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Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 548–555

MATERIALS
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Influence of activator on the strength and drying shrinkage

of alkali-activated slag mortar
a,*
Cengiz Duran Atisß , Cahit Bilim b, Özlem Çelik c, Okan Karahan a

a
Erciyes University, Civil Engineering Department, Kayseri, Turkey
b
Mustafa Kemal University, Civil Engineering Department, Hatay, Turkey
c _ _
Istanbul University, Civil Engineering Department, Istanbul, Turkey

Received 1 December 2006; received in revised form 8 October 2007; accepted 17 October 2007
Available online 26 November 2007

Abstract

The development of new binders, as an alternative to traditional cement, by the alkaline activation of industrial by-products (i.e.
ground granulated slag and fly ash) is an ongoing research topic in the scientific community [Puertas F, Amat T, Jimenez AF, Vazquez
T. Mechanical and durable behaviour of alkaline cement mortars reinforced with polypropylene fibres. Cem Concr Res 2003;33(12):
2031–6]. The aim of this study was to investigate the feasibility of using and alkaline activated ground Turkish slag to produce a mortar
without Portland cement (PC).
Following the characterization of the slag, mortar specimens made with alkali-activated slag were prepared. Three different activators
were used: liquid sodium silicate (LSS), sodium hydroxide (SH) and sodium carbonate (SC) at different sodium concentrations. Com-
pressive and flexural tensile strength of alkali-activated slag mortar was measured at 7-days, 28-days and 3-months. Drying shrinkage
of the mortar was measured up to 6-months. Setting times of the alkali-activated slag paste and PC paste were also measured.
Setting times of LSS and SH activated slag pastes were found to be much slower than the setting time of PC paste. However, slag paste
activated with SC showed similar setting properties to PC paste.
LSS, SH and SC activated slag mortar developed 81, 29, and 36 MPa maximum compressive strengths, and 6.8, 3.8, and 5.3 MPa max-
imum flexural tensile strengths at 28-days. PC mortar developed 33 MPa compressive strength and 5.2 MPa flexural tensile strength. LSS
and SH activated slag mortars were found to be more brittle than SC activated slag and PC mortars.
Slag mortar made with LSS had a high drying shrinkage, up to six times that of PC mortar. Similarly, slag mortar made with SH had
a shrinkage up to three times that of PC mortar. However, SC activated slag mortar had a lower or comparable shrinkage to PC mortar.
Therefore, the use of SC as an activator for slag mortar is recommended, since it results in adequate strength, similar setting times to PC
mortar and comparable or lower shrinkage.
 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Slag; Alkali-activation; Strength; Setting time; Shrinkage

1. Introduction molten blast-furnace slag is rapidly chilled as by immersion

Slags are by-products of the metallurgical industry and
consist mainly of lime and calcium–magnesium alumino-
silicates. The most common slags produced are from the
iron and steel industry, called blast-furnace slag [2], which
is defined as the glassy granular material formed when
*
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cdatis@erciyes.edu.tr (C. Duran Atisß).
in water [3–5]. Fast cooling results in minimum crystallisa-
tion and converts the molten slag into fine aggregate sized
particles (smaller than 4 mm), composed of predominantly
noncrystalline material [3].
Due to its high content of silica and alumina in an amor-
phous state, ground blast-furnace slag shows pozzolanic
and binding properties in an alkaline medium [3]. Blast-fur-
nace slag has been widely utilized as an ingredient in
cement or concrete [6].

