OVERVIEW OF THE BODY SYSTEMS

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

 Consists of two semi-independent parts
 A meandering network of lymphatic vessels
 Lymphoid tissues and organs scattered throughout the body
 Returns interstitial fluid and leaked plasma proteins back to the blood
 Lymph – interstitial fluid once it has entered lymphatic vessels
Functions
 Draining excess interstitial fluid and plasma proteins from tissue spaces
 Transporting dietary lipids and vitamins from GI tract to the blood
 Facilitating immune responses
 Recognize microbes or abnormal cells and responding by killing them directly or secreting
antibodies that cause their destruction

Lymphatic Vessels
 A one-way system in which lymph flows toward the heart
 Lymph vessels include:
 Microscopic
 Permeable
 Blind-ended capillaries
 Lymphatic collecting vessels
 Trunks and ducts
Lymphatic Capillaries
 Similar to blood capillaries, with modifications
 Remarkably permeable
 Loosely joined endothelial minivalves
 The minivalves function as one-way gates that:
 Allow interstitial fluid to enter lymph capillaries
 Do not allow lymph to escape from the capillaries
 Withstand interstitial pressure and remain open

Lymphatic Trunks
 Lymph is delivered into one of two large trunks
 Right lymphatic duct – drains the right upper arm and the right side of the head and thorax
 Thoracic duct – arises from the cisterna chyli and drains the rest of the body
Lymph Transport
 The lymphatic system lacks an organ that acts as a pump
 Vessels are low-pressure conduits
 Uses the same methods as veins to propel lymph
 Pulsations of nearby arteries
 Contractions of smooth muscle in the walls of the lymphatics
Lymphoid Cells
 Lymphocytes are the main cells involved in the immune response
 The two main varieties are T cells and B cells
 Lymphocytes
 T cells and B cells protect the body against antigens
 Antigen – anything the body perceives as foreign
 Bacteria and their toxins; viruses
 Mismatched RBCs or cancer cells
 T cells - manage the immune response; attack and destroy foreign cells
 B cells - produce plasma cells, which secrete antibodies; antibodies immobilize antigens
Other Lymphoid Cells
 Macrophages – phagocytize foreign substances and help activate T cells
 Dendritic cells – spiny-looking cells with functions similar to macrophages
 Reticular cells – fibroblastlike cells that produce a stroma, or network, that supports other
cell types in lymphoid organs
Lymphoid Tissue
 Diffuse lymphatic tissue
 Lymphatic follicles (nodules)
 Lymph nodes
 Diffuse lymphatic tissue – scattered reticular tissue elements in every body organ (not enclosed
by a capsule)
 Larger collections appear in the lamina propria of mucous membranes and lymphoid organs.
 Found outside of lymphatic system organs
 Lymphatic follicles (nodules) – solid, spherical bodies consisting of tightly packed reticular
elements and cells
 Have a germinal center composed of dendritic and B cells
 Found in isolation and as part of larger lymphoid organs.
 Local concentrations of lymphocytes in these systems and other areas
Lymph Nodes
 Lymph nodes are the principal lymphoid organs of the body
 Nodes are imbedded in connective tissue and clustered along lymphatic vessels
 Aggregations of these nodes occur near the body surface in inguinal, axillary, and cervical
regions of the body
 Their two basic functions are:
 Filtration – macrophages destroy microorganisms and debris
 Immune system activation – monitor for antigens and mount an attack against them
Structure of a Lymph Node
 Nodes are bean shaped and surrounded by a fibrous capsule
 Trabeculae extended inward from the capsule and divide the node into compartments
 Nodes have two histologically distinct regions: a cortex and a medulla

Circulation in the Lymph Nodes

 Lymph enters via a number of afferent lymphatic vessels
 It then enters a large subcapsular sinus and travels into a number of smaller sinuses
 It meanders through these sinuses and exits the node at the hilus via efferent vessels
 Because there are fewer efferent vessels, lymph stagnates somewhat in the node
 This allows lymphocytes and macrophages time to carry out their protective functions
Other Lymphoid Organs
 The spleen, thymus gland, and tonsils
 Peyer’s patches and bits of lymphatic tissue scattered in connective tissue
 All are composed of reticular connective tissue and all help protect the body
 Only lymph nodes filter lymph
Spleen
 Largest lymphoid organ, located on the left side of the abdominal cavity beneath the diaphragm
 It extends to curl around the anterior aspect of the stomach
 It is served by the splenic artery and vein, which enter and exit at the hilus
Functions
 Site of lymphocyte proliferation
 Immune surveillance and response
 Cleanses the blood by removing old RBC
 Stores breakdown products of RBCs for later reuse
 Spleen macrophages salvage and store iron for later use by bone marrow
 Site of fetal erythrocyte production (normally ceases after birth)
 Stores blood platelets
Structure of the Spleen
  Surrounded by a fibrous capsule, it has trabeculae that extend inward and contains lymphocytes,
macrophages, and huge numbers of erythrocytes
 Two distinct areas of the spleen are:
 White pulp – area containing mostly lymphocytes suspended on reticular fibers and involved in
immune functions
 Red pulp – remaining splenic tissue concerned with disposing of worn-out RBCs and bloodborne
pathogens

Thymus
 A bilobed organ that secrets hormones (thymosin and thymopoietin) that cause T lymphocytes to
become immunocompetent
 The size of the thymus varies with age
 In infants, it is found in the inferior neck and extends into the mediastinum where it partially
overlies the heart
 It increases in size and is most active during childhood
 It stops growing during adolescence and then gradually atrophies
Internal Anatomy
 Thymic lobes contain an outer cortex and inner medulla
 The cortex contains densely packed lymphocytes and scattered macrophages
 The medulla contains fewer lymphocytes and thymic (Hassall’s) corpuscles
Functions
 The thymus differs from other lymphoid organs in important ways
 It functions strictly in T lymphocyte maturation
 It does not directly fight antigens
 The stroma of the thymus consists of star-shaped epithelial cells (not reticular fibers)
 These star-shaped thymocytes secrete the hormones that stimulate lymphocytes to become
immunocompetent
Tonsils
 Simplest lymphoid organs; form a ring of lymphatic tissue around the pharynx
Location
 Palatine tonsils – either side of the posterior end of the oral cavity
 Lingual tonsils – lie at the base of the tongue
 Pharyngeal tonsil – posterior wall of the nasopharynx
 Tubal tonsils – surround the openings of the auditory tubes into the pharynx
 Lymphoid tissue of tonsils contains follicles with germinal centers
 Tonsil masses are not fully encapsulated
 Epithelial tissue overlying tonsil masses invaginates, forming blind-ended crypts
 Crypts trap and destroy bacteria and particulate matter
Peyer’s Patches
 Isolated clusters of lymphoid tissue, similar to tonsils
 Found in the wall of the distal portion of the small intestine
 Similar structures are found in the appendix
 Peyer’s patches and the appendix:
 Destroy bacteria, preventing them from breaching the intestinal wall
 Generate “memory” lymphocytes for long-term immunity

