, A. A., Free-Space Oscillating Pressures Near the Tips
of Rotating Propellers. NACA Report 996, National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics, Washington, D.C.

SlHubbard, if. It. and Regier, A. A., Propeller Loudness Charts for Light Airplanes,
T. N. No. 1358, National Adviaory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington, D.C.,
July 1947.

p.- Huff, R. G., Clark, B. J. and Dorsch, R. G., Interim Prediction Method for Low
Frequency Care Engine Noise, rM X-71627, NASA, Washington, D. C., 1974

Hulse, B., et. al., Some Effects of Blade Charactei-stics on Compressor Noise
Level, FA65WA-1263, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C., 1966.

"Hulse, B. T., and Large, J. B., "The Mechanisms of Noise Generation in a

Compressor Model", Paper 66-6T/N 42, March 13-17, 1966, meeting presented at
the ASME.
'I

Hunting, A.W. and Fleming, R.S., Helicopter Steep Angle GCA Approach Evaluation,
i€ Project Report AD676528, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C, 1968.

Hurlburt, R. L., "Noise in an Airport Community", Proceedings of Inter-Noise 72,

pp. 366-371, 1972.

ICAO, Report of the Special Meeting on Aircraft Noise in the Vicinity of Aerodromes,
Document 8857, inteniational Civil Aviation Organization, 1969.

Jagger, D. H. and Kemp, E.D.G., "The Potential and Development of a V/STOL

Inter-City Airliner", Aircraft Engineering, January 1970.

167
m~~. . . . . --- **. .. . .. . . .
.Johnson, I1. K., Ikevtlupment of a rechni, ue for Realistic Prediction and Electronic
S%nthtsis of Ifelicopter Rotor Noise, TR 73-8, U.S. Army Air Mobile by Research
-ind D)cvclopment Laboratory, Fort Eustis, Va., 1973.

Johnson, If. K. and Katz, W. M., Investigation of the Vortex Noise Produced by a
Iklicopter Rotor, Rochester Applied Science Associates, USAAMRDL TR 72-2,
February 1972.

.]ohnston, G. W., "Fan/Rotor Noise - Some Recent Developments", Presented at the

CASI/AIAA meeting, October 29, 1973.

.Johnston, G. W., V/STOL Community Annoyance Due to Noise, Technical Note No.
177, University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies, Canada, 1972.

•Jonsson, E. and Sorenson, S., "Adaptation to Community Noise - A Case Study",

J. of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 26, No. 4, 1973.

Koramcheti, K. and Yu, Y. H., "Aerodynamic Design of a Rotor Blade for Minimum
Noise Radiation", AIAA Paper No. 74-571, Presented at the Fluid and Plasma
Dynamics Conference, June 17 - 19, 1974.

Kazin, S.B. and Emmerling, J.J., "Low Frequency Core Engine Noise", Paper 74-
WA/Aero-2, American Society cf Mechanical Engineer, 1974.

Kazin, S. B., et. al., Core Engine Noise Control Program (3 Volumes), Report No.
DOT-FA72WA-3023, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C., 1975.

Keefe, R. T., An Investigation of the Fluctuating Forces Acting on a Stationary Circular

Cylinder in a Subsonic Stream and of the Associated Sound Field, UTIA Report No. 76,
University of Toronto, Canada, 1961.

Kelly, J. C., "Broadband Fan Noise Due to Vortex Shedding", Note No. RR (OH) 400,
Rolls-Royce Limited, Englapd, 1969.

Kemp, N. H., "On the Lift and Circulation of Airfoils in Some Unsteady Flow Problems",
J. of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 19, pp. '13-714, 1952.

Kemp, N., Arnoldi, R. A., Machine Calculation of Free-Space Sound Pressure Field
Around Propellers in Forward Motion. Report RB-22673-1, United Aircraft Corporation
Research D--partment, East Hartford, Connecticut. February 1954.

Kemp, N. H. and Sears, W. R., "The Unsteady Forces Due to Viscous Wakes In
Turbornachinery," J. of the Aeronautical Sciences, July 1955.

168
 Kester, .1.1). "'Sourcsof .Nise f•ri,' Advanvcd Turbofan Engines," Prepared for
Spring 196s4 AS.MI: Alecting.

King, I,., l'1:1(iction of Tai i ulor Noi.c, Te,-hnical Report AMTR-11, Sikorsky
Aircraft, Strptford, C..nn., Noveniber, 1970.

King, It.1 and Sthlegt'l, it. Methods and Trends for Helicopter Rotor
".'e*di-ticn
Noise" Procecdingi of tne Third ('AI, AVI.ABS Symposium, Aerodynamics of Rotary
Wing and v.STrO1 A ire raft, J1
une I9 ;.

Knowler, A. E., "The St.cond N.'oi.ec and Social iurvey Around Heathrow London Air-
port", Proceedings of the 7th Intcra-mtional C,'rgress on Acoustics, Volume 2,
(A73-12951 03-12) Budapest, Ak.-'Ic nias.Kiado, 1971.

Koch, W., "On the TIa'an:;!i,;:-ion of Sound Waves Through a Blade Row," J. of Sound
ant: Vibration, Vol. is, No. 1, pp. 111-128, 1971.

Kramer, M., "Thu Aerodynarni. Protile as Acejstic Noise Generator," J of

Aeronautical Science Vol. 20, pp 280-282, 1953.

Krejsa, E.A. andVelerno, M. F., Interim Prediction -Method for Turbine Noise,
Proposed NASA TM, Washington, D.C.

Fryter, K. D., "A Note on the Quantity (Effective) Perceived Noisiness and Units of
Perceived.Noise Level", J. of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 25, No. 3, 1972

Kryter, K. D., "Concepts of Pcerceived Noisiness, Their Implementation and Appli-

cation," J. of the'Acoustical Society of America. Vol 43, pp. 344-361, 1968.

Kryter, K. D., "Possible Modifications to the Calculation of Perceived Noisiness",

CR-1636, NASA, Washington, D.C., 1970.

Kryter, K. D., " Prediction of Effects of Noise on Man", Progress of NASA Research
7 Relating to Noise Alleviation of Large Subsonic Jet A4rcraft, SP--189, NASA,
Washington, D.C., 1968.

Kryter, K. D., .Review of Research and Methods for Measuring the Loudness and
Noisiness of Complex Sounds, CR-422, NASA, Washington, D.C., Apri! 1966.

Kryter, K. D., "Scaling Human Reactions to the Sound from Aircraft," J. Acoustical
Society of America, Vol. 31, No. 11, pp 1415-1429, 1959.

