Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Embedded within India’s most ancient text, the nature of cultural products – all these types of
Ṛgveda, there is a hymn portraying a conversa- hair manipulation, I hope to show, communicate
tion of a young girl, Apālā, with the god Indra. She deeply social, and socially understood, meanings,
makes this request: placing the individual whose hair is so manipu-
lated in different relationships both to the broader
Indra, make these three surfaces grow forth –
society and to the segment of that society to which
the head of my Papa, the field, and this on my
that individual belongs.
belly. That field of ours, this body of mine,
and my Papa’s head – make all these hairy. Groomed and controlled hair is the hallmark
(ṚV. 8.91; trans. Brereton & Jamison; for an of people, in a special way of adult males and
examination of this text, see Schmidt, 1987; females, with publicly recognized roles within
Vajracharya, 1988) society (Hallpike, 1969). The “controlled social
hair” of such individuals, especially of married
We have in this ancient text a clear link among males, is the point of reference of most – although
grass or grain in a field, the hair on a man’s head, not necessarily of all – other hair manipulations
and the pubic hair of a pubescent girl. Here from which they derive their meaning and signifi-
we have a clear and unambiguous connection cance. The control of hair may be achieved by var-
between hair and fertility and/or → sexuality, a ious means. The hair of an adult female, especially
connection that I will explore further during the a married woman, is long but oiled and groomed
course of this study. and restrained by a knot, by one or several braids,
In most human societies known to us, hair – or by some other means; some women may even
especially hair on the head – has been used in cover their hair, especially when they appear in
a variety of contexts, both religious and non- public. The distinctive ways in which hair is worn
religious, to communicate an array of socially by adult males and females clearly symbolize their
recognized meanings and to locate individuals different → gender roles. Even though short hair
and groups employing a particular form of hair appears to be distinctive of the male in modern
manipulation within specific social and religious South Asia, the picture is less clear in ancient and
institutions and roles. My aim in this paper is to medieval periods. Both males and females are
present a broad survey of hair within the Hindu depicted in Indian art and sculpture, for exam-
traditions of India, although I will have occasion ple, with long hair but with distinctive coiffures
to comment on parallels in other traditions, such (Padma, 1991). What is common to both genders
as the Buddhist and Jain. is that their hair is groomed and controlled, and
this seems to signal the individual’s full participa-
tion within society and social structures.
Practices The groomed control of hair is especially
demanded when people present themselves in
In India symbolic manipulations of hair appear as public. Thus, when a person appears in pub-
variations of three central themes: lic with loose and uncontrolled hair, it carries
1. the groomed control of hair; a variety of publicly recognized meanings and
2. shaving the hair of the head (in the case of messages. Loose hair, especially of women, is
adult males, this may involve also the shaving of a sign of domestic informality and even of sex-
the beard); and ual intimacy. In sculpture, for example, erotic
3. the neglect of hair resulting in either loose couples are depicted with loose and flowing
unkempt hair or dirty matted hair, often accom- hair (Padma, 1991, 266–267). In iconography
panied by the neglect of nails and, in the case of disheveled and flying hair may indicate the
males, of the beard. demonic and the female outside of male control,
Without denying the possibility of personal as in representations of → Kālī (Marglin, 1985).
meanings (Obeyesekere, 1981) – which, after It may also signal liminal and dangerous status.
all, are only to be expected, given the dialectic Mendicants, for example, are warned not to beg