Malt
 Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue is composed of:
 Peyer’s patches, tonsils, and the appendix (digestive tract)
 Lymphoid nodules in the walls of the bronchi (respiratory tract)
 Protects the digestive and respiratory systems from foreign matter
Lymphedema
THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
 A closed system of the heart and blood vessels. The heart pumps blood into blood vessels which
circulate the blood to all parts of the body, to ALL cells.
Functions
 To deliver oxygen and nutrients to all body cells, transport enzymes and hormones, and to remove
carbon dioxide and other waste products from the cells
Anatomy of the Heart
 The heart is medial to the lungs, posterior to the sternum, anterior to the vertebral column, and
superior to the diaphragm. Its distal end, the apex, points to the left, terminating at the level
of the 5th intercostal space.
Coverings
 Pericardium (or pericardial sac)
 Fibrous pericardium
= sac made of tough connective tissue
 Double layered serous membrane
= parietal pericardium
= visceral pericardium (epicardium) - covers the heart
 Serous fluid fills the pericardial cavity between parietal & visceral layers
Heart Wall
 Epicardium (visceral pericardium) - outside layer of connective tissue on surface of the heart
 Myocardium - thick wall of cardiac muscle
 Endocardium - inner epithelial and connective tissue lining of heart and valves
Four Chambers of the Heart
 Atrium (R & L) - receive blood; each atria extends into a smaller, external chamber called an
auricle
 Ventricle (R & L) - inferior to the atria; expel blood out of the heart
- The chambers on the left are separated from the chambers on the right by a septum (wall of
cardiac muscle) - interatrial septum and interventricular septum
Heart Valves
 Are flaps that allow blood to flow in only one direction
Atrioventricular (AV) valves
 Between each atrium and ventricle, allow blood flow from each atrium down into the ventricle
bicuspid/mitral valve (left side), tricuspid valve (right side)
Semilunar (SV) valves - between ventricle and major heart artery; allow blood flow out of each ventricle
through one of the major heart arteries; 3 cusps pulmonary valve (R ventricle & pulmonary trunk), aortic
valve (L ventricle & aorta)
The valve cusps are held in place by chordae tendineae (“heart strings”) which originate from
papillary muscles protruding from the inside of the ventricle wall

VALVE FUNCTION
when a chamber wall contracts blood is pumped through a valve
any backflow increases pressure on the cusps and closes the valves
AV valves close during ventricular contraction; papillary muscles also contract pulling the chordae
tendineae which keep the valve cusps from prolapsing back into the atrium

HEARTBEAT SOUND
“lub” = when AV valves close
“dup” = when semilunar valves close

VALVE PATHOLOGY
an incompetent valve can lead to backflow, heard as a “heart murmur” and repumping (regurgitation) of
the same blood
stenosis = narrowing of valve increases workload on heart to pump out blood
Treatment: valve repair or replacement

BLOOD PATHWAY
MAJOR BLOOD VESSELS
aorta carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to upper & lower body
pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to lungs
vena cava carries deoxygenated blood from upper & lower body into right atria
pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from lungs into left atria

CARDIAC CYCLE
A cardiac cycle refers to the series of contractions & relaxations of the heart to produce a complete
heartbeat
diastole : relaxation
I. Atria and ventricles fill with blood
II. Atria contract (simultaneously) to complete the filling of ventricles; ventricles are relaxed
systole : contraction
III. Atria and ventricles fill with blood
III. Atria contract (simultaneously) to complete the filling of ventricles; ventricles are relaxed

CONDUCTION SYSTEM
is an intrinsic, nodal conduction system that regulates heart wall contractions via electrical impulses
Specialized muscle tissue regulates contractions by carrying nerve impulses

NOTE: Heart muscle cells contract without nerve impulses in a regular, continuous way; the pacemaker
“overrides” and sets the heart rate

Sinoatrial (SA) node = “pacemaker” (located in the wall of the right atrium)
Atrioventricular (AV) node (in septum at the junction of the R & L atria
Atrioventricular bundle or Bundle of His (in the interventricular septum)
Bundle branches (right and left)
Purkinje fibers (in the myocardium wall)

PATHOLOGY OF THE CONDUCTION SYSTEM

Fibrillation: an irregular & often rapid heart rate; decreases blood flow
Tachycardia: more than 100 beats/min
Bradycardia: less than 60 beats/min

POSSIBLE CAUSES OF ATRIAL FIBRILLATION

High blood pressure or Heart attacks
Abnormal heart valves
Congenital heart defects (you're born with)
An overactive thyroid gland
Stimulants (medications, caffeine, tobacco, alcohol)
improper functioning of SA node
Emphysema or other lung diseases
Viral infections
Stress due to pneumonia, surgery
Sleep apnea

ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG OR EKG): is a recording of the electrical changes in the myocardium during a
cardiac cycle
 mV

Time , ms e c

P wave : atria depolarize

QRS c o mple x: ventricles depolarize
T wave : end of electrical activity in ventricles;
repolarization of ventricular muscles

CARDIAC OUTPUT: amount of blood pumped by the ventricle in one minute

amount of blood pumped by the ventricle in one minute
FORMULA:
(heart rate) x (stroke volume*)
* volume of blood pumped by a ventricle in one contraction

NORMAL CARDIAC OUTPUT

(75 beats/min) x (70 mL/beat)
5000 mL/min
5 L/min

Q: How long does it take for a RBC to make a roundtrip through the body (via systemic circuit)?
A: The entire blood supply passes through body once every minute.

• Increases heart rate

• Sympathetic nervous system
ü Crisis
ü Low blood pressure
• Hormones
ü Epinephrine
ü Thyroxine
• Exercise
• Decreased blood volume

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings S lid e

11.21

• Decreases heart rate

• Parasympathetic nervous system
• High blood pressure or blood volume
ed • Decreased venous return
• In congestive heart failure the heart is
worn out and pumps weakly. Digitalis
works to provide a slow, steady, but
stronger beat.

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings S lid e

1 1 .2 2

CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE (CHF)

Decline in pumping efficiency of heart
Inadequate circulation
Progressive, also coronary atherosclerosis, high blood pressure and history of multiple Myocardial
Infarctions
Left side fails = pulmonary congestion and suffocation
Right side fails = peripheral congestion and edema

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Muscles are responsible for all types of body movement. The three basic muscle types are found in the
body
Skeletal muscle
Cardiac muscle
Smooth muscle
FUNCTIONS:
Produce movement
Maintain posture
Stabilize joints
Generate heat

CHARACTERISTICS:
Muscle cells are elongated
(muscle cell = muscle fiber)
Contraction of muscles is due to the movement of microfilaments
All muscles share some terminology
Prefix myo refers to muscle (myocardial)
Prefix mys refers to muscle (myastenia gravis)
Prefix sarco refers to flesh (sarcolema)

SKELETAL MUSCLES
Most are attached by tendons to bones
Cells are multinucleate
Striated – have visible banding
Voluntary – subject to conscious control
Cells are surrounded and bundled by connective tissue
Endomysium – around single muscle fiber
Perimysium – around a fascicle (bundle) of fibers
Epimysium – covers the entire skeletal muscle
Fascia – on the outside of the epimysium

Epimysium blends into a connective tissue attachment

Tendon – cord-like structure
Aponeuroses – sheet-like structure
Sites of attachment
Bones
Cartilages
Connective tissue coverings
SMOOTH MUSCLE
Has no striations
Spindle-shaped cells
Single nucleus
Involuntary – no conscious control
Found in walls of hollow organs

CARDIAC MUSCLE
Has striations
involuntary
Usually has a single nucleus
Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated disc
Found only in the heart

ENERGY FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION

AEROBIC RESPIRATION (CELLULAR RESPI)
Series of metabolic pathways that occur in the mitochondria
Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy
This is a slower reaction that requires continuous oxygen

ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS
Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to produce some ATP
Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid

MUSCLE FATIGUE AND OXYGEN DEBT

When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to contract
The common reason for muscle fatigue is oxygen debt
Oxygen must be placed
Oxygen is required to rid of accumulated lactic acid
Increase acidity (from lactic acid) and lack of ATP causes
the muscle to contract less

TWO TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS

Isotonic contractions
Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during
contractions
Tension in the muscles increases
The muscle shortens
Isometric contractions
Tension in the muscles increases
The muscle is unable to shorten

BODY MOVEMENTS
Muscles are attached to at least two points
Origin – attachment to a moveable bone
Insertion – attachment to an immovable bone

EFFECTS OF EXERCISE ON MUSCLE

Results of increased muscle use
Increase in muscle size
Increase in muscle strength
Increase in muscle efficiency
Muscle becomes more fatigue resistant

BODY MOVEMENTS
ORDINARY SPECIAL
Flexion Dorsiflexion
Extension Plantar flexion
Rotation Inversion
Abduction Eversion
Circumduction Supination
Pronation
Opposition

TYPES OF MUSCLES
Prime mover – muscle with the major responsibility for a certain movement
Antagonist – muscle that opposes or reverses a prime mover
Synergist – muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement and helps prevent rotation
Fixator – stabilizes the origin of a prime mover

NAMING OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

Direction of muscle fibers
Example: rectus (straight)
Relative size of the muscle
Example: maximus (largest)
Location of the muscle
Example: many muscles are named for bones (e.g., temporalis)
Number of origins
Example: triceps (three heads)
Location of muscle’s origin and insertion
Example: sterno (on the sternum)
Shape of the muscle
Example: deltoid (triangular)
Action of the muscle
Example: flexor and extensor (flexes or extends a bone)

NOTE: REFER TO SEELEY’S 11TH ED. PDF FOR LABELLING OF PARTS

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Humans have a closed circulatory system, typical of all vertebrates, in which blood is confined to
vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid. The heart pumps blood into large vessels that
branch into smaller ones leading into the organs. Materials are exchanged by diffusion between the blood
and the interstitial fluid bathing the cells.