0950-0618/$ - see front matter  2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.10.011
 C. Duran Atisß et al. / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 548–555
Erdogan [3] reported that the use of granulated blast-
furnace slag as a finely divided mineral admixture in Port-
land Cement (PC) concrete mixes was initiated in South
Africa in 1953.
On the other hand, the development of new binders, as
an alternative to traditional cement and concretes, by the
alkaline activation of industrial by-products (i.e. amor-
phous ground slag and fly ash) is a relatively new area
and research topic for the scientific community [1].
Bakharev et al. [2] studied alkali activation of Australian
slag cements. They reported that liquid sodium silicate
(LSS) provided the best activation compared to sodium
hydroxide (SH) and sodium carbonate (SC) activators in
terms of compressive strength. LSS with a SiO2/Na2O ratio
(modulus, Ms) of 0.75 and a 4% sodium concentration was
recommended for use in alkali-activated slag concrete.
Bakharev et al. [7], studying the effect of elevated curing
temperature on properties of alkali-activated slag concrete,
concluded that heat treatment considerably accelerates
strength development, but at later ages the compressive
strength was reduced compared to concrete cured at room
temperature. They also concluded that heat curing consid-
erably reduces shrinkage of alkali-activated slag concrete,
making it comparable to PC concrete.
Collins and Sanjayan [8,9] studied early age strength,
workability and mechanical properties of alkali-activated
slag concrete. They concluded that a one day compressive
strength comparable to PC concrete was achievable with
alkali-activated slag as the sole binder.
Jimenez et al. [10], who studied the flexural and com-
pressive mechanical strength of alkali-activated slag mor-
tar, reported that the industrial manufacturing process of
cements based on the alkaline activation of slag started in
Ukraine between 1960 and 1964. They reported that LSS
gave the highest mechanical strengths. Another important
factor was the concentration of the activator, followed by
curing temperature, and the fineness of the slag.
The effect of admixtures on the properties of alkali-acti-
vated slag concrete was studied by Bakharev et al. [11].
Concrete activated by LSS had the best mechanical proper-
ties. Air entraining agent, shrinkage reducing admixture
and gypsum significantly reduced shrinkage. Air entrain-
ment also improved workability and had no negative effect
on compressive strength, thus it was recommended for use
in alkali-activated slag concrete.
Collins and Sanjayan [12,13] studied the cracking ten-
dency, microcracking and strength development of alkali-
activated slag concrete. They reported that shrinkage was
about two times greater than PC concrete. A lack of moist
curing increased the level of micro cracking and reduced
compressive strength compared to moist curing.
Jimenez and Puertas [14] studied the influence of activa-
tors on the setting of alkali-activated slag cement. LSS
developed faster setting due to the formation of an initial
calcium silicate hydrate. Pastes activated with SC showed
longer setting times due to the initial formation of a sodium
calcium carbonate which retards the reaction process.
549
Resistance of alkali-activated slag concrete to alkali-
aggregate reaction and acid attack was studied by Bakha-
rev et al. [15,16]. Resistance to alkali-aggregate reaction
was lower than the resistance of PC concrete of a similar
grade. However, alkali-activated slag concrete showed
superior resistance to acid attack.
Krizan and Zivanovic [17] studied the effect of dosage
and modulus of LSS on early hydration of alkali-slag
cements. The compressive strength of normal-cured LSS
activated slag cement mortars was comparable or higher
than PC mortars. Drying shrinkage was considerably
higher than PC mortar. The cumulative heat of hydration
increased by increasing the modulus as well as the dosage
of LSS, however, it was still lower than PC.
Fu-seng et al. [18] reported compressive strength and a
few flexural strength results at 28-days, and concluded add-
ing 9% sodium silicate activator and 10% PC made the dry-
ing shrinkage of high-strength slag cement mortar similar
to PC cement mortar and the compressive strength higher.
It was reported that blast-furnace slag has a variable
composition depending on the raw materials and the indus-
trial products; therefore, each slag differs in response to
activation [2,19,20]. In each case it is necessary to investi-
gate a number of activators to find the most suitable one.
In addition there are numerous published materials about
the compressive strength and shrinkage of mortar made with
alkali-activated slag as the binder. However, there is insuffi-
cient data on the flexural tensile strength and particularly the
influence of the activator on the flexural tensile strength of
mortar made with alkali-activated slag. Therefore, one of
the aims of this study was to investigate and provide more
data on the flexural tensile strength. Another aim of this
study was to investigate a number of activators to find the
most suitable one for the slag used in this study.
On the other hand, the Kyoto protocol to reduce CO2
emissions was signed by most countries [21]. This shows
the importance of reducing CO2 emissions.
In addition, it is also reported that energy use in the
industrial sector is responsible for one third of the CO2
emissions. The cement sector holds a considerable share
within the energy intensive industries. The World Business
Council for Sustainable Development states cement pro-
duction is responsible for approximately 5% of man-made
CO2 emissions [22]. In cement production, nearly half of
the CO2 emissions result from energy use and the other half
from the decomposition of calcium carbonate during clin-
ker production [23,24].
The importance and role of mineral additions in reduc-
ing CO2 emissions was reported by Roskovic and Bjegovic
[25]. As a result of an experimental laboratory investiga-
tion, they concluded that mineral additions as a cement
replacement caused reductions in CO2 emissions when
compared to Portland cement.
There is a great demand for cement and aggregates in
civil engineering industry, such as highway paving, dam
and building construction. To meet the great demand on
cements and aggregates, many mountains and rivers have
550 C. Duran Atisß et al. / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 548–555