Kryter, K.D., Johnson, I'.J., and Young, J.R., Judgement Tests of Flyover Noise
from Various Aircraft, CR-1635, NASA, Washington, D.C., 1970

169
Kryter, K.D. and Pearsons, K.S., "Judged Noisiness of a Band of Random Noise
Containing an Audible Pure Tone", J. of the Acoustical Society America, pp. 138-150,
19(;6.

Kryter, K. D. and Pearsons, K.S., "Some Effects of Spectral Content and Duration
on Perceived Noise Level", J. of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 35, No. 6,
pp. 866-883, 1963.

Kr%'ter, D. K. and Williams, C. E., Some Factors Influencing Human Response to Air-
craft Noise, FAA-AI)S-42, Fe'deral Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C., June
1965.

Krzy•oblocki, M.A., "Investigation of the Wing-Wake Frequency With Application of

the Strouhal Number," J. of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 12, January 1945.

Kurbjun, M. C., Vogelcy, A. W., Measurements of Free-Space Oscillating Pressures

Near Propellers at Flight Mach Numbers to 0. 72. Report 1377. National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics, Washington, D.C., 1958.

Landgrebe, A. J., "The Wake Geometry of a Hoverning Helicopter Rotor and its
Influence on Rotor Performance", Paper presented at the 28th Annual Material Forum
of the American Helicopter Society, May 1972.

Laskin, I., Orcutt, F. K., and Shipley, E. E., Analysis of Noise Generated by UH-1
Helicopter Transmission, TR 68-41, U.S. Army Aviation Material Laboratories,
Fort Eustis, Va., 1968.

Leverton, J. W., "Helicopter Noise." Institute of Sound and Vibration Research

Memorandum No. 167., 1967.

Leverton, J. W., Helicopter Noise-Blade Slap, Part I - Review and Theoretical Study.
NASA CR-1221, Washington, D.C., -1968.

Leverton, J. W., Helicopter Noise - Blade Slap Part H1 Experimental Results, NASA
CR 1983, Washington, D. C., 1972.

Leverton, J.W., "Helicopter Noise-Are Existing Methods Adequate For Rating

Annoyance or Loudness?". , J. of the American Helicopter Society, April, 1974.

Leverton, J.W., "The Noise Characteristics of a Large 'Clean' Rotor", AGARD-

CP-111, Conference Proceedings No. III on Aerodynamics of Rotary Wings, 1972,
also J. of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 27, No. 2. pp. 357-376, 1973.

170
Leverton, J.W. and Pollard, J.S., "A Comparison of the Overall and Broadband
Noise Characteristics of Full-Scale :and Model Helicopter Rotors", J. of Sound and
Vibration, Vol. :30, No. 2, pp 135-152, 1973.

Leverton, J.W., and Taylor, F.W., "'Helicopter Blade Slap." J. of Sound and
Vibration, Vol. 4, p. 345-357, 1%6.

Levi, H. and Forsdyke, A.G., "Steady Motion and Stability of a Helical Vortex",
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A, Vol. 120, pp. 670-690, 1928.

Lighthill, M.J., "Sound Generated Aerod*'vnrmically". Proceedings of the Royal

Society, London, England. A21I. 1952.

Lighthil, M.J., "Sound Generate'd Aerodynamically, Bakerian Lecture 1961,"

Procedings of the Royal Society , London, England Vol. 267, p. 147-182, 1962.

Little, J.W., "Human Response to Jet Engine Noises", Noise Control, Vol. II,
pp 11-13, 1961.

Little, J.W., and Mabry, J. E., "Sound Duration and Its Effect on Judged Annoyance".
J. of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 9, pp 247, 1969.

Lockheed Aircraft, "Improved Rotor/Propeller Noise Predicting Techniques," Dec.

29, 1969, Indeper.dent Reaearch Engineering Work Assignment 41-5487-7346 CALAC.

Loewv', R.G., "Aural Detection of Helicopters in Tactical Situations," J. of the

American Helicopter Society, Vol. 8, No. 4, Oct. 1963.

Loewy, R. G. and Sutton, L. R., A Theory for Predicting the Rotational Noise of
Lifting Rotors in Forward Flight, Including a Comparison With Experiment
USAAVLABS Tech. Report 65-82, U.S. Army Aviation Material Lilboratories, Fort
Eustis, Va., 1966. -

Lowson, M. V., "Basic Mechanism of Noise Generation by Helicopters, V/STOL Air-

craft and Ground Effect Mechanisms," J. of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 3, No. 3. pp.
454-466, 1966.

Lowson, M. V., "Compressor Noise Analysis," NASA SP-189, Washington, D. C.,

October 1968.

Lowson, M.V., "Fundamental Considerations of Noise Radiation by Rotary Wings",

AGARD Conference Proceedings No. 111 on Aerodynamics of Rotary Wings, September,
1972.

171
Lowson, M. V., "Possible Mechanism loi the Surface-?Pressure Fluctuations Beneath
Turbulent Boundary Layers," J. of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 40,
pp. 1264, 1966.

Lowson, M. V., "Reduction of Compressor Noise Radiation," J. of the Acoustical

society of America, Vol. 43 No. 1, pp. 37-50, January 1968.

Lowson, M. V., "Rotor Noise Radiation in Non-Uniform Flow." Paper presented at

the Symposium on Aerodynamic Noise, Loughborough University of Technology. 1970.

Lowso\ , M.V., "Theoretical Analysis of Compressor Noise," j. of the Acoustial

Society of America, Vol. 47, No. I (Pt. 2), pp. 371-385, January 1970.

Lowson, NI. V., "The Sound Field for Singularities in Motion. "roceedings of the
Royal Aeronautical Society, Vol. 286, pp. 559-572, August 1965.

Lowson, M. V., Thoughts on Broad Band Noise Radiation by a Hel iopter, *Wyle
Laboratories Report WR 68-20, December 1968.

Lowson, M. V. and J. B. Ollerhead, "A Theoretical Study of Helicopter Rotor Noise,"

J. of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 9, No. 2. March 1969.

Lowson, M.V., Oilerhead, J.B.; "Problems of Helicopter Noise Estimation and-Re-

duction," AIAA Paper 69-195, February 1969.

Lowson, M. V. and J. B. Ollerhead, Studies of Helicopter Rotor Noise, Tech. Rept.

68-60, AD684394, USAAVLABS. January 1969.

Lows on, M. V., Whatmore, A., and Whitfield, C. F., Source Mechanisma for Rotor
Noise Radiation, Report TT7202, Loughborough University of Technology, England,
1972.

Lyon, R. H., "Radiation o. Noise by Aerofoils That Accelerate Near the Speed of Sound".
J. of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 49, No., pp. 894-905, 1971.