THREE MAJOR PARTS – HEART, BLOOD, AND BLOOD VESSELS

1. Heart: cardiac muscle tissue highly interconnected cells; (see page 2)

PATHWAY OF THE BLOOD

Superior Vena Cava
Right Atrium
Tricuspid Valve
Right Ventricle
Pulmonary Semilunar Valve
Lungs
Pulmonary Vein
Bicuspid Valve
Left Ventricle
Aortic Semilunar Valve
Aorta
To the body organs & cells

CIRCUITS

Pulmonary circuit: pathway between the right side of the heart, to the lungs, and back to the left side
of the heart.
Systemic circuit: pathway between the left and right sides of the heart
Coronary circuit: heart’s own network of blood vessels to supply the cardiac muscle cells; coronary
arteries & veins, capillaries

NOTE: The blood flowing through the heart chambers does NOT nourish the myocardium

2. Blood Vessels: network of tubes

Arteries - arterioles
move away from the heart
elastic fibers
circular Smooth muscle

Capillaries
where gas exchange takes place
one cell thick
serves the Respiratory System

Veins – Venules
moves towards the heart
skeletal Muscles contract to force blood back from legs
one way values
when they break - varicose veins form
3. Blood

Plasma
liquid portion of the blood
contains clotting factors, hormones, antibodies, dissolved gases, nutrients and waste

Erythrocytes - Red Blood Cells

carry hemoglobin and oxygen
no nucleus and live only about 120 days
can’t repair themselves

Leukocytes – White Blood cells

fight infection and are formed in the bone marrow
5 types
neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils
lymphocytes
monocytes

Thrombocytes – Platelets
are cell fragments formed in the bone marrow from megakaryocytes
clot blood by sticking together – via protein fibers called fibrin

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM DISORDERS

Anemia: lack of iron in the blood, low RBC count

Leukemia: white blood cells proliferate wildly, causing anemia

Hemophilia: bleeder’s disease, due to lack of fibrinogen in thrombocytes

Heart Murmur: abnormal heart beat, caused by valve problems

Heart attack: blood vessels around the heart become blocked with plaque, also called myocardial
infarction

FUCTIONS OF THE HEART

Generating blood pressure
Routing blood
Heart separates pulmonary and systemic circulations
Ensuring one-way blood flow
Heart valves ensure one-way flow
Regulating blood supply
Changes in contraction rate and force match blood delivery to changing metabolic needs

SIZE, SHAPE, AND LOCATION

Size of a closed fist
Shape
Apex: Blunt rounded point of cone
Base: Flat part at opposite of end of cone
Located in thoracic cavity in mediastinum

HEART WALL
Three layers of tissue
Epicardium: Serous membrane of smooth outer surface of
heart
Myocardium: Middle layer composed of cardiac muscle cell
and responsibility for heart contracting
Endocardium: Smooth inner surface of heart chambers

EXTERNAL ANATOMY
Four chambers
2 atria
2 ventricles
Auricles
Major veins
Superior vena cava
Pulmonary veins
Major arteries
Aorta
Pulmonary trunk
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS:
1. Communication and coordination
Adapt and respond to changes from both inside and outside the body
2. Site of reasoning- your brain
3. Two main divisions
Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system- the nerves

• Neuron- basic
structural unit of the
nervous system
• Dendrites- carry
impulses towards the
cell
• Axon-carry impulses
away from the cell
• Myelin sheath
• Synaptic terminal
– Epinephrine
– Norepinephrine
– Acetylcholine

Nerves are made of many nerve cells

Afferent-sensory nerves carry message to brain
Efferent-motor neurons carry message from brain to muscle
Associate- do both
Heads up

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

Acetylcholine (ACh) released through the brain via cholinergic pathways. Plays role in:
cognition (memory)
sleep/wake cycle
parasympathetic nervous system
regulation of heart rate, digestion, production of saliva, bladder function.
smooth muscle contraction

Norepinephrine (NE) found mainly in 3 areas of the brain; the locus coeruleous, the pons and reticular
formation. Main role;
attention, alertness, arousal
-sleep/wake cycle
regulating mood/anxiety
Glutamate: found in all cells
controls opening of ion channels
blocking glutamate produces psychotic symptoms
Over exposure to glutamate causes cell death

4. GABA(Gamma-Aminobutyric acid): only found in CNS

Inhibitory neurotransmitter
controls excitatory neurotransmitters
Implicated in anxiety disorders

5. Serotonin (5HT): believed to be one of the great influences on behaviour. Complex neurotransmitter.
Surprisingly only 2% of serotonin is found in CNS. Roles include:
Vasoconstriction, gastrointestinal regulation.
Low serotonin associated with aggression, suicide, impulsive eating, anxiety and low mood.
Regulates general activity of the CNS, particularly sleep.
Delusions, hallucinations and some of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia.
GRAY AND WHITE MATTER
Gray matter of the brain and spinal cord consists of unsheathed nerve fibers (cannot be regenerated if
damaged) in the cortex or surface layer. The white matter makes up the internal structure,and consists
of myelinated nerve fibers.

PROTECTION AND BLOOD SUPPLY

The brain and spinal cord are enclosed by 3 membranes, collectively known as the meninges

Meninges: Dura mater and Pia mater

CSF: produced in the ventricles of the brain; produced in the ventricles of the brain; shock
absorption and mediation of blood vessels and brain tissue in exchange of nutrients.
Circle of Willis - carotid arteries and baliser arteries.
Blood Brain Barrier: Protect the brain from chemicals in the blood. Made up of tightly packed
Endothelial cells/capillaries making it difficult to penetrate.

• Cerebrum-largest
part of brain.
Responsible for
reasoning, thought,
memory, speech,
sensation, etc.
• Divided into two
halves.
• Further divided into
lobes; occipital,
parietal, temporal
and frontal

• Cerebellum-
responsible for
muscle coordination

• Brain stem- most

basic functions;
respiration,
swallowing, blood
pressure. Lower part
(medulla oblongata) is
continuous with spinal
cord
 • Spinal cord- begins at
foramen magnum and
ends at second
lumbar vertebrae

• Contains both afferent

(to the brain) and
efferent (motor
neurons- away from
the brain)

Peripheral nervous system

• Somatic system
– 12 pairs cranial nerves
– 31 pairs spinal nerves

• Autonomic
– Sympathetic
• Fight or flight
– Parasympathetic

The network of nerves branching out throughout the body from the brain and spinal cord is called the
peripheral nervous system. In addition to the 31 pairs of spinal nerves mentioned in the slides on the
spinal cord, there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves that attach to the brain.

THE CRANIAL NERVES

O O O TO TOUCH AND FEEL A GIRL’S VAGINA AH HEAVEN!

