NACE Paper No.

MECCOCT18-12576

Relaxation Cracking – Investigation of Several Failures in Petrochemical Plants

Jahangir Quluoqlu Taghiyev

Aramco Overseas Company B.V.
Scheveningseweg 62-66
2517 KX The Hague
The Netherlands

ABSTRACT

Failures in austenitic stainless steels and nickel base alloys operating in the temperature range of 500oC-
750°C have been known for the chemical plant operators for years. Welded joints, cold deformed or
repair welded areas have known to fail after 1 or 2 years of service, despite being designed, fabricated
fully according the code requirements and operated below allowed design temperature. Many names
have been given to these brittle, inter-granular failures such as stress induced cracking, reheat cracking,
stress assisted grain boundary oxidation cracking, stress relaxation cracking (SRC) and not always
correctly, stress corrosion cracking.

This paper will review several of these failures at various operators with a focus on one of them, a
Hydrogen plant failure, and describe influencing factors along with the “what worked” solutions.
Susceptible base materials such as grades 304H, 316H, 321H, 347H and Alloy 800H and the effects of
grain size, welding imperfections, construction restraints and other stress raisers will be discussed.

These issues are all well known to the material specialists in the industry, therefore the target audience
of this paper are also project teams managing design and erection of chemical plants in general and
hydrogen plants specifically. Author hopes that the lessons derived from several case studies here can
prevent potential failures in new plants or extend life of operating ones.

Key words: stress relaxation cracking, relaxation cracking, hydrogen plants, supports, piping

INTRODUCTION

In the author’s previous paper 1 on the subject of metallurgical problems in hydrogen production units,
operation principles of the steam methane reformers (SMR), the most widespread process for obtaining
hydrogen, were reviewed and insight was given into the industry in general. Hydrogen is still one of most
green sources of energy and also more frequently used in refineries for obtaining higher quality fuels.
The paper then focused on most frequent failure mechanism (creep) of catalyst tubes that are used in

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firebox (see Figure1), the heart of the SMR. Although Nickel alloys may also suffer from relaxation
cracking but due to higher temperatures in this part of the furnace that is not the common creep type
damage mechanism encountered here.

Figure1: A steam methane reformer (SMR) in operation

This paper will go upstream of catalyst tubes into the inlet system of SMR units, where lesser
temperatures are encountered and review metallurgical issues there.

The inlet system is a complex network of piping and suspended support systems (Figure 2), which are
designed to adopt to every thermal or mechanical conditions during the plant´s lifetime.

Figure 2: Penthouse (where spring supports are fixed)

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The highest temperatures in a hydrogen reformer are encountered in the catalyst tubes of the so-called
firebox (Figure 3) where main process is taking place. The feed of steam/hydrocarbon mixture is
transported to the catalyst tubes by inlet system made of austenitic stainless steels. The feed gas here
is already preheated to approximately 600°C before entering firebox.

Figure 3: Penthouse and firebox

The heat in inlet systems is coming from the process gas running in them and is much less than the
external heat provided by burners to catalyst tubes, further down the line. This allows less expensive
steels to be used for their fabrication. In addition to creep, which is actually not so severe in this case
(except for pigtails), stress relaxation cracking and metal dusting are of core challenges to be
encountered.

Inlet assemblies comprise of piping and sub-headers, some of which are also insulated.

Usage of steels such as 304H, 321H, 347 and 347H is wide spread in the industry for inlet assemblies.
Here stress relaxation cracking is one of the core challenges to be dealt with. Nickel base alloys, due to
their known poor weldability are not a default choice for the inlet system. Austenitic stainless steel 347H
has demonstrated best properties to resisting inter-granular corrosion at these temperatures and is still
more than double less costly than Nickel base alloys.

It is well known that austenitic steels operating at 480-815°C may get sensitized by chromium carbides
precipitation at grain boundaries, in the presence of oxidizing mediums, which may lead to chromium
depletion and result in inter-granular corrosion.

The pressure part components contain many welded joints of varying thickness, resulting in high residual
stresses after welding. If these tensional stresses are not relieved and in combination with the
environmental conditions mentioned above relaxation cracking may take place.

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Due to the influence of stress, relaxation cracking is faster to occur than purely corrosion related cracking.
In inlet and outlet systems of hydrogen plants it may occur as fast as after 6 months of runtime but also,
depending the level of stress and environment can last up to 16 months of runtime. However mostly it’s
taking place in the first year of operation.

Relaxation cracking does not need a corrosive environment to occur. Sufficient stress, temperature and
a susceptible structure of metal is a driving force of failure. It is basically a creep mechanism2. External
appearance of these defects is also different.

The SRC failures can be identified by following features:

• The cracks are located at the grain boundary and in front of the crack small isolated cavities are
present.
• Often a metallic filament is identified on the cracked grain boundaries. This filament is enclosed
by a Chromium rich oxide layer. Low volume of Ni and Fe is present in the oxide layer. The
detected metallic filament is low in Cr and high in Ni and Fe (in some materials e.g., alloy 617 no
filament is present.).
• Hardness at the crack location is >200 HV (load > 1 kg).
• Brittle appearance, visually no deformation.