Lyon, R. H., Mark, W. D. and Pyle, R.W. ,Jr., "Synthesis of Helicopter Rotor Tips
for Less Noise," J. of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 53, No. 2, pp 607-
618, 1973.

Macfarlane, C. G., "On the Energy-Spectrnm of an Almost Periodic Succession of

P-ulses," Proceedings of the I. R. E.. October 0-49.

Magee, J.P., Maisel, M.D., and Davenport, :..,.. "rh i u gi. anti perforz•ancc
Prediction of Propeller/Rotor for VTOL Applications", Paper No. 325, presented
at the 25th Annual Nation Forum of the Amcrip.an Helicopter Society, Washington,
D.C., June 1970.

172
Miglicri, I). J., lHilton, 1). A. and Hubbard, if. If., Noise Considerations in the Design
and ()pcrations of V/ST)I Air'raft, NASA TN D-736, Washington, D.C., 1961.

Magliozzi, B. and Ghanger, T. G., Advanced V/STOL Propeller Technology - Far Field
N.)ise. Investigation, AIFI)I.-TR-71-s)5, Vol. 13, 1971.

Mani, R., "Noise Due to Interaction of Inlet Turbulence with Isolated Stators and
Rotor", J. of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 17, pp. 251-260, 1971.

Marshall, D.A.A., "Sources of Noise in Acro-Engines", Paper presented at the first

International Symposium on Air-Breathing Engines, 1971.

M:, rtc, J. E., and Kurtz, D.W., A Review of Aerodynamic Noise from Propellers,

Rotors, and Lift Fans, NASA TiH 32-146i2, Washington, D.C., 1970.

M:athews, I). C. and Peracchio, A. A., "Progress in COre Engine and Turbine Noise
Technolagy", Paper No. 74-948, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
August 1974.

McCann, J. C. and Sofrin, T. G., "Pratt & Whitr.ey Aircraft Experience In Compressor
Noise Reduction," Acoustical Society of America, Paper 202, November 1966.

McCormick, B.W., Jr. and Surendraiah, M., "A Study of Rotor Blade - Vortex In-
teraction", Paper No. 421, Presented at the 26th Annual National Forum of the
American Helicopter Society, Washington, 1). C., June 1970.

McPike, A. L., "Recommended Practices for Use in the Measurement and Evaluation
of Aircraft Neighborhood Noise Levels," Preprint 65-216 SAE, 1965.

Metzger, F. B., et. al., A Study of Propeller Noise Research, SP 67148, Rev. A,
Hamilton Standard, Windsor Locks, Conn. 1961.

Meyer, J. R. and Falabella; G.-,-An Investigation of the Experimental Aerodynamic

Loading on a Model Ifelicopter Blade, TN-2953, National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics, Washington, D.C., 1953.

Miller, L. M. and Ver, I. L., Noise Study in Manhattan, New York City for the Eva!u-
ation of Dominant Noise Sources including Helicopter Traffic, Report No. 1610, Bolt
Beranek and Newman, Cambridge, Mass., 1967.

Miller, R. II., "'otor Bllade Harmonic Airloading", .J. of ,he American !nstitute of
Aeronautics and AM.tronpautlcs, Vol. 2, No. 3, 1964.

173
?.iilh'r, It. 11., "Unstad., Airloads on Illicopte," Rotor Blades", J. of the Royal
Aeronaut cal Socit.tv, Fol. 6.s, No. 6;40, 196-1.

\Miller, It. It., "Notes or. Cost of Noise Reduction in Rotor/Prop Aircraft," Conference
un V ST'OI Noise Generation and Suppression, MIT Memo Report FTL-M68-9,
Cambridge, Mass. , August 196S.

Miller, L. N. and Beranek, L. L., "Attenuation of Sound Passing from Outdoors into
A Tvpical House," J. of the Acousticl Society of America, Vol. 29, pp 1169-1179,
1957.

Monnerie, B. and Tognet, A., "Study of the Effect of the Ma±eginal Vortex from a
Ifulicopter Blade on the Aerodynamic Flow Around the Following Blade (Etude de
l'Influ,:nce du Tourbillon Marginal Issue d'une Pale d'lielicoptere sur lEcoulement
Aerodynamiqf.' Autour de la Pale SuivanteV', Paper presented at the Association
F!.r'ncakise des Ingenieurs et Techniciens de l'Aeronautigue et de l'Espace, Collogue
cd'Acrodyi.amique Appliquee, 7th, Modane, Savoie and Ecole Centrale Lyonnaise,
Ecully, Rhone, France, Nov. 4-6, 1970.

Morfey, C. L., "A Review of the Sound-Generating Mechanisms in Aircraft-Engine

Fans and Compressors," Aerodvnamic Noise, pp. 299-329, H.S. Ribner, Ed., Toronto,
Canada, 1969.

Morfey, C. L., "Broadband Sound Radiated from Subsonic Rotors", International

Symposium on the Fluid Mechanics and Design of Turbomachinery, Pennsylvania
State University, 1970.

Morfey, C. L., "Lift Fluctuations Associated With Unsteady Chordwise Flow Past
on Airfoil," J. of Basic Engineering: Transactions of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineer (Series 1)), Vol. 92, pp. 663-665.

Morfey, C. L., "Rotating Blades and Aerodynamic Sound." J. of Sound and Vibration,
Vol., 2-, pp. 587-4617. 1973.

Morfey, C. L., "Sound Generation in Subsonic Turbomachinery," Transacti6n of the

ASME, Series D., Journal of Basic Engineering, Vol. 92, pp. 450-458, 1970.

Morfey, C. L., "The Sound Field of Souices in Motion." J. of Sound and Vibrationi
Vol. 23, pp. 291-295. 1972

Morfey, C. L., "Tone Radiation from an Isolated Subsonic Rotor," J. of the Acoustical
Society of America, Vol. 49, pp. 1690-1692, 1971.

Moreira, N. N1. and Bryan, M. E., "Noise Annoyance Susceptibility", J. of Sound and
Vibration, Vol. 21, No. 4, 449-462, 1972.

174
Morse, P.M. , and Ingard, K. V. , TheoreticLl Acoustics, McGraw-Hill, New York,

Motsinger, R., Prediction of Engine Combustor Noise and Correlation With T-64
Engine Low Frequency Noise', R72AEG:113, General Electric Company, 1972.

Mugridge, B. D., "Acoustic Radiation from Acrofoils With Turbulent Boundary Layers."
J. of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 16, pp. 5!)3-614, 1971.

Mugridge, B. D., "Broadband Noise Generation by Aerofoils and Axial Flow Fans",
paper 73-10111, presented at the AIAA Aerocoustics Conference, October 15-17, 1973.