SOME SAY MARRY MONEY BUT MY BROTHER SAYS BAD BUSINESS MARRY MONEY

PARTS OF THE BRAIN

FOREBRAIN
Cerebrum and Cerebral cortex
Left and Right Hemispheres
Left hemisphere for most people is the dominant hemisphere- responsible for production of language,
mathematical ability, problem solving, logic
Right hemisphere thought to be responsible for creativity and spatial ability

FRONTAL LOBE
Located at the front of both cerebral hemispheres
Primary motor cortex
Pre-motor cortex
Broca’s Area- Motor Production of speech
Complex Functioning- personality, judgement, insight, reasoning, problem solving, abstract thinking and
working memory

PARIETAL LOBE
Located behind frontal lobe
Somatosensory cortex
Spatial orientation, perception and comprehension of language function recognising object by touch
Links visual and somatosensory information together
Neglect

TEMPORAL LOBE
Located at each side of the brain
Involved in receiving and processing auditory information, higher order visual information, complex
aspects of memory and language
Wernicke’s Area: speech comprehension

OCCIPITAL LOBE
Rearmost portion of the brain
Visual processing area
Corpus Callosum: fibre bundle in the brain that connects the two hemispheres together

DIENCEPHALON
Thalamus: filters sensory information, controls mood states and body movement associated with emotive
states
Hypothalamus: regulates autonomic, emotional, endocrine and somatic function
has a direct involvement in stress and mood states
regulates behavior and emotional expression, body temperature, and many metabolic activities.
Attached to the pituitary gland, it also controls hormonal secretions of this gland

SPINAL CORD
At each segment of the spinal cord, left and right pairs of sensory and motor nerves branch out and
connect to the peripheral nervous system. Impulses travel back and forth to the brain and back to the
muscles.
HINDBRAIN
Cerebellum: regulates equilibrium, muscle tone, postural control, fine movement and coordination of
voluntary and involuntary muscle movement.
second largest part of the brain
contains nerve fibers that connect it to every part of the central nervous system

Pons: relay station between cerebrum and cerebellum

Medulla oblongata: Conscious control of skeletal muscles, balance, co-ordination regulating sound
impulses in the inner ear, regulation of automatic responses such as heart rate, swallowing, vomiting,
coughing and sneezing
Reticular Formation: important in arousal and maintaining consciousness, alertness attention and
Reticular Activating System which controls all cyclic functions i.e. respiration, circadian rhythm.
Basal Ganglia: Control of muscle tone, activity, posture, large muscle movements and inhibit unwanted
muscle movements.

Substatia Nigra: Produces dopamine is connected to the basal ganglia. – EPSE’s

THE LIMBIC SYSTEM

Amygdala: mediates and controls major affective mood states such as friendship , love, affection, fear,
rage and aggression.
Hippocampus: memory, particularly the ability to turn short term memory into long term memory.
Alzheimer's disease.

NERVOUS SYSTEM DISORDERS

Meningitis: inflammation of the linings of the brain and spinal cord

Encephalitis: inflammation of the brain
Epilepsy: seizure disorder. Excessive discharge from neurons. 1 in 200 suffer. Grand mal or petit mal
seizures
Cerebral palsy:disturbance in voluntary muscular action
Parkinson’s: decreased neurotransmitter
MS multiple sclerosis: autoimmune

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

GI TRACT (gastrointestinal tract)

The muscular alimentary canal
Mouth
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Anus
The accessory digestive organs
Supply secretions contributing to the breakdown of food
Teeth & tongue
Salivary glands
Gallbladder
Liver
Pancreas

THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS

Ingestion: taking in food through the mouth
Propulsion (movement of food)
Swallowing
Peristalsis – propulsion by alternate contraction &relaxation
Mechanical digestion
Chewing
Churning in stomach
Mixing by segmentation
Chemical digestion: by secreted enzymes; see later
Absorption: transport of digested end products into blood and lymph in wall of canal
Defecation: elimination of indigestible substances from body as feces
Chemical digestion
Complex food molecules (carbohydrates, proteins and lipids) broken down into chemical building blocks
(simple sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids and glycerol)
Carried out by enzymes secreted by digestive glands into lumen of the alimentary canal

ALIMENTARY CANAL WALL HISTOLOGY Same four layers from esophagus to anal canal
Mucosa: inner layer
Three sub-layers
Lining epithelium
Lamina propria
Muscularis mucosae
Submucosa
Muscularis externa
Serosa

INNER LAYER: MUCOSA

Epithelium: absorbs nutrients, secretes mucus
Continuous with ducts and secretory cells of intrinsic digestive glands (those within the wall)
Extrinsic (accessory) glands: the larger ones such as liver and pancreas
Lamina propria
Loose connective tissue with nourishing and absorbing capillaries
Contains most of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
Muscularis mucosae: Thin layer of muscle producing only local movements

SECOND LAYER: SUBMUCOSA*

Connective tissue containing major blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves
Many elastic fibers so gut can regain shape after food passes

MUSCULARIS EXTERNA OR MUSCULARIS

Two layers of smooth muscle responsible for peristalsis and segmentation
Inner circular layer (circumferential)
Squeezes
In some places forms sphincters (act as valves)
Outer longitudinal layer: shortens gut

OUTER LAYER: SEROSA

(the visceral peritoneum)
Simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium)

Exceptions:
Parts not in peritoneal cavity have adventitia, lack serosa
Some have both, e.g. retroperitoneal organs

NERVES
Enteric nervous system: the gut’s own
Visceral plexuses within gut wall controlling the muscles, glands and having sensory info
Myenteric: in muscularis
Submucosal
100 million neurons! (as many as the spinal cord)
Autonomic input: speeds or slows the system
Parasympathetic: stimulates digestive functions
Sympathetic: inhibits digestion
Largely automatic

REVIEW OF SOME DEFINITIONS

Peritoneum: serous membranes of the abdominopelvic cavity
Visceral peritoneum: covers external surfaces of most digestive organs
Parietal peritoneum: lines body wall
Peritoneal cavity: slit-like potential space between visceral and parietal peritoneum
Serous fluid – lubricating
Mesentery: double layer of peritoneum
Extends to digestive organs from body wall
Hold organs in place
Sites of fat storage
Route by which circulatory vessels and nerves reach organs
Most are dorsal: extend dorsally from gut to posterior abdominal wall
Ventral mesentery – from stomach and liver to anterior abdominal wall
Some mesenteries are called “ligaments” though not technically such

THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system performs the following functions:

Production of sperm cells.
Sustaining and transfer of the sperm cells to the female.
Production of male sex hormones
The male reproductive system performs the following functions:
Production of sperm cells.
Sustaining and transfer of the sperm cells to the female.
Production of male sex hormones.
The female reproductive system performs the following functions:
Production of female sex cells.
Reception of sperm cells from the male.
Nurturing the development of and providing nourishment for the new individual.
Production of female sex hormones.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Gonads – primary sex organs

Testes in males
Ovaries in females
Gonads produce gametes (sex cells) and secrete hormones
Sperm – male gametes
Ova (eggs) – female gametes

Male Reproductive System

Testes
Duct system
Epididymis
Ductus deferens
Urethra
Accessory organs
Seminal vesicle
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral gland
External genitalia
Penis
Scrotum

TESTES
The two testes (sing. testis) are suspended outside the abdominal cavity in a Sacramento called
scrotum. The scrotum is made of actin and smooth muscles known as the dartos muscle.
In the embryo, the testes lie in the abdominal cavity near the kidneys about two months before birth:
the testes descend through the inguinal canal into the scortum. The descent is due to the effect or
the hormone of testosterone.
The seminiferous tubules are lined by stratified epithelium composed of two types of cells: supporting
cells and
the spermatogenic cells. Sertoli cells provide mechanical support and protection to the developing germ
cells.