FAILURE MECHANISM

Relaxation cracking belongs to the family of cold cracks due to its appearing in solid state of metal, when
no molten phases exist.

Relaxation cracking is a mechanical mechanism and can be simulated in laboratory without any specific
corrosive environment. 2 Figure 4 shows relation of part thickness and temperature to relaxation. Thicker
sections are prone to relaxation at even lesser temperatures. However, stress induced by welding
contribute dramatically to the strain rate increase.

Figure 4: Relaxation vs Stress / Thickness 3

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Relaxation cracking occurs predominantly in on grain borderline and is therefore inter-granular. This is
due to the fact that grains of susceptible steels are usually stronger than their borderline after
sensitization, and precipitation of carbides. Under influence of acting forces, the crack follows an easier
path.

Sensitization at elevated temperatures happens by chromium carbides precipitation at grain boundaries,

in presence of oxidizing mediums, which may lead to chromium depletion and result in inter-granular
corrosion. Above 500°C many austenitic microstructures show an age hardening behavior.

Materials with a high creep ductility can easily withstand the inelastic strains due to relaxation. However,
when the material exhibits (local) limited creep ductility, severe cracking can develop during service,
leading to failure. During age hardening many very fine matrix particles will precipitate within the grains,
through which the hardness level will be dramatically increased and the deformation capacity reduced.
The amount size and location of the precipitates is not only determined by the operating temperature and
chemical composition of the specific heat, but also by the dislocation density. When the dislocation
density is high the precipitation processes accelerate. Very small matrix particles will precipitate on the
dislocations and will also pin them. As a result of this phenomenon, the deformation possibility within the
grains is blocked.

It must be noted however that despite being a wide spread phenomenon in welding of austenitic stainless
steel and nickel base alloys, the basic damage principles of SRC are still not fully understood.1

CASE STUDIES

Three cases have been reviewed closely and similar features were identified in all cases. All three cases
took place in hydrogen producing unit inlet systems with similar design temperatures and pressures.
Materials grade in all cases is stabilized austenitic stainless steel type 347H, however thicknesses vary.
See overview in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Reviewed Cases

Location Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

GERMANY INDIA SWEDEN

Material 347H 347H 347H

PWHT - NO PWHT - NO PWHT - YES
Design P. 34.5 Barg 33.5 Barg 39.0 Barg

Design T. 680°C 690°C 695°C

600°C operating 580°-600°C
Runtime ~16 Months ~8 Months < 6 Months

What failed? 10” x 12.5 mm pipe wall 18” x 23.83 mm pipe wall 1 out of 6 failed
at Reinforcing plates of at Reinforcing plates of 8” Weldolet at 20” pipe.
several supports. several supports. RELAXATION?
7 locations found. No investigation
performed.

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No PWHT was performed in 2 out of 3 above cases, since most design codes do not prescribe PWHT
for these materials and thicknesses. In the third case, the customer didn’t not allow proper investigation
and didn’t provide operational data. The repair was done, without any lab failure analysis and therefore
it couldn’t be established if this case is also relaxation cracking or something else but all signs of that
existed from preliminary review.

Investigation of cases 1 and 2 analyzed also the overall design of the piping and supports, as well as
erection processes. Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA) and based on that finite element analysis
(FEA) demonstrated higher stress values in sections of the cross over piping that were fixed to a structure
with a rigid strut (see Figure 5) allowing vertical movements but limiting horizontal movement and twisting.
The supports were welded onto the pipe, over a reinforcing pad. In both cases it was the weld of the
reinforcing pad weld that cracked from its toes and into the base metal.

Figure 5: Rigid stud attached to a welded support

Figure 6: Cracked pads of horizontal guides

In Case 1 not only the pads carrying rigid struts but also reinforcing pads of horizontal guides cracked
located not far from the highest strain area although there was no obvious external force acting (see
Figure 6). The system endured the forces for 18 months and then failed.

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The failure investigation consisted of data gathering, design issues, related forces and moments on the
crack locations and metallurgical analysis.

Laboratory reports demonstrated typical features of a relaxation crack. Presence of filaments, oxides and
cavities along with inter-granular cracks and cavities (see Figures 7 and 8 below).

Figure 7: Macrospecimen from case 1 shows crack propagation and branching

Figure 8: Typical stress relaxation cracking with filaments in the cracks

The cracking case 1 was finally attributed to design mistakes, which lead to overstraining and relaxation.
All cracked parts were replaced, welded supports were also replaced by clamped guides. All welds were
PWHT at the recommended values indicated below.

In Case 2, seven supports were found cracked (see Figure 9) after 8 months of runtime. No PWHT was
performed after welding. During metallurgical analysis, similar features were found as in Case 1. Metallic
filaments in the middle of the cracks surrounded by Cr-rich oxide layers and oriented cavities (black spots)
can be seen in Figure 10.