Mugridge, B. I)., "Sound Radiation from Aurofoils in Turbulent Flow," J. of Sound

and Vibration, Vol. 13, pp. 3:62-363, 19j70.

Mull, H. R., External Noise Characteristics of Two Commercial Transport Helicopters,

United Acoustic Consultant Report R-6-12, Haarold R. Mull and Associates, Wilton,
Conn., 1964.

Mull, H. R., Washington D. C. Hiclicopter Demonstration, Report R-6606, Harold R.

Mull and Associates "'ilton, Conn., 1969

Muller, J.L., "Calculation of Aircraft Noise Duration", J. of Sound aid Vibration!

Vol. 16, No. 4, 11971.

Malil-r, E.A. and Okermeler, F., "The Spinning Vortices as a E-.,urce of Sound,"
AG:ARD CP 22, Paris, France, Sept. 1967.

Munch, C.L., Theoretical Helicopter Noise Prediction Including Comparison With

Experiment, Wyle Laboratories Research Staff Report WR 69-18, August 1969.

Munch, C.-L. Simplified Helicopter Rotor Noise Prediction Program. Technical

Report AMTR-9, Sikosky Aircraft, Stratford, Conn., November 1970.

Munch, C. L., Standard Far-Field S-65 Rotor and Aircraft Noise Snetra Teclnic-al
Report ETR-2, Sikosky Aircraft, Stratford, Conn., March 1971.

Munch, C.L., Predictions of V/STOL Noise for Application to Community Noise

Exposure. Report No. ID)'T-'rSC-OST-73-19. Department of Transportation,
Washingtton, 1). C.

Munch, C. L. and King, R.J., Com.tmunityAvcvptance of Helicopter Noise: Criteria

and Applicationt NASA CR-132.130, Washington, 1). C., 1974.

175
 :ig.l, 1). tC., Parnmll, J. [. ond Parry, Ii. J., "Procedure for Correcting
Porcuivcd Nuisc Level fio the E.ffect of Background Noise", Transportation Noises
'Universityof Washington Press, 1970.

NASA Contract NASI-12505 - iUsearch Program to Study the Effects of At.mospheric

lurbulence oil Rotor Generate Noise. June 1973.

NASA Contract NASI-13015 - Research Program to Explore the Influence of

Forward Flight on Propeller Noise. May 1974.

National Bureau of Standards, "The Social Impact of Noise", Environmental

Protection Agency PB 206 724, December 1971.

Naumann, 11. and Yeh, If., "Lift anti Pressure Fluctuations of a Cambered Airfoil
Under Periodic Gusts and Applications to Turbomachinery", J of Engineering for
Power: Transactions of the Americ.n Society of Mechanical Engineers (Series A),
Vol. 95, pp 1-10, 1973.

Nemec, J., "Noise of Axial Fans and Compressors: Study of Its Radlatio- and
Reduction", J of Sound and Vibration. Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 230-236, 1967.

:Joad, P. J., "Theoretical Prediction of Helicopter Rotor Noise", T. H. G.

Note No. 5/63, Westland Aircraft Limited, England, 1963.

Obata, Juichi, Yosida, Yahei, Sakae, Studies on the Sounds Emitted by Revolving
Airscrews. Parts I & 11, Aero. Res. inst., Tokyo Imperial University, Tokyo,
Japan. Report No. 79 and 80, Vol. VI, No. 13 and Vol. IV, No. 14, 1932.

O]1-rhead, J. B., Subjective Evaluation of General Aviation Aircraft Noisea FAA-

No. 67-35, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D. C., 1968.

Ollherhead, J. B., Soine Analyses of Helicopter Noise, WR 68-8, Wyle Laboratories,

llur"tsville, Alabama, 1969.

Ollherhead, J. B., Acoustic Considerations in the Design of a Quiet Helicopter,

T. R. WR70-3, Wyle Lah-ratoric, Huntsville, Alabama, 1970.

Ollerhead, J. B., "Rotor, Propeller, and Fan Noise in Theory and Practice",
L•oughborough University of Technology, Symposium on Aerodynamic Noise,
Loughborough, Engl:id, Septermber 14-17, 1970.

OllerheMd, J. B., An Evaluation of Methods for Scaling Aircraft Noise Perception,

CR-1883, NASA, Washington, 1). C., 1971.

Oilerheiad, J. B., lll,'oPtter Aural Detectability, Technical Report 71-33, 1971.

176
Ollcrlhtad, .J. B. , "Scaling Aircraft Noise Perception", J of Sound and Vibration, Vol.
2 , No. 3, pp. 361-38, 1973.

ollerhead, J. B. and Lowson, M. V., "Problems of Hfelicopter Noise Estimation and

Reduction", Paper No. 1;9-195, AIAA, February 17-19, 1959.

olklvrhe.a:', .1. 1P. and Munch, C. L. , An Application of Theory to Axial Comprescor

Noise, C1-1519, NASA, Washington, 1. C. , 1970.

Oilvrheac, J. B. and Tayior, It. B., DUscriIption of Helicopter Rotor Noise

Computer Progrurn USAAV'LAJIS TR 68-1, Fort Eustis, Va., 1969.

Parnell, J. E., Nagle, D. C., and Parry, If. J., Growth of Noisiness for Tones
and Bands of Noise at 1)iifercnt Frequencivs, FAA-DS-67-21, Federal Aviation
Administration, Washington, D.C., 1967.

Parry, if. J. and Parry, .1. K., "The Interpretation and Meaning of Laboratory
Determinations of the Effect oif Duration on the Judged Acceptability of Noise",
.I of Sound and Vibration Vol. 20, No. 1, 1972.

Paterson, R. W., et. al., Vortex Shredding Noise of an Isolated Airfoil United
Aircraft Research Laboratories, Technical Report K910867-6, East Hartford, Conn.
1971.

Pearsons, K. S., The Effect of Duration :cnd Background Noise LI vel on Perceived
Noisiness. FAA ADS-7h, Federaltion Aviation Administration, Washington, 1D. C.,
April, 1966.

Pearsons, K. S., Noisiness Judgements of Helicopter Flyovers, FAA-DS-67-1,

Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C., 1967.

Pearsons, K.S. "As.sessment (f the Vadidity- f Pure Tone Corrections to Received

Noise Level", Progess of NASA Research Relating to Noise Alleviations of Large
Lbsonic
.- -Jet Aircrft. SP-10i, NASA, Washington, D. C., 1968.

Pearsons, K. S., Combination Effects of Tone and Duration Parameters on

Perwcivcd Noisiness, NASA, Washington, 1). C., 1969.