COVERINGS OF THE TESTES

Tunica albuginea – capsule that surrounds each testis
Septa – extensions of the capsule that extend into the testis and divide it into lobules
Each lobule contains one to four
seminiferous tubules
Tightly coiled structures
Function as sperm-forming factories
Empty sperm into the rete testis
Sperm travels through the rete testis to the epididymis
Interstitial cells produce androgens such as testosterone

DUCT SYSTEM

EPIDIDYMIS
Comma-shaped, tightly coiled tube
Found on the superior part of the testis and along the posterior lateral side
Functions to mature and store sperm cells (at least 20 days)
Expels sperm with the contraction of muscles in the epididymis walls to the vas deferens
DUCTUS DEFERENS (Vas Deferens)
Carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
Passes through the inguinal canal and over the bladder
Moves sperm by peristalsis
Spermatic cord – ductus deferens, blood vessels, and nerves in a connective tissue sheath
Ends in the ejaculatory duct which unites with the urethra
Vasectomy – cutting of the ductus deferens at the level of the testes to prevent transportation of
sperm

URETHRA

Extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the tip of the penis
Carries both urine and sperm
Sperm enters from the ejaculatory duct

Regions of the urethra

Prostatic urethra –surrounded by prostate
Membranous urethra – from prostatic urethra to penis
Spongy (penile) urethra – runs the length of the
penis

ACCESSORY ORGANS
SEMINAL VESICLE
Located at the base of the bladder
Produces a thick, yellowish secretion (60% of semen)
Fructose (sugar)
Vitamin C
Prostaglandins
Other substances that nourish and activate sperm
PROSTATE GLAND
Surrounds the proximal part of the male urethra as it emerges from the urinary bladder
Secretion of prostate gland is thin, opalescent liquid with a slightly acid reaction. Itcontains
proteolytic enzymes
and fibrinolysin.
Secretes a milky fluid
Helps to activate sperm
Enters the urethra through several small ducts
BULBO-URETHRAL GLANDS
Largest among the male reproductive accessory glands.
Pea-sized gland inferior to the prostate
Produces a thick, clear mucus
Cleanses the urethra of acidic urine
Serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse
Secreted into the penile urethra
Semen
Mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions
Advantages of accessory gland secretions
Fructose provides energy for sperm cells
Alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidic environment of vagina
Semen inhibits bacterial multiplication
Elements of semen enhance sperm motility

EXTERNAL GENITALIA
PENIS
External genital organ through which the urethra passes. This is known as the main organ of copulation.
The two corpora cavernosa lie in the posterior surface while the corpus spongiosum is on the anterior
surface.
The distal end of the penis expands into the glands penis. A fold of the skin covers the gland called
prepuce which is
removed during circumcision.
Internally there are three areas of spongy erectile tissue around the urethra
SCROTUM
Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen
Maintains testes at 3°C lower than normal body temperature to protect sperm viability
Spermatogenesis
Production of sperm cells
Begins at puberty and continues throughout life
Occurs in the seminiferous tubules

Processes of Spermatogenesis
Spermatogonia (stem cells) undergo rapid mitosis to produce more stem cells before puberty
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) modifies spermatogonia division
One cell produced is a stem cell
The other cell produced becomes a primary spermatocyte
Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis
Haploid spermatids are produced
Spermiogenesis
Late spermatids are produced with distinct regions
Head – contains DNA covered by the acrosome
Midpiece
Tail
Sperm cells result after maturing of spermatids
Spermatogenesis takes 64 to 72 days

Anatomy of a Mature Sperm Cell

The only human flagellated cell
DNA is found in the head

Testosterone Production
The most important hormone of the testes
Produced in interstitial cells
Functions of testosterone
Stimulates reproductive organ development
Underlies sex drive
Causes secondary sex characteristics
Deepening of voice
Increased hair growth
Enlargement of skeletal muscles
Thickening of bones
Regulation of Male Androgens (Sex Hormones)
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Ovaries Duct System
Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes
Uterus
Vagina
External genitalia

OVARIES
Germinal and endocrine glands of the female.
Small organs suspended in the pelvic
cavity by ligaments
Suspensory ligaments – secure ovary to lateral walls of the pelvis
Ovarian ligaments – attach to uterus
Broad ligament – a fold of the peritoneum, encloses suspensory ligament
Upper ends are intimately attached with the fimbriated ends of the fallopian tubes.
Outer layer is made up of single layer epithelium. Beaneath this layer the ova are produced.
This ova begin maturation process, which takes place in small
fluid clusters of cell called ovarian follicles(sac-like structure)
Structure of an ovarian follicle
Oocyte
Follicular cells

Ovarian Follicle Stages

Primary follicle – contains an immature
oocyte
Graafian (vesicular) follicle – growing follicle with a maturing oocyte
Ovulation – when the egg is mature the follicle ruptures
– Occurs about every 28 days
The ruptured follicle is transformed into a corpus luteum

FALLOPIAN TUBES (OVIDUCTS/UTERINE TUBES)

Each tube is about 10 centimeters long and passes medially to the uterus, penetrates its wall, and
opens into the uterine cavity
Receive the ovulated oocyte
Provide a site for fertilization
Does not physically attach to the ovary
Supported by the broad ligament
Uterine Tube Function
Fimbriae – finger-like projections at the distal end that receive the oocyte
Cilia inside the uterine tube slowly move the oocyte towards the uterus
(takes 3–4 days)
Fertilization occurs inside the uterine tube
UTERUS
Located between the urinary bladder and rectum
Hollow muscular organ shaped like an inverted pear
Size change greatly during pregnancy
nonpregnant, adult state – 7 cm long, 5 cm wide
and 2.5 cm in diameter
The upper two-thirds, or body of the uterus has a dome shaped top
Functions of the uterus
Receives a fertilized egg
Retains the fertilized egg
Nourishes the fertilized egg
Support for the Uterus
Broad ligament – attached to the pelvis
Round ligament – anchored interiorly
Uterosacral ligaments – anchored
posteriorly
Regions of the Uterus
Body – main portion
Fundus – area where uterine tube enters
Cervix – narrow outlet that protrudes into the
vagina
Walls of the Uterus
Endometrium
Inner layer
Covered with columnar epithelium and contains abundant tubular gland
Allows for implantation of a fertilized egg
Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs (menses)
Myometrium
thick, middle, muscular layer consists largely bundles of smooth muscle fibers
Perimetrium
outer serosal layer that covers the body of the uterus and part of the cervix
VAGINA
Fibromuscular tube, about 9 cm long
Extends from cervix to exterior of body
Behind bladder and in front of rectum
Serves as the birth canal
Receives the penis during sexual intercourse
Hymen – partially closes the vagina until it is ruptured
The vaginal walls has three layers
Inner mucosal layer – stratified squamous epithelium, lacks mucous glands.
Middle muscular layer – consistsmainly of smooth muscle fibers. A voluntary muscle (bulbospongiosus)
is primarily responsible for closing this orifice.
Outer fibrous layer – consists of dense connective tissue interlaced with elastic fibers. It attaches
the vagina to surrounding organs.
External Genitalia (Vulva)

MONS PUBIS
Fatty area overlying the pubic symphysis
Covered with pubic hair after puberty
LABIA MAJORA
Folds of skin from mons pubis to pudendal cleft containing subcutaneous adipose tissueand smooth
muscle. The skin of the outer surface is pigmented and set with hair
Sebaceous and swest glands are numerous in the outer and inner surface.
LABIA MINORA
Two small folds between the labia majora surrounding the vaginal orifice.

