Describe and briefly discuss the following as context for 19th and early 20th century theorizing

about inequality and capitalism.

16th and 17th century Enclosure Acts (Marx and Engels-the communist manifesto, 1848)

The current industrial society is characterized by class conflict between the bourgeoisie

and proletariat. The Manifesto demonstrates that the modern bourgeoisie is a product of various

revolutions resulting from production and exchange. Bourgeoisie development started in the

original towns and gained impetus during the Exploration period since feudal unions failed to

deliver for the ever-increasing markets, leading to their places being taken by middle-class

manufacturers (Neilson, 2018). The markets kept developing and demand increasing, leading to

manufacturing being unable to keep up with the increase. Consequently, this led to the Industrial

Revolution leading to modern industry replacing manufacturers and the manufacturing middle

class substituted by "industrial billionaires," that is, the contemporary bourgeois. The expansions

have seen bourgeois turn out to be more dominant, thus pushing medieval classes into the

background. Hence, the development of the class of bourgeoisie completed a series of political

expansions in the modern business and world market that has seen them gain elite political

power (Neilson, 018). Consequently, the bourgeoisie has changed all fields into wage-laboring,

even those that were initially privileged.

The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade (Black Reconstruction, 1930, "Colored Women as wage-

earners," 1892)

The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade has significantly contributed to human capital and

unequal racial distribution, particularly with consequences in education and income inequalities.

Income inequality is a key aspect both in public and political arguments. Attainment of education
is a critical causal aspect of continuing inequality because it influences human capital

accumulation, which leads to unequal earing distribution (Inikori, 2020). Educational inequality

is a demonstration of racial dimension that is mainly persistent and challenging to root out

through policy measures. The basis of this inequality is the colonial slave labor institution that

was spread out in Latin America and the United States until the nineteenth century. Nonetheless,

the implications of slavery differ greatly across regions and countries. For example, the relation

between slavery and educational outcomes is significant in the US compared to other regions. On

the other hand, Latin America is characterized by dominant inequalities in terms of education

and income.

The slavery institution is a key factor in conditioning race relationships, particularly

racial inequality alongside various dimensions such as education and human capital. The history

of slavery in the US is extensive because the American Civil War's aftermath led to high literacy

amongst African Americans. Certainly, this obstacle has subsequently been experienced by

African American children in obtaining education, which is broadly believed to represent the

channel in which inequalities were perpetrated (Inikori, 2020). The current territories

representing the US are the ones in which slavery was introduced in the sixteenth century, which

escalated through centuries with approximately 650,000 slaves brought in from Africa.

Therefore, human capital transmission has a connection between the present racial gaps and

slavery in school attainment, a confirmation of the source of education inequality deeply rooted

in the US's history.

Reconstruction Era and post-reconstruction era in the United States (Anna Julia Cooper,

1892)
 The reconstruction age in the history of the US happened between 1865 and 1877

following the American Civil war with the aim to readdress slavery inequalities in line with an

economic, social, and political legacy to resolve problems that were originating from the

readmission of the eleven state union that had split before or at the war outbreak. The national

discussion regarding Reconstruction started in the course of the Civil War in 1863 after President

Abraham Lincoln had issued the ten percent plan's Emancipation Proclamation. One-tenth of the

country's prewar electorates took a loyalty oath to inaugurate a new state administration. The

attempt was to weaken the Confederacy instead of the southern postwar South blueprint

(Foner, 2021). Though it was brought into action in some parts of the Union-occupied

Confederacy, none of the new administrations received local support. In 1864, Congress passed

the Wade-Davis Bill that led to a delay in establishing new Southern administrations until most

of the electorates had taken a loyalty vow. After Lincoln's assassination, President Andrew

Johnson inaugurated a period of Presidential Reconstruction (1865-77). During this period,

Johnson gave a pardon to all Southern whites except wealthy planters and Confederate leaders,

thus restoring political rights to all people except slaves.

While Johnson was a southern Democrat and a former enslaver, Republicans anticipated

him to continue Lincoln’s agenda. He made no attempt to integrate Back people into southern

institutions. Instead, he allowed former Confederate states to create all-white administrations that

led to establishing a slavery-like system that ensured white dominance and exploitation of Backs

(Foner, 2021). For instance, in 1865, all-white legislatures passed draconian Black Codes that

curtailed Black individual ability to rent or own property, and free movement, which

significantly contributed to inequalities experienced today in the US between white and African

Americans.
Johnstown (1889) and Mississippi (1927) Floods

The Johnstown flood of 1889 could have been prevented, but inequality played a major

role in the failure to protect Johnstown because of wealth. However, due to wealth inequality

between the club members and Johnstown residents where the rich exerted an influence upon

politics bending commerce to their advantage, something led to the loss of many people in flood.