Pea rsons, K. S., "Laboratory Studies on the Effects (if Duration and Spectral
Complkxixty on i!ibjective Ratings of Nois-", ASIJA Reports No. 4, pp. 228-237,
1969.

Pearsons, K.S., Bennett, R. L. and F!rlell, S., "Situdy of Effects of the Doppler
Shift on Perceived Noisiness", Acoustical Society of America, Houston, Texas,
November, 1970.

177
icý,rsons, K.S. and Beunectt, R. L., Handbook of Noise Rating, CR-23 76, NASA,
Washing•,tn, D.C., 1974.

Piarson, R. G. and Hart, F. D., "Studies Relating the Individual Char~ctezistics of

People With Their Responses Wo Noise", Progress of NA•;A Research Relating to
N,)ise Allev'iatinn of Large Subsonic Jet Aircraft, SP-189, NASA, Waahington
D.C., 1968.

Pearsons, K.S., Horonjeff, R. D., and Bishop, E. E., The Noisu'iess of Tones
Plus Noise CR-1117, NASA, Washington, D.C., 1068.

Pegg, R. J., Henderson, .I.R, and Hilton, D. A., Rcr-z'lts of the Flight Noise
Measurement Program Using a Standard and M1odfijed SH-3A lielicopter,
TN D-7330, NASA, Washington, D. C., 1973.

Pugg, R. J., Henderson I1. R. and Hiilton, D. A., Flyover Noise Characteristics
of a Tilt-Wing V/STOL Aircraft (XC-142A). TM X-3074, NASA, Washington, D. C.,
1974.

Pickett, G. F., "Turbine Noise Due to Turbulence and Temperature Eluctuatlons",

Paper presented at the Zighth International Congress in Acoustics, July 1974.

Piziali, R. A. and DuWaldt, F. A., A Method for Computing Rotary Wing Airload
Distributions in Forward Flight, TR 62-44, U. S. Army Transportation Research
Command, Ft. Eustis, Va., 1962.

Pohard, J. S. and Leverton, J. W., "Effect of Blade Tip Planform in the Noise
and Aerodynamics of a Helicopter Rotor", lResearch Paper 414, Westland Helicopters
Limited, Frgland, 1972.

Potter, R. C., An Experiment to Examine the Effect of Porous Trailing Edges on

the Sound Generated by Bladeq in an Ailflow, Report WR 68-_6,-Wyle Laboratories,
Huntsville, Ala., 1968.

Powell, A., "Theory ot Vortex Sound", Journal of the Acoustical Society of

America Volume 3#L, Number, 1, January 1964.

Price, P. B., et. al., "Optical Studies of the Generation of Noise in Turbulent
Flames", 12th Synpesluni on Combustion, pp. 1093-1101, Poitiers, France, 1968.

Reichardt, W., "Subjective and Objective Measurement of the Loudness Level of

Sinwle and Repeated Impulses", J. of the Acoustical Society of America. Vol. 47,
No. 6, pp 1557-1562, 1970.

173
itibre;, H. S., "N,'r'e oi Aircraft", Paper 65-545, UTIAS Rev. 24, International
Council oi the Aeronautic'l 6cieaces, 4th Congress, Paris, France, Aug. 24-28, 1964.

Wlrce, C. G., and Ztpler, E. " Loudness and Pitch Sensation of an Impulsive Sound
of Very Short Duration", .i. of Srund and Vibrator, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 285-289, 1967.

Richards, E. J., "Aeronautical Research at Southampton University", Journ-al of

the Royal Aeronautical Society, Vol 69, pp. 505-541, August 1965.

Richardson, E. G., "Aeolian Tonaj', Proceodings (,f the Physical Society of

Lndonn, Vol. 36, 1124.

Hlchari3aon, E. G., "Critical Velocity of Flow Past Objects of Airfoil Section",

Procebdings of the Physical Society of London, Vol. 37, 1925.

Rled, W. W., The Statistical Theory of Turbulence, N.,,thwestern University Report

400-41-57, Sept. 1957.

Riedel, S. C. and Schairer, J. 0., "Acoustics Data Obtained from Blade/Vortex

Lnteraction Study", Boeing Vertol Company, Philladelphia, Pa., 1970.

Robinson, D. W. and Bowsher, J. M., "A Subjective Experiment with Helicopter

Noises", J. of the f)oyla Aeronautical Society, pp. 335-637, 1961.

Robtnbon, D. W., "The Subjective Basis for Aircraft Noise Limitation", J, f

the Royal Aercnanticai Society. Vol. 71, No. 678, pp. 396-400, June 1667.

Robinson, D. W., The Concept of Noise Pollution Level, National Physics Laboratory
Aeronautical Reaort AC 3 1969.

Robinson, D. W., A New Basis for Aircraft Noise Rating, National Physics
Laboratory Aeronautical Report AC 3i., 1971.

Rushko, A., "Experiments cf the Flow Past a Circular Cylinder at Very High
Reynolds Number", J. of Fluid Mechanics Vol. 10, Part 3, 1961.

Ross, D., Vortex Sheddlnig Sounds of Propellers. Report No. 1116, Bolt, Beranek,
and Newman, Cambridge, Mass., 1964...

Rule, S. J. and Little, J. W., "Effect of a Composite Instructional Set on Response

to Complex Sounds", .1. of Experimental Psychology. Vol. 71, p. 200, 1966.

Rtylander, It., Sorvnson, S., and Kajland, A., "Annoyance Reaction from Aircraft
Noise Exposure", &_.,f 'ý)und and Vibration, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 419-444, 1972.

179
F
Rylander, R., Sorensen S., Alexander, A., and Gilbert, Ph., "Determinants for
Aircraft Noise Annoyance - A Comparison Between French and Scandanavian Data",
J. of Sound and Vibration. Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 15-21, 1973.

Sadler, S. G., "A Method for Predicting Helicopter Wake Geometry, Wake-Induced
Flow and Wake Effects on Blade Airloads", Paper presented at the 27th Annual National
V/STOL forum of the American Helicopter Society, Washington, D. C., May 1971.

Sadler, S. G. and Loewy, A.; A Theory for Predicting the Rotational and Vortex Noise
of Lifting Rotors in Hover and Forward Fli1ht, Rochester Applied Science Associates
r Rept. 68-11, Rochester, N.Y., 1968.

Sadler, S. G., Johnson H. K., and Evans, T. D. , Determination of theAerodynamic

4 Characteristics of Vortex Shedding from Lifting Airfoils for Application to the Analysis
of Helicopter Noise, Report 73-02, Rochester Applied Science Associatts, Inc., 1973.

