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Influences on Adolescent Development & Selected Theories

Jessica Ann

University of Phoenix

EDUC/526: Overview Of Adolescent Psychology

Prof. B. Averill

February 1st, 2021

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Influences on Adolescent Development & Selected Theories

Described as the period of growth between childhood and adulthood, adolescent

development is a dramatic transformation that occurs as the result of changes in physical, social

and emotional learning, cognitive, and interpersonal phenomena. How individuals change and

grow throughout adolescence is a multidisciplinary subject at the intersection of “biology,

psychology, education, sociology, economics, anthropology, medicine and more” (Dolgin, 2018,

p. 29). Ever since G. Stanley Hall’s flagship compendium on the subject1, eminent theories have

emerged according to seven major categories: biological views (G. Stanley Hall), psychoanalytic

and psychosocial views (Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud, Erik Erikson), cognitive views (Jean

Piaget, Lev Vygotsky), ecological views (Uri Bronfenbrenner), social learning views (Albert

Bandura), and cultural views (Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict). Each theory aims to provide a

set of guiding principles that describe, predict, and explain developmental factors according to

the particular quality in review.

Developmental-Task Theory

My views on adolescent development best align with the eclectic2 approach of Robert

Havighurst’s “Developmental-Task Concept” (1943). Havighurst proposed a series of age-related

biological and psychosocial tasks, mastery of which marks development in the current stage and

promotes success in the ensuing stage. Havighurst identified eleven adolescent developmental

tasks which contribute to the overall sense of self during adolescent development (see Figure 1).

Tasks are not stage based, several may be dealt with at a time, and in no particular order. Tasks

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G. Stanley Hall was considered the “father of adolescent psychology.” His flagship research presented a biological
view where adolescent behavior was shaped by evolutionary forces (Dolgin, 2018).
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An interdisciplinary approach combining previously developed concepts.
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are influenced by three interdisciplinary factors: biology (genetics), psychology (values and

goals), and sociology (culture). Together, the tasks define a “rite of passage” approach, and have

universal appeal no matter the time (era and culture) or place (geography and culture).

In Research on the Developmental-Task Concept (1956), Havighurst acknowledges the

1930’s origin of the developmental task concept and its Freudian influences. Additionally he

compares and contrasts his own conceptualization according to the psychoanalytic and

psychosocial views of Erik Erikson. For both Erikson and Havighurst, “a developmental task is a

task that arises at or about a certain period in life, unsuccessful achievement of which leads to

inability to perform tasks associated with the next period or stage in life” (Havighurst, 1956,

para. 3). While both theorists approach a theory of development according to the

developmental-task concept, Erikson’s tasks are more broadly defined and only include

psychosocial characteristics, whereas Havighurst’s tasks include 6-10 specific bio-psychosocial3

markers. In Havighurst’s own words, “[my approach] has the advantages of bringing into focus

all the person's developmental needs [biological and psychosocial] and of enabling the educator

and the guidance specialist to take specific steps in planning educational and guidance

procedures for individuals or groups of persons” (1956, para. 10).

21st Century Influences

In the 15+ the years since I was an adolescent, the major societal factors influencing

adolescent development, (education, technology, safety, family influence, among others), have

evolved dramatically. The present day adolescent cohort4 is developing in a world far beyond my

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Containing both biological and psychosocial characteristics.
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Generation Z, is the adolescent cohort succeeding Millennials. Birth years start in the 1990s and end in the early
2010s.
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own experience, not to mention the post-war world of Havighurst5. Take for example the advent

of the world wide web, progressing from a pay-per-minute dial-up option on your desktop

computer in 1994, to its present day ubiquity as a “second brain” accessible 24/7 via a cyborg

prosthetic that never leaves your side (smart phone). Just over half of children in the United

States own a smartphone by the age of 11 (Kamanetz, 2019), while a Pew survey of U.S. teens

aged 13-17 show 95% have access to a smartphone, and 45% are online ‘almost constantly’

(Schlosser, 2018). We are just beginning to study and understand the effects of our

hyper-networked world on adolescent development. In particular, the role of the internet in

influencing developmental task progress and success. For example, how is adolescent mastery of

Havighurst’s task, “the adolescent must adjust to a new physical sense of self”, affected by a

world perceived through social media beauty filters (Toledo Center, 2020); or, “the adolescent

must adjust to new intellectual abilities”, but their ability to think about the world is constructed

by online filter bubbles designed to extract their attention at all costs (Manson, 2020); or, “the

adolescent must develop a personal sense of identity” in a world where a networked-driven

algorithm may know you are gay before you do (Thompson, 2019)?

Havighurst’s developmental-task theory provides a helpful model for understanding what

adolescents need to master in order to successfully phase into early adulthood. Stakeholders in

adolescent success (educators, parents/guardians, law enforcement, policy makers, etc) may use

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Havighurst published titles related to “Child Development and Adolescence” starting in 1943 through 1982 (Guide
to the Robert J. Havighurst Papers 1921-1991, 2008).
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the developmental task-theory as a framework to better understand how current cultural

developments6 may be helping or hurting the current adolescent cohort.

Figure 1. Pictured are the 11 major developmental tasks of adolescence outlined by

Havighurst. Image created by the author.

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According to Dolgin, there are seven current societal changes affecting the adolescent experience: “the
prolongation of adolescence, the presence of the Internet and other communication technologies, changes in the job
market and labor force, the increasing need for a prolonged education, the changing family structure, the sexual
revolution, and an increasing concern about and exposure to violence” (Dolgin, 2018).
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References

Dolgin, K. G. (2018). The adolescent: Development, relationships, and culture (14th ed.).

Pearson Education.

Havighurst, R. J. (1943). Papers, [Box#44, Folder#4], Special Collections Research Center,

University of Chicago Library

Havighurst, R. J. (1956). Research on the Developmental-Task Concept. The School Review,

64(5), 215–223. https://doi.org/10.1086/442319

Hochberg Z., 2009. “Evo-Devo of Child Growth II: Human Life History and Transition between

Its Phases.” European Journal of Endocrinology 160 (2): 135–41.

Guide to the Robert J. Havighurst Papers 1921-1991. (2008). Guide to the Robert J. Havighurst

Papers 1921-1991. https://www.lib.uchicago.edu

Kamanetz, A. (2019, October 31). It’s A Smartphone Life: More Than Half Of U.S. Children

Now Have One. NPR.

Manson, M. (2020, October 23). In The Future, Our Attention Will Be Sold. Mark Manson.

https://markmanson.net/attention

Schlosser, K. (2018, June 1). New research finds 95% of teens have access to a smartphone; 45%

online ‘almost constantly.’ GeekWire. https://www.geekwire.com/

Thompson, N. (2019, February 7). When Tech Knows You Better Than You Know Yourself.

Wired. https://www.wired.com/

Toledo Center. (2020, June 17). Body Dysmorphia, Social Media & Image Filters - Treatment

Options. Toledo Center | Eating Disorders Treatment Center. https://toledocenter.com