Regarding the Great Mississippi River Flood of 1927 demonstrated social inequalities across the

region because planters and business elites exploited black immigrants and the poor for

individual gains. This flood could have been controlled, but the weak national government in

relation to states in the Lower Mississippi Valley led to the floods. While the government started

building massive levees in most parts, the problem came from the adopted administrative policy

tasked with justifying the construction (Deem, 2017). As a result, this led to conflict between

civil engineers and the federal government, with the government demanding levees-only

construction that led to the project's failure.

Industrial Capitalism

The rise in income inequality in many Western world countries has become a major

debate among policymakers, social science, and economists. Consequently, many economists

have turned to the past to gain more insight in regards to the underlying logic of inequality

movements over time. At the beginning of the 16th-century, names such as king and God led the

expedition and conquered large regions in America's pillaging, massacring, and amassing

extraordinary treasures. Similarly, during the eighteenth-century, wealth was discovered in the

name of freedom and nature by economists. National accord was developed around the king and

against feudalism and against other kings through successive wars. The growing class took

shelter in loyal power against the nobility, promoting their interests (Glassman, 2017). Another
factor that has amplified inequality is the dominance of colonialism that led to the exploitation of

native slaves who gave labor that significantly contributed to the enrichment of colonial

governments. In the sixteenth century, a lot of wealth passed through royal treasuries, and in the

eighteenth-century, wealth was first handled by companies developed by colonial governments

and financers (Glassman, 2017). The increase in conflicting interests led to oppose the European

bourgeoisie against colonist’s descendants. The colonial descendants fought in the name of

European bourgeoisies’ ideas such as freedom and democracy using slave labor to massacre

Indians. Consequently, this led to monopoly power, where colonial companies used to pay

workers' wages lower than their productivity. As a result, workers have no option but to work for

meager wages; hence capitalists accrue more profit than other people.

Colonialism/Imperialism

The present increased economic inequality being experienced in the world never

happened overnight. It is a path-depended consequence of several historical processes, with the

European colonialism being the leading cause. Indeed, colonialism has significantly contributed

to modern inequality in a number of ways. For instance, the Americas' discovery led to the

emergence of major colonial projects that started in the Americas and later spread to Asia and

Africa. Although it aided in spurring economic and institutional development, the industrial

revolution was made with certain prerequisites. Economic development operated with different

institutional conditions. In places such as Britain, the early struggle against monarchy led to

parliament that gave society an upper hand. Also, the Americas' discovery led to further

empowerment of industrial and mercantile groups who significantly benefited from the new

economic opportunities that led to the fight for improved economic and political institutions

(Altman & Wheat, 2019). On the other hand, for other places like Spain, where initial political
institutions and power balance were not the same as in Britain, the outcome was dissimilar.

Society was dominated by a monarchy, economic and trade opportunities, which led to weaker

political institutions and a decline in the economy, as demonstrated in the Communist Manifesto

by Marx and Engels. Colonialism impacted different societies that it colonized; for example, in

Latin America, which had a dense population of indigenous persons, colonial society was created

based on exploiting them.

 References

Inikori, J. E. (2020). Atlantic slavery and the rise of the capitalist global economy. Current

Anthropology, 61(S22), S159-S171.

Foner, E. (2021). Confederate States of America. Retrieved March 25, 2021, from

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-States-of-America

Glassman, R. M. (2017). The Class Structure of Industrial Capitalism. In The Origins of

Democracy in Tribes, City-States, and Nation-States (pp. 1705-1717). Springer, Cham.

Altman, I., & Wheat, D. (Eds.). (2019). The Spanish Caribbean and the Atlantic World in the

Long Sixteenth Century. U of Nebraska Press.

Neilson, D. (2018). Class, uneven development, and praxis: Beyond the 'Communist manifesto'

hauntology. New Zealand Sociology, 33(3), 3-32.

Deem, D. (2017). The Great Flood of 1927 and Nature’s Propensity to Create Human Conflict.