Sadler, S. G. and Loev y, R. G., "The Importance of Vortex Shedding Effects on Hell-
copter Rotor Noise with and without Blade Slap," Procedings of the Third CAL/AVLABS
Symposium, Vol. 1. June 1969.

SAE, Technique for Developing Noise Exposure Forecasts. FAA-DS-67-14, Federal

Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C., 1967.

Scheiman, J,: A Tabulation of HelicopterRotor-Blade Differential Pressures, Stresses,

and Motions, as Measured In-Flight, NASA TM-X-952, Washington, D.C., 1964.

Scheiman, J., Hilton, D. A., and Shivers, J. P., Acoustical Measurements of the Vortex
Noise for a Rotating Blade Operating With and Without Its Wake Blown Downstream,
TND-6364, NASA, Washington D.C., 1971.

Scheiman, J., and Ludi, L. H., Qualitative Evaluation of the Effect of Helicopter Rotor
Blade Tip Vortex on Blade Airloads, TND-1637, NASA, Washington D.C., 1963

Schlegel, R. G., Hush Final Report - Quiet Helicopter Program, SER-611878, Sikorsky
Aircraft, Stratford, Conn., 1970. -

Schlegel, R. G., and Bausch, W. E., "Helicopter Rotor Noise Prediction and Control"
J. of the American Helicopter Society, Vol 14, No. 3, July 1969.

Schlegel, R. G. and Bausch, Helicopter Rotor Rotational Noise Prediction and Correlation.
USAAVLABS TR 70-1A and 1B, 1970, U.S. Army Aviation National Laboratories, Fort
Eustis, Va.

Schlegel, R., King, R., and Mull, H., Helicopter Rotor Noise Generation and Propagation.

*f-.* Tech. Report 66-4. U. S. Army Aviation Material Laboratorie3, Fort Eustis, Virginia.
October 19615.

180 I
I - Schiegel, R. G. and Mard, K. C., "Transmission Noise Control-Approaches
•'•copter Design," Paper 67-DE-58, American Society of Mechanical Engineers,in Helt-
1967.

Schmitz, F. H., et. al., A Comparison of Optimal and Noise - Abatement Trajectories
t. #.,of a Tilt-Rotor Aircraft, CR-2034, NASA' Washington, D.C., 1972.

.Schritz, F.H. and Stepniewski, W. Z., "Reduction of VTOL Operational Noise Through
Flight Trajectory Management", AIAA Journal of Aircraft, Vol 10, No. 7, July 1973.

Schultz, T. J., Noise Assessment Guidelines and Tecbnical Background, HUD Report
No. TE/NA-172, 1972.

Sears, W. R. "Some Aspects of Non-Stationary Airfoil Theory and Its Practical Applica-
tion," J. of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 8, No. 3, Jan. 1941.

*" Semotan, J. and Semotanova, "Startle and Other Human Responses to Noise", J. of
- Sound and Vibration, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 480-489, 1969.

* Shahady, P.A., "A Survey of Propeller Noise Prediction Methods", Air Force Flight
Dynamics Labora~ory, Pres. at Las Vegas Symposium of the Acoustical Society of
America Septembet 1968.
I,
I',. Shahady, F.A., etal., "Reduction of Noise from Small Turbo P-ropulsion Engines",
Paper No. 74-59 presented at the AIAA 12th Aerospace Sciences Meeting, January 1974.
Shapiro, N., and Healy, G.J. "A Realistic Assessment of the Vertiport/Community

Noise Problem, "Journal of Aircraft Vol. 5, No. 4, July 1968.

Sharland, I. J., "Sources of Noise in Axial Flow Fans," J. of Sound and Vibration.
Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 302-322

Sharland, 1. J. and Leverton, J. W., "Propeller and Helicopter and Hovercraft Noise,"
Chapter 9 in Noise and Fatigue in Aeronautics, edited by Richards and Mead, John
-Wiley and Sons, 1968.
Shashady,
in ForwardA.,Motion.
Presentation of Calculated United
Report R-22673-2. Rotational Sound
Aircraft Pressure Due
Corporation to a Propeller
Pesearch Depart-
ment, East Hartford, Connecticut. January 1954

Shashady, A., Kemp, N. H., A Study of the Effective Radius in Propeller Sound Calcu-
lation and on Analytical Integration for Sound in the Far-Field. Report R-22673-3.
United Aircraft Corporation Research Department, East Hartford, Connecticut. F"abru-
ary 1954.

181
Shepard, W.S., and Wolfe, J. R., "A Study of Noise Produced by a Helicopter Rotor-
Tip Vortex Interaction," Paper presented at the Joint Symposium on Environmental
Erf,.cte on UTOL Designs, Arlington, Texas, November 1970.

Silverstein, A., Progress in Aircraft Gas Turbine Development, NASA-TM-X-52240,

Washingtoi., D.C., 1966.

Simons, 1.A, "Some Aspects of Blade/Vortex Interaction Helicopter Rotors In Forward

Flight," J. of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 268-281, 1966.

Simons, 1.A., et al., "The. Movement, Structure and Breakoown of Trailing Vortices
from a Rotor Blade," CAL USAAILABS Symposium Proceedings: Aerodynamic Problems
Associated with V/STOL Aircraft, Vol. 1, Propeller and Rotor Aerodynamics, Buffalo,
NY, June 1966.

Skudrzyk, E. J., and Haddle, G. P., "Noise Production in Turbulent Boundary Layer
by Smooth and Rough Surfaces," J. of the Acoustic Society of America, Vo. 32, No. 1,
pp. 19-34, Jan 1960.

Smith, M. J. T., "The Problem of Turbine Noise in the C!vil Gas Turbine Aero Engine,"
ICA3 Psa., 68-35, September 9, 1968.

Smith, M.J.T., and Bushell, K., "Turbine Noise, Its Significance in Civil Aircraft
Noise Problems," ASME Paper 69-WA/GT-12, Nov. 1969.

Smith, M. J. T., and House, M. E., "Internally Generated Nol-e from Gas Turbine Eng-
ines: Measurement and Prediction," J. of Engineering for Power, pp. 177-190.,
April 1967.

Snow, R., "Correlation of Broad Band Compressor Noise,", MSc Dissertation, Institute
Fmnd Biration Research, University of Southampton, 1970.

Soderman, P. T., Leading-Edge Serrations Which Reduce the Noise of Low-Speed Rotors
TN D-7371, NASA Washington, D.C., 1973.

Spencer, R. H., "The Effect of Noise Regulations on VTOL Aircraft of the Future,"
Vertiflite, Vol. 14, No. 10, pp. 2-8, Oct. 1968.

Spencer, R. H., "Application of Vortex Visualization Test Techniques to Rotor Noise

Research," Paper No. 470, presented at the 26th Annual Natienal Forum of fhe ArAeri-
can Helicopter Society, Washington D.C., June 1970.