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 Figure 9: Cracked reinforcing pad

Figure 10: Cracks with filaments and oxide layers

Figure 11: Corrosion attack on surface of the material

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Low volumes of Ni and Fe were present in the oxide layer. On the contrary the filament was high in Ni
and Fe but low in Cr. Note also surface corrosion attack (Figure11), which is not attributed to the cause
of the cracking. Failure was attributed also to relaxation cracking; however additional investigation was
carried out into corrosion issues and was found to be related to external chloride attack due to wrong
insulation. Corrosion process kicked off after material was sensitized by temperature.

Figure 11: Inlet system piping layout

Figure 12: Case 2. Original, welded support, no PWHT

All piping and insulation had to be replaced, stabilization heat treated, tested for corrosion sensitivity and
coated (as per Customer requirement). The support design was also changed to replace welded supports
by clamping system as in Case 1. See old design in Figure 12 and new design (clamping shoes) in Figure
18.

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All new welds were PWHT (see recommended parameters below). Other pipe to pipe welds were
successfully NDT tested for integrity.

Case 3 was an insulated header at which welded branch connections cracked see piping layout in
Figure13 and crack photo in Figure14.

Figure 13: Case 3 leak location and piping layout

Figure 14: Through thickness crack of the 8” weld

The investigation was limited due to access to operational data as well as speedy repair conducted by
the customer (Figure 15). However, during PWHT cracks reappeared (Figure 16). The repair was only
successful after a second attempt with a low stress welding process, followed by peening and PWHT
(Figure 17).

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Figure 15: Sketch of the crack, before initial repair and related weld preparation

Figure 16: 1st repair showing no cracks. Cracks found in weld metal after PWHT

Figure 17: 2nd successful repair

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 PREVENTIVE MEASURES

Since stress relaxation cracking it is a creep mechanism, materials generally resistant to creep, can also
resist this damage mechanism. It can be avoided by selection of relaxation resistive material at the
required temperature or by heat treatment after deformation/welding (especially repair welding of aged
base material) to reduce the residual internal stresses.

Adapting the layout of the construction might avoid additional residual stresses, e.g., in pigtails add a
straight part to avoid combining bending stresses and welding stresses. Where possible, avoid welding,
e.g. clamping

Figure 18: New support design

Stress concentrators such as welding defects shall also be taken in consideration, especially undercuts,
lack of fusion, lack of penetration and solidification cracking. 2

Specialized testing methods have been developed to detect the susceptibility to SRC of base metals as
well as welded metals. Performing such tests on purchased material and welded metal (during
qualification stage) for susceptibility to relaxation cracking may help to avoid issues later. An example of
such a test is the Gleeble stress-relaxation testing at elevated temperatures (600°C - 900°C). This is
basically a tensile test conducted at high temperatures, which allows to identify a ductility dip of materials.
Welded joints can also be tested using a 4-point 4 or a 3-point 5 bending technique.

Annealing is the heat treatment of base materials that is among its other benefits, designed to remove
residual stresses from rolling operations. Austenitic materials are known for their poor thermal
conductivity, when subjected to heat treatment the temperature differences will occur between its outer
and inner surface. Due to this, if not heated and cooled at proper temperatures and speed, additional
stress may be induced and result to stress cracking at higher temperatures.

TNO † has tested more than 22 alloys for susceptibility to SRC and here are some that are applicable in
hydrogen production units (see Table 2):

† Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research, Anna van Buerenplein 1, NL-2595 DA The Hague.

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 Table 2: PWHT Recommendations for Different Alloys

Operating
Material PWHT HT after deformation
temperature (oC)
SS 304H 560-625 875o C / 3hrs, air cool 875o C / 3hrs, air cool
SS 316H 525-600 875o C / 3hrs, air cool 875o C / 3hrs, air cool
SS 321H 525-600 875o C / 3hrs, air cool 930o C / 3hrs, air cool
SS 347H 525-600 875o C / 3hrs, air cool 930o C / 3hrs, air cool
Alloy 800H(T) 580-720 875o C / 3hrs, air cool 980o C / 3hrs, air cool

Normally elbows/fittings made of austenitic alloys are heat treated after forming at 1150°C. Therefore, it
is recommended that only heavy sections with concentrations of stresses will be post weld heat treated.
(like heavy weldolet welds, etc.)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author appreciates the help of Mr. Yasser Y. Shafie for his support and inspiration during this work.

REFERENCES

1. J. Taghiyev, “Challenges of welding of catalyst tubes and outlet assemblies”, Proceedings of Material
Performance and Welding Technology Conference, Dammam, KSA, 2017.
2. C.E. van der Westhuizen, “Stress Relaxation Cracking of Welded Joints in Thick Sections of Type 347
Stabilized Grade of Stainless Steel”, 12th Middle East Corrosion Conference, paper 08454.
3. M. Holthaus, “Stainless and heat resistant steels”, IWE course material.
4. J.C. van Wortel; Relaxation Cracking in the Process Industry, an Underestimated Problem; in: Baltica
IV: Plant Maintenance for Managing Life and Performance.
5. J.C. Lippold; “Recent Developments in Weldability Testing for Advanced Materials,” Joining of
Advanced and Specialty Materials VII; Proceedings from Materials Solutions 2004.

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