CLITORIS
Corresponds embryologically to the dorsal part of the penis It consist s of erectile tissues.
Located about 1 inch anterior to the urethral opening.
Serves as guiding parting locating the urethra when performing catheterization..
VESTIBULE
Dorsal to the clitoris and between the two folds of the labia minora.
Has several openings: urethral and vaginal, found
behind the urethra and ducts of the vestibular glands.
The hymen is a membrane of variable size,partly blocking the vaginal opening in the virgin.
OOGENESIS
Process of egg cell formation Oogonia – female stem cells found in a
developing fetus
Oogonia undergo mitosis to produce primary oocytes
Primary oocytes are surrounded by cells that form primary follicles in the ovary
Oogonia no longer exist by the time of birth
Primary oocytes are inactive until puberty
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes some primary follicles to mature
Meiosis starts inside maturing follicle
Produces a secondary oocyte and the first polar body
Meiosis is completed after ovulation only if sperm penetrates
Two additional polar bodies are produced

Menstrual (Uterine) Cycle

Cyclic changes of the endometrium
Regulated by cyclic production of estrogens and progesterone
Stages of the menstrual cycle
Menses – functional layer of the endometrium is sloughed
Proliferative stage – regeneration of functional layer
Secretory stage – endometrium increases in size and readies for implantation

Hormonal Control of the Ovarian and Uterine Cycle

MAJOR EVENTS IN A REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE
Anterior pituitary gland secretes follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
FSH stimulates maturation of a follicle.
Follicular cell cells produce and secrete estrogens.
Anterior pituitary releases a surge of LH, which stimulates ovulation.
Follicular cells become corpus luteum cells which secrete estrogen and progesterone.
If the egg cell is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates and no longer secretes estrogen and
progesterone.
As concentration of estrogen and progesterone decline, blood vessels in the uterine lining constrict.
Uterine lining disintigrates and slough off, producing menstrual flow.
.Anterior pituitary no longer inhibited and again secretes FSH and LH.
The reproductive cycle repeats.
Hormone Production by the Ovaries
Estrogens
Produced by follicle cells
Cause secondary sex characteristics
Enlargement of accessory organs
Development of breasts
Appearance of pubic hair
Increase in fat beneath the skin
Widening and lightening of the pelvis
Onset of menses

Progesterone
Produced by the corpus luteum
Production continues until LH diminishes in the blood
Helps maintain pregnancy

Menopause
termination of reproductive cycles due to aging of the ovaries .
reduced concentration of estrogens and lack of progesterone may cause
regressive changes in female secondary sex characteristics.

MAMMARY GLANDS

Accessory organs of the female reproductive system that are specialized to secrete milk following
pregnancy
Present in both sexes, but only function in females
– Modified sweat glands
Composed of lobes that contain glands and duct
Dense connective and adipose tissues separate the lobes
Ovarian hormones stimulate female breast development
Alveolar glands and ducts enlarge
Fat is deposited around and within the breasts

ANATOMY OF THE BREAST

Areola – central pigmented area
Nipple – protruding central area of areola
Lobes – internal structures that radiate around nipple
Alveolar glands – clusters of milk producing glands within lobules
Lactiferous ducts – connect alveolar glands to nipple

CLINICAL TERMS RELATED TO THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

amenorrhea – abscence of menstrual flow, usually due to a disturbance in hormonal concentrations.

conization – surgical removal of a cone of tissue from the cervix for examination.
curettage – surgical procedure in which the cervix is dilated and the endometrium of the uterus is
scraped.
dysmenorrhea – painful menstruation.
endometriosis – tissue similar to the inner lining of the uterus occuring within the pelvic cavity.
endometritis – inflammation of the uterine lining.
epididymitis – inflammation of the epididymis.
hematometra – accumulation of menstrual blood within the uterine cavity.
hysterectomy – surgical removal of the uterus.
mastitis – inflammation of the mammary gland.
oophorectomy – surgical removal of an ovary.
oophoritis – inflammation of an ovary.
orchiectomy – surgical removal of a testis.
orchitis – inflammation of a testis.
prostatectomy – surgical removal of a portion of the prostate gland.
prostatitis – inflammation of the prostate gland.
salpingectomy – surgical removal of a uterine tube.
vaginitis – inflammation of the vaginal lining.
varicocele – distension of the veins within the spermatic cord.

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

OVERVIEW OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

System of ductless glands that secrete hormones
Hormones are “messenger molecules”
Circulate in the blood
Act on distant target cells
Target cells respond to the hormones for which they have receptors
The effects are dependent on the programmed response of the target cells
Hormones are just molecular triggers
Basic categories of hormones
Amino acid based: modified amino acids (or amines),
peptides (short chains of amino acids), and proteins (long chains of amino acids)
Steroids: lipid molecules derived from cholesterol

ENDOCRINE ORGANS
Purely endocrine organs
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Adrenal: 2 glands
Cortex
Medulla
Endocrine cells in other organs
Pancreas
Thymus
Gonads
Hypothalamus

MECHANISMS OF HORMONE RELEASE

Humoral: in response to changing levels of ions or nutrients in the blood
Neural: stimulation by nerves
Hormonal: stimulation received from other hormones

THE 3 ENDOCRINE ORGANS ON THIS SLIDE:

Hypothalamus
Pituitary (hyophysis)
Pineal

THE PITUITARY
Sits in hypophyseal fossa: depression in sella turcica of sphenoid
bone
Pituitary secretes 9 hormones
Two divisions:
Anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis)
TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone)
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)
LH (luteinizing hormone)
GH (growth hormone)
PRL (prolactin)
MSH (melanocyte-stimulating hormone)
Posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis)
ADH (antidiuretic hormone), or vasopressin
Oxytocin
HYPOTHALAMUS CONTROLS ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONE RELEASE
Releasing hormones (releasing factors) of hypothalamus
Secreted like neurotransmitters from neuronal axons into capillaries and veins to anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis)

TRH (thyroid releasing hormone) -----turns on* TSH

CRH (corticotropin releasing hormone) -----turns on ACTH
GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) ---turns on FSH and LH
PRF (prolactin releasing hormone) -----turns on PRL
GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone) ----turns on GH
Inhibiting hormones of hypothalamus
PIF (prolactin inhibiting factor) -----turns off PRL
GH (growth hormone) inhibiting hormone ---turns off GH
The hypothalamus controls secretion of hormones which in their turn control the secretion of hormones by
the thyroid gland, the adrenal cortex and gonads: in this way the brain controls these endocrine
glands

So what do the pituitary hormones do?

The four tropic ones regulate the function of other hormones:
TSH stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid hormone
ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce corticosteroids: aldosterone and cortisol
FSH stimulates follicle growth and ovarian estrogen production; stimulates sperm production and
androgen-binding protein
LH has a role in ovulation and the growth of the corpus luteum; stimulates androgen secretion by
interstitial cells in testes

The others from the anterior pituitary…

GH (aka somatrotropic hormone) stimulates growth of skeletal epiphyseal plates and body to synthesize
protein
PRL stimulates mammary glands in breast to make milk
MSH stimulates melanocytes; may increase mental alertness

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

The integument Is an organ, and an alternative name for skin. The integumentary system includes the skin
and the skin derivatives hair, nails, and glands.

The integument is made up of two parts:

Cutaneous membrane
Epidermis– Superficial epithelium
Dermis – underlying CT with blood supply
Accessory structures
Hair
Nails
Exocrine Glands

FUNCTIONS
Protection
First line of defense against
Bacteria
Viruses
Protects underlying structures from
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation
Dehydration
Vitamin D production
Needed for calcium absorption
Sensation: Sensory receptors
Body temperature regulation
If too hot
Dermal blood vessels dilate
Vessels carry more blood to surface so heat can escape
If too cold
Dermal blood vessels constrict
Prevents heat from escaping
Excretion
Small amounts of waste products are lost through perspiration

STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN

The Epidermis
Epithelial tissue
Dermis
Dense connective tissue proper – irregular
Hypodermis
Subcutaneous tissue- loose connective tissue proper and adipose tissue

q Ep i d e r m i s

q D e r m is

q H y p o d e r m is
or
s u b c u t a n e o u s l a ye r

EPIDERMIS
Is a vascular stratified squamous epithelium
Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from capillaries in the dermis
Cells of the Epidermis
Keratinocytes
Contain large amounts of keratin
Are the most abundant cells in the epiderm

Epid e rm is

Epid e rm al
rid ge

D e rm al
p apilla
De rm is

Th e s tru ctu ral re la tio n s h ip a n d

in te rface be tw e e n th e e pid e rm is
an d u n d e rlyin g de rm is . Th e
pro p o rtio n s o f th e vario u s laye rs
diffe r w ith th e lo catio n s a m ple d .