182
Spencer, R. If. and Sterafeld, H., Jr. Measurements of Rotor Noise Levels and
Evaluation of Porous Blade Tips on CH-47A flelicoptcr, USAAVLAES TR 69-18,
U. S. Army Aviation Material Laboratories, Fort Eustis, Va., 1969

Spencer, R. et. al., Tip Vortex Core Thickening for Aplication to Helicopter Rotor
Noise Reduction USAAVLABS TR 66-1 U. S. Army Aviation Material Laboratories,
Fort Eustis, Va., 1966

Sperry, W. C., Aircraft Noise EvaluationL FAA-NO-68-34, FederalAviation Adminis-

tration, Washington, 1). C. 1968

Sperry, W. C. ; "Effect of Aircraft Noise on Environmental Quality," Federal Aviation

Administration, Washington D. C., 1970.

Sperry, W. "Aircraft Noise Exposure: Background, Methodology, and Comparisons,"

Federal Aviation Administration. Washington D.C. 1971

Spivey, W.A. "New Insights in the Design of Swept Tip Rotor Blades," Presented at
this 26th Forum of The American Helicopter Society, -1970.

Stave, A. and King R. J., The Annoyance of V/STOL Noise - Phase I, Impulee Noise
SER-50679, Sikorsky Aircraft, Stratford, Conn., 1970.

Stepaiewski, W. Z. and Schmitz, F. H., "Possibilities and Problems of Achieving

Community Noise Acceptance of VTOL", International Congregs of the Aeronautical
Sciences, ICAS Paper No. 72-34, September 1972.

Sternfeld, H. "New Techniques in Helicopter Noise Reduction," Noise Control, Vol. 7,

p.-. 4-10, May 1961.

Sterufeld, H. Influence of the Tip Vortex on Helicopter Rotor Noise NASA N68-13150,
Washington, D.C., 1968

Sternfeld H. Jr. and Hintorkeuser, E.; "Effects of Noise on Commercial V/STOL

Aircraft Design and Operation," J. of Aircraft, Vol. 7, No. 3 19,10.

Sternfeld, H. and Spencer, R. H., "Operatloual Aspects of Helicopter Noise",

Paper 855A. SAE Air Transported Space Meeting, New York, April 27-30, 1964.

Sternfeld, H. and Spencer, R. H., Recent Research in Rotor Noise Reduction, SAE
Publication No. 690684, October 1969.

Steruleld, H., Schairer, J., and Spencer, R., An Investigation of Helicopter Trans-
mission Noise Reduction by Vibration Absorbers and DampinqTR 72-34, U. S. Army
Air Mobile by Research and Development Laboratory, Fort Eustis, Va., 1972

183
Stcrneld, If., et. al., Acceptability of VTOL Noise Determined by Absolute Subjective
Testing, CR-2043, NASA, Washington, D.C. 1972.

Steriifeld, if., et. al. , An Investigation of Noise Generation and Hovering Rotor, Part
11, ilepart D210-10550-1, U.S. Army Research Office - Durham, 1972.

Sternfeld if., "Can Helicopters be Good Neighbors", Proceedings of Inter-Noise 73,

pp 438-444, 1973.

Stevens, S. S. "The Measurement of Loudness," J. Acoustical Society of America Vol.

27. No. 5, 1955.

Stevens, S. S. "Calculation of the Loudness of Complex Noise," J. Acoustical Society

of America, Vol. 28, No. 9, pp. 807-832, 1956.

Stevens, S. S., "Procedure for Calculating Loudness: Mark VI", J. of the Acoustical
Society of America, Vol. 31 No. 1 pp. 1577-1585, 1961

Stevens, S. S., "Perceived Level of Noise by Mark VII and Decibels (E)", J. of the
Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 51, pp 575-601, 1972.

Stowell, E. Z., Deming, A. F., Vortex Noise from Rotating Clindrical Rods. -NACA
519. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington, D.C. 1935.

Strahle, W. C. "On Combustion Generated Noise, "J. of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 49,
part 2, pp. 399-414, 1971.

Strahle, W. C. "Some Results in Combustion Generated Noise," J. of Souud and Vibra-

tion, Vo'. 23, No. 1, pp. 1.3-125, 1972.

Strahle, W. C., "A Review of Combustion Generated Noiae", Paper 73-1023, American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, October 1973.

Strahle, W. C. and Shivasbankara, -B. N., "Experiments of Combustion Generated Noise,,"

Presented at the Interagency Symposium, Stanford University, California, March 28-29,
1973.

Stuckey, T. J. and J. 0. Goddard, "Investigation and Prediction of Helicopter Rotor

Noise. Part I. Wessex Whirl Tower Results, "J. j.ound and Vlbration, Vol. 5, No. 1,
pp. 50-80. January 1967.

Surendraiah, ,M., An Eperimental Study of Rotor Blade - Vortex Interaction, Cr--1573,

NASA, Washington, D. C., 1970

184
Swift, G. "A Study of the Sound Pressure Field Near a Propeller In Forward Flight
With Particular Reference to Phase Evaluation, " Masters' Thesis, The University of
Southampton, 1965.

Tanner, C. S., Measurement and Analysis of Noise From Seventeen Aircraft in Level
Flight (Military, Business Jet, and General Aviation) , FAA-RD-71-98, Federal Avia-
tion Administration, Washington, D.C., 1971.

Tanner, C. S. and Glass, R. E., Analysis of Operational Noise Measurements in Terms

of Selected Human Response Noise Evaluation Measures, FAA-RD-71-112, Federal
Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C., 1971.

Tanner, H. K., and Morfey, C. L., "Sound Radiation from Broadband Forces in Circu-
lar Motion," Loughborough University of Technology, Symposium on Aerodynamic
Noise, September 14-17, 1970.

Taylor, F. W., "Helicopter Blade Slap," M. S.C. Thesis of the University of Southampton,
England, 1965.

Tedrick, R.N. and Hildenbrand, R. W., "Progress in the Development of Optionally

Quiet Turboprop Engines and Installations," Paper No. 730287 presented at the SAE
Business Aircraft Meeting, April 3-6, 1973.

Tempest, W. , "Loudness and Annoyance Due to Low Frequency Sound," Acoustic,

Vol. 29, pp. 205-209, 1973.

Theodorsen, T., General Theory of Aerodynamic Instability and the Mechanism of

Flutter, Rept. 436, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington, D.C.,
1935.

Tracor, Inc., Community Reaction to Airport Noise, CR-1761, NASA, Washington,

D. c., 1971.

Tyler, E., "Vortex Formation Behind Obstacles of Various Sections," Philosophical

Myazine.1 Vol. 11, No. 72, Apr. 1931.