Layers:
Outer layers
No blood or nerves
Cells die and are replaced every two weeks
Constant outward flow protects from bacteria
Layers prevent water loss
Produces melanin (protect from UV damage)

Thin Skin
Covers most of the body; four layers of keratinocytes
Thick Skin
Covers the palms of the hands and soles of the feet; five layers of keratinocytes
From basal lamina to free surface
Stratum basale
Is attached to basement membrane by hemidesmosomes
Forms a strong bond between epidermis and dermis
Forms epidermal ridges (e.g., fingerprints)
Dermal papillae (tiny mounds)
Increase the area of basement membrane
Strengthen attachment between epidermis and dermis
Has many basal cells or germinative cells

Stratum spinosum: spiny layer

Produced by division of stratum basale
Eight to ten layers of keratinocytes bound by desmosomes
Cells shrink until cytoskeletons stick out (spiny)
Continue to divide, increasing thickness of epithelium
Contain dendritic (Langerhans) cells, active in immune response

Stratum granulosum: grainy layer

Stops dividing, starts producing
Keratin: tough, fibrous protein; makes up hair and nails
Keratohyalin
Dense granules
Cross-link keratin fibers

Stratum lucidum: clear layer

Found only in thick skin
Covers stratum granulosum

Stratum corneum: horn layer

Exposed surface of skin
15 to 30 layers of keratinized cells
Water resistant
Shed and replaced every 2 weeks

Surface

E Stratum
co rn eu m
P
I Stratu m
lu cidum
D
E Stratu m
gran u lo s u m
R Stratu m
s pin o su m
M Stratu m basale
I Bas e m en t
m em bran e
S Papillary laye r of de rm is De rm is
Th ick s kin LM ´ 210

DERMIS
Located between epidermis and subcutaneous layer
Anchors epidermal accessory structures (hair follicles, sweat glands)
Two components
Outer papillary layer
Consists of areolar tissue
Contains smaller capillaries, lymphatics, and sensory neurons
Has dermal papillae projecting between epidermal ridges

Deep reticular layer

Consists of areolar tissue
Contains smaller capillaries, lymphatics, and sensory neurons
Has dermal papillae projecting between epidermal ridges

Derm al
papillae

Capillary loo p
Epiderm al of papillary
ridge s plexus

Hair

Papillary
laye r

Papillary
Re ticu lar plexu s
laye r

Cu taneo us
plexus
DERMATITIS
An inflammation of the papillary layer
Caused by
infection, radiation, mechanical irritation, or chemicals (e.g., poison ivy)
Characterized by
itch or pain
Characteristics
Strong, due to collagen fibers
Elastic, due to elastic fibers
Flexible

HYPODERMIS
(Subcutaneous Layer)
Lies below the integument
Stabilizes the skin
Allows separate movement
Made of elastic areolar and adipose tissues
Connected to the reticular layer of integument by
connective tissue fibers
Deposits of Subcutaneous Fat
Distribution patterns determined by hormones
Reduced by cosmetic liposuction (lipoplasty)

HAIR

FUNCTIONS:
Head:
UV protection
Cushion from trauma
Insulation

Nostrils, Ear canals, Eyelashes:

Prevent entry of foreign material

Body Hair: sensory detection

Root hair plexus:
Sensory nerves at base of hair follicle that detect slight movement of hair

Arrector pili muscle:

Attached to every hair follicle
Contract to stand hair perpendicular to skin surface

q Accessory Structures of Hair

Exposed q Regions of the Hair
shaft
q Arrector pili of hair
Hair shaft
q Hair root
Sebaceous
q Involuntary smooth muscle gland
q Lower part of the hair Boundary
between Arrector
q Causes hairs to stand up Sebaceous
q Attached to the integument
hair shaft
and
pili muscle
gland
hair root
q Produces ―goosebumpsǁ q Hair shaft
Arrector
pili
q Sebaceous glands muscle q Upper part of the hair Hair root

Co nnective q Not attached to the Connective

q Lubricate the hair tissue sheath
tissue sheath
integument Hair bulb
Hair matrix
Hair papilla
Root hair
plexus

Accessory Structures of Hair

Arrector pili
Involuntary smooth muscle
Causes hairs to stand up
Produces ―goose bumps
Sebaceous glands
Lubricate the hair
Regions of the Hair
Hair root
Lower part of the hair
Attached to the integument
Hair shaft
Upper part of the hair
Not attached to the integument
Structure:
Medulla: core, dead cells contain soft keratin and air to provide flexible
Cortex: Middle layer, dead cells contain hard keratin to provide stiffness
Cuticle: outermost, overlapping dead keratinized cells form shiny surface

NAIL
Protect fingers and toes
Made of dead cells packed with keratin
Metabolic disorders can change nail structure
Nail Production
Occurs in a deep epidermal fold near the bone called the nail root
Structure of a Nail
Nail body
The visible portion of the nail
Covers the nail bed
Lunula
The pale crescent at the base of the nail
Sides of nails
Lie in lateral nail grooves
Surrounded by lateral nail folds

q Nails
Free edge
q Protect fingers and toes of Nail

q Made of dead cells packed with Body of

Nail
keratin
Laternal
q Metabolic disorders can change Nail fold

nail structure
Lunula
q Nail Production
Eponychium
q Occurs in a deep epidermal fold (cuticle)

near the bone called the nail ro ot

Epo n yc h iu m
P ro x im a l n a i l fo ld Lu n u la N ail bo d y

N a i l ro o t

Ep id e rm is D e rm i s P h a la n x H yp o n yc h i u m
A lo n gitu d in a l s e c tio n

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

It is the system, consisting of tubes and is responsible for the exchange of gases in humans by
filtering incoming air and transporting it into the microscopic
alveoli where gases are exchanged.
Your respiratory system provides the energy needed by cells of the body to function according to their
designated tasks.

THE ORGANS OF THE

“RESPIRATORY TRACT”

can be divided into two groups

“STRUCTURALLY”

The Upper Respiratory Tract

Nose
Nasal cavity
Sinuses
Pharynx

The Lower Respiratory Tract

Larynx
Trachea
Bronchial tree
Lungs

The organs of the

“Respiratory Tract”

can be divided into two

groups
“FUNCTIONALLY”

The Conducting Portion

- system of interconnecting
cavities and tubes that
conduct air into the lungs

Nose
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi

The Respiratory Portion

- system where the exchange of respiratory gases occurs
Respiratory bronchioles Alveolar Ducts
Alveoli

The Respiratory Epithelium

THE NOSE

It provides an
entrance for air
in which air is
filtered by
coarse hairs
inside the
nostrils.
It has 2 portions : the external and
internal
The external portion is supported by a
framework
of bone and cartilage covered with skin and
lined with mucous membrane.
The internal portion is a large cavity in the
skull

THE NASAL CAVITY

Interior area of the nose; lined with a sticky mucous

membrane and contains tiny, surface hairs, cilia. divided
medially by the nasal septum.
Nasal conchae divide the cavity into passageways that are
lined with mucous membrane,and help increase the surface
area available to warm and filter incoming air.
Particles trapped in the mucus are carried to the pharynx
by ciliary action, swallowed,

PARANASAL SINUSES

Sinuses are
air-filled
spaces
within the
maxillary,
frontal,
ethmoid, and
sphenoid bones
of the skull.
These spaces
open to the nasal cavity and are lined with mucus membrane
that is continuous with that lining the nasal
cavity.
The sinuses reduce the weight of the skull
and serve as a resonant chamber to affect the quality of the voice.