Tyler, J. M., Sofrin, T. G., "Axial Flow Compressor Noise Studies," SAE Aeronautics
Meeting, 345D, 1961.

Van de Vooren, A. I. c.nd Zandbergen, P.J., "Noise Field of a Rotating Propeller in

Forward Flight," J. of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics , Vol.
1, No. 7, pp. 1518-1526, 1963.

Vogeley, A. W., Sound- Level Measurements of a Light-Atrplar.e Modified to Reduce

Noise Reaching the Ground," Report 926, NACA, Washington, D.C., 1948.

185
 of Noise inclutLdng mpLiajns of Ide.ti
Von Gierke, Hi. , Impact Charamctertzatiof Agency
Noise Exposure, Envirionmentai Protection
n Anhieving Levels of Cumulative
NrID 73.4, July 27, 1973.
Aircraft/Atort Noise Study Report,
J. of the
"Airtoil Theory for Nonuniform Motieno
Von Karman, T. and Sears, W. R.
10, Aug. 1938.
Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 5, ±io.
Vibration'
in Axial Flow Fans," J. of Sound and
Von Niekerk, C.G., "Ncise Generation
Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 31.0-311, 1968.

186
Walker, G. J. and Oliver, A. R. , "The Effect of Interaction between Wakes from
Blade Rowe in an Axial Flow Compressor on the Noise Generated by Blade Interaction",
ASM.'E Paper 72-GT-15, March 1972.

Walsh, R. G., Jr., Leading-Edge Pressure Measurements of Airfoil Vortex Inter-

action , ASRL-TR-153-1, Aeroelastic and Structures Research Laboratory, MIT,
Cambridge, Mass., !970.

Ward, J. F., "Helicopter Rotor Periodic Differential Pressure and Structural Response
Measured in Transient and Steady-State Maneuvers", .Paper No. 423 presented at the
26th Annual N.tional Forum of the American Helicopter Society, Washirigtk, . C.,
June, 1970.

Watkins, C. E., Durling, B. J., A Method for Calcuhtion of Free-Sýpace Sound -

Pressures Near a Propeller in Flight Including Considerations of tha Chordwise Blade
Loading. NACA TN 3809. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington,
D. C., November, 1956.

Watter, M., "Prog:ers Report on the Reduction of External Helicopter Noise With
Proceedings of the ARPA Workshop," IDA Research Paper, Washington, D. C. I May
24-25, 1968.

Wells, R. J., "Jury Ratings of Complex Aircraft Noise Spectra Versus Calculated
Ratings", Paper presented at the 80th meetiags of the Accustical Society of America,
November, 1D70.

Whatmore, A. R. " A Study of Transient Noise from Helicopter Rotor Blades", M. Sc.
Thesis at the Unive~sity of Southampton, 1968.

White, R. ?. ,"VTOL Periodic Aerodynamic Loadings: The Problems, What is Being

Done and What Needs to be Done", J. of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 305-
344, 1966. -

Widnall, S. E., "A Correlation of Vortex Noise Data From Helicopter Main Potors,"
Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 279-281. May-June 1969.

WidnalU, S. E., "Helicopter Noise Due to Blade-Vortex Interaction," J. of the Acoustic

Society of America, Vol. 50, No. 1, (Part 2), pp. 354-365, July 1971.

Wilkes, L. H., "Noise Research on Helicopter Rotors", Research Paper R. P. 349,

Westiand Helicopters Limited, England, 1968.

Williams. C. E.. Pearsons, K. S., and Hecker, M. I1. L., "Speech Tntelligibility in
the Presence of Time-Varying Aircraft Noise". J. of the Acoustical Soclety of America,
Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 426-434, 1971.

187
Willi:inis, C. E., et. al., The Spteech interference Effects of Aircraft Noise, FAA-DS-
67-19, Fedvral Aviation Administration, Washington, D. C. 1967.

Williams, J. M. and Berthoud, R., "Helicopter t ise in Central London", Social &
Conmmunil.y Planning Research Paper P. 184, Noveinber 1970.

Willmarth, W. W., "S)aee-Time Correlations and Spectra in Turbulent Boundary

Layer.," Memo 3-17-69W, NASA, Washington, D. C., 1-22 (1952).

Wilson, L. N., "Experimental Investigation of the Noise Generated by the Turbulent

Flow Around A Rotating Cylinder, "J. of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 32,
No. 10, pp. 1203-1207, October 1960.

Wirt, L. S., "Gas Turbine Exhaust Noise and Its Attenuation, " SAE Paper No. 1002B,
January 1965.

Woodley, D. It., "The Suppression of Power Plant Noise in Helicopters", D8-2139-1,

Boeing-VerLol, Philadelphia, Pa., 1968.

Wright, S. E., "Sound Radiation From A Lifting Rotor Generated By Asymmetric Disk
Loading," .1. of Sound and Vibration Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 223-240,1969.

Wright, S. E., "Waveguides and Rotating Sources", J. of Sound and Vibration, Vol. 25,
No. 1, pp. 163-178, 1972.

Wright, S. E., "Spectral Trends in Rotor Noise Generation." Paper No. 73-1033
preseuted at the AIAA Aero-Acoustics Conference. October 1973.

Yeowart, N. S., Bryan, NM.E., and Tempest, W., "Low Frequency Noise Thresholds",
•J. of Sound and Vibration Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 447-4j3.

Yeowart, N. S., "The Evidence for a Reduction in Calculated Noisiness and Loudness
Due to Ambient Noise" D6-25358TN, Boeing Vertol Company, Philadelphia, Pa., 1970.

Yeowart, N. S. , "Acceptable Exposure Level for Aircraft Noise in Resldential

Communities", J. of Sound and Vibration Vol. 25, No. 2, 1][72

Yudin, E. Y., On the Vortex Sound from Rotatin Rods. NACA Tech. Memo 1136.
Natior.al Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington, D.C.

Zandbergen, P. J., "On The Calcuhtion of the Propeller Noise Field Around Aircraft,"
National Aero-and Astronautical Research Institute, NLR-TM 0. 23, p. 46, Amsterdam,
Netherlands, June 1962.

188
Zepler, E. E. and Harel, J. P. , "The Loudness of Sonic Booms and Other Impulsive
Sounds", J. of Sound and Vibration V31. 2, No. 3, pp. 249-256, 1965.

Zwicker, E., Flottorp, G., and Stevens, S. S., "Critical Bandwidth in Loudness
Summation," J. of the Acoustical Society of Amet ica, Vol. 29, pp. 548-557, 1957.