THE PHARYNX

The “throat” is a funnel shaped tube that lies

posterior to the nasal cavity, oral cavity and
larynx;
and anteriorly to the cervical vertebra.
It is composed of:
Nasopharynx – uppermost portion
Oropharynx – middle portion
Laryngopharynx – lowermost portion
It is a common passageway for air and food and
it provides a resonating chamber for speech sounds

THE LARYNX
It is an enlargement in the airway
superior to the trachea and inferior to the pharynx.
It helps keep particles from entering the trachea and also houses the vocal cords.
It is composed of a framework of muscles and cartilage bound by elastic tissue

THE EPIGLOTTIS
It is a large leaf-shaped piece of cartilage.
A flap of cartilage that prevents food from entering the trachea (or windpipe).
During swallowing, there is elevation of the larynx

THE VOCAL CORDS

Inside the larynx, 2 pairs of folds of muscle and connective tissues covered with mucous membrane make
up the vocal cords.

The upper pair is the false vocal cords.

The lower pair is the true vocal cords.
Changing tension on the vocal cords controls pitch, while
increasing the loudness depends upon increasing the force of
air vibrating the vocal cords.

During normal breathing,

the vocal cords are relaxed and the glottis is a triangular
slit.

During swallowing,
the false vocal cords and epiglottis close off the glottis.

THE TRACHEA

It is a tubular passageway for air, located anterior to the

esophagus

It extends from the larynx to the 5th thoracic vertebra where

it divides into the right and left bronchi.
The inner wall of the trachea is lined with ciliated mucous
membrane with many
goblet cells that serve to trap incoming particles.
The tracheal wall is supported by
20 incomplete cartilaginous rings.

BRONCHI

The Bronchi are the two main air passages into the lungs.
They are composed of the:
“Right Primary Bronchus”
leading to the right lung.
“Left Primary Bronchus”
leading to the left lung.

THE BRONCHIALTREE

The bronchial tree consists of branched tubes leading from the trachea to the alveoli.
The bronchial tree begins with the two primary bronchi, each leading to a lung.
The branches of the bronchial tree from the trachea are right and left primary bronchi; these further
subdivide until bronchiolesgive rise to alveolar ducts which terminate in alveoli.
It is through the thin epithelial cells of the alveoli
that gas exchange between the blood and air occurs.

THE LUNGS

The paired soft, spongy, cone-shaped lungs, separated medially by the mediastinum and are enclosed by
the diaphragm and thoracic cage.
2 layers of serous membrane, collectively known as pleural membrane, enclose and protect each lung.
Parietal Pleura
outer layer attached to the thoracic cavity
Visceral Pleura
inner layer covering the lung itself
The two organs that extract oxygen from inhaled air and expel carbon dioxide in exhaled air.
This is the main and primary organ of the Respiratory System.

The bronchus and large blood vessels enter each lung.

LOBES OF THE LUNGS

The right lung has three lobes.

The left lung has two lobes.
Each lobe is composed of lobules that contain air passages, alveoli, nerves, blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and connective tissues.

THE PLEURAL CAVITIES

A layer of serous membrane, between the visceral pleura and the parietal pleura.
It contains a lubricating fluid secreted by the membranes that prevents friction between the membranes
and allows their easy movement on one another during breathing.

THE ALVEOLI
 They are cup-shaped out pouching lined by epithelium and supported by a thin elastic basement membrane.
With that you can imagine having bunch of grapes with each grape indicating and alveolus.
Alveolar sacs are 2 or more alveoli that share a common opening.
This is where the primary exchange of gases occur.

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

All the bones in your body make up your skeletal system

FUNCTIONS OF THE BONE:

Support – provides framework, supports soft tissues and
provides points of attachment for skeletal muscles.
Protection – internal organs are protected by skeleton, ex. Heart and lungs are protected by ribs.
Movement – when muscles contract, they pull on bones and produce movement.
Mineral Storage – homeostasis mechanism that deposits and removes calcium and phosphorus on demand.
Blood Cell production – red bone marrow produces blood cells; a process called hematopoietic.
Storage of energy – yellow bone marrow stores lipids, an important source of chemical energy.

PARTS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

2
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e20 6 bones in all
d. q 2 2 bones in skull
q 6 in middle ears
q 1 hyoid bone
q 2 6 in vertebral column
q 2 5 in thoracic cage
q 4 in pectoral girdle
q 6 0 in upper limbs
q 6 0 in lower limbs
q 2 in pelvic girdle

Bones (skeleton): 206 bones

Two basic types of bone tissue
Compact bone: homogeneous
Spongy bone
Small needle-like
pieces of bone
Many open spaces

Joints
Cartilages
Ligaments (bone to bone)(tendon: bone to muscle)
Divided into two divisions
Axial skeleton: skull, spinal column
Appendicular skeleton: limbs and girdle

Bo ne s a re c las s ifie d by the ir

s hape :
1. Lo ng - bo ne s are lo nge r than
the y are w ide (arms , le g s )
2. S ho rt- us ually s quare in s hape ,
c ube like (w ris t, a nkle )
3. Flat- flat , c urve d (s kull,
S te rnum)
4. Irre g ular- o dd s hape s
(ve rte brae , pe lvis )

TYPES OF BONE CELLS

Osteocytes: mature bone cells
Osteoblasts: bone-forming cells
Osteoclasts: bone-destroying cells
Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium
Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts

CHANGES IN HUMAN SKELETON

In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone
Cartilage remains in isolated areas
Bridge of the nose
Parts of ribs
Joints

Axial Ske le to n App e n d icu la r

• Cranium (skull)
• Mandible (jaw)
• Vertebral column (spine)
▫ Cervical vertebrae
▫ Thoracic vertebrae
▫ Lumbar vertebrae
▫ Sacrum
▫ Coccyx
• Sternum (breastbone)
• Ribs
Ske le to n
• Clavicle (collarbone)
• Scapula (shoulder blade)
• Coxal (pelvic girdle)
• Humerus (arm)
• Radius, ulna (forearm)
• Carpals (wrist)
• Metacarpals (hand)
• Phalanges (fingers, toes)
• Femur (thigh)
• Tibia, fibula (leg)
• Tarsal, metatarsals (foot)
• Calcaneus (heel)
• Patella (knee)

Axial skeleton supports and protects organs of head, neck and trunk
Axial skeleton:
skull (cranium and facial bones)
hyoid bone (anchors tongue and muscles associated with swallowing)
vertebral column (vertebrae and disks)
bony thorax (ribs and sternum)

Appendicular skeleton includes bones of limbs and bones that anchor them to the axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton:
pectoral girdle (clavicle, scapula)
upper limbs (arms)
pelvic girdle (sacrum, coccyx)
lower limbs (legs)

Articulation- where joints meet, connect, and are formed.

THE SKULL
8 sutured bones in cranium
Facial bones: 13 sutured bones 1 mandible
Cranium: encases brain, attachments for muscles, sinuses
PARANASAL SINUSES: hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity

HYOID BONE: only bone that does not articulate with another bone; Serves as a moveable base for the
tongue, and other muscle attachments

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs made of cartilage
The spine has a normal S curvature
Each vertebra is given a name according to its location

Thoracic cage: ribs and thoracic

Vertebrae: sternum and costal cartilages
True ribs are directly attached to the sternum (first seven pairs)
Three false ribs are joined to the 7th rib
Two pairs of floating ribs

JOINTS
A joint, or articulation, is the place where two bones come together.
Fibrous – immovable, connect bones, no movement. (skull and pelvis).
Cartilaginous - slightly movable, bones are attached by cartilage, a little movement (spine or ribs).
Synovial - freely movable, much more movement than cartilaginous joints. Cavities between bones are
filled with synovial fluid. This fluid helps lubricate and protect the bones.

THE SYNOVIAL JOINT

TYPES OF JOINTS
Hinge:A hinge joint allows extension and retraction of an appendage. (Elbow, Knee)
Ball and Socket:A ball and socket joint allows for radial movement in almost any direction. They are
found in the hips and shoulders. (Hip, Shoulder)
Gliding:In a gliding or plane joint bones slide past each other. Mid-carpal and mid-tarsal joints are
gliding joints. (Hands, Feet)
Saddle: This type of joint occurs when the touching surfaces of two bones have both concave and convex
regions with the shapes of the two bones complementing one other and allowing a wide range of movement.
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