been exhaustingly exploited, which lead to the pollution
and degradation of the environment [26].
In the light of above explanation, the use of alkali-acti-
vated slag as cementing material in the construction indus-
try will enable us to protect the environment as well as to
use natural resources in an efficient way. It should be
remembered that the declared targets of the European
Community require that the environment be protected
and its quality be improved, and the use of natural
resources shall be cautious and efficient [27].
This also justifies the importance of the research of the
alkali-activated slag study.
2. Properties of materials used
2.1. Cement
The cement used was ASTM Type I normal Portland
cement (42.5 MPa) with a specific gravity of 3.16 g/cm3
and a Blaine specific surface area of 325 m2/kg. The chem-
ical composition is given in Table 1.
2.2. Ground slag
Ground slag was obtained from the Iskenderun Iron–
Steel Factory in Turkey. Its chemical oxide composition
is given in Table 1. The specific gravity of the slag was
2.81 g/cm3 and its Blaine specific surface area was about
425 m2/kg. It is classified as a category 80 slag according
to ASTM C 989 [28] hydraulic activity index.
2.3. Alkali-activator
SH and SC (obtained from MERCK chemicals) and,
LSS (obtained from Sisecam Soda Industrials Corp., Mer-
sin Soda Factory) were used as activators. LSS had a SiO2/
Na2O ratio (modulus, Ms) = 2, and 38–40 Bé.
2.4. Sand
water, respectively. Similarly, the proportions of slag mor-
tar mixture were 1:2.75:0.5 slag, sand and water,
respectively.
For the LSS activator, SiO2/Na2O ratios (moduli, Ms)
of 0.75, 1, 1.25, and 1.5 were chosen. The different ratios
were obtained by adding SH to the LSS. Sodium concen-
tration in the mixture proportions were also chosen as
4%, 6%, and 8% for all the activators.
The amount of water was adjusted to obtain a 0.5 water/
binder ratio for all mortar mixes. The amount of water in
the activator was taken into account. A summary of the
experimental program is presented in Table 2.
Setting times of the alkali-activated slag and PC paste
were measured using Vicat apparatus in compliance with
relevant standard [30].
Prismatic specimens with 40 · 40 · 160 mm dimensions
were prepared from both fresh PC and slag mortar mixes
for the strength measurements. After 24 h, the prisms
were demoulded and placed in a humidity cabinet at
65%±5 relative humidity and 23 ± 2 C temperature.
For shrinkage measurements, prismatic specimens with
25 · 25 · 285 mm dimensions were prepared and demoul-
ded the day after. The initial length of the shrinkage spec-
imens was measured before placing them in the humidity
cabinet.
The flexural tensile strength measurements, for a partic-
ular mortar mix, were performed on three prismatic speci-
mens using a third point loading test [31]. The compressive
strength measurements were carried out using three broken
pieces of the prism specimens obtained from flexure test.
Strength measurement was carried out according to rele-
vant standard [31].
The flexural tensile and compressive strength of mortar
were determined at 7-days, 28-days and 3-months. Drying
shrinkage measurements of selected alkali-activated slag
mortar mixes and PC mortar were carried out at 6-months.
Shrinkage measurement was carried out according to rele-
vant standard [32].

The sand was uncrushed, quartzitic, natural sand with

maximum size of 4 mm. The grading complied with the Table 2
requirements of ASTM C33 [29]. The absorption value of Summary of the experimental program
the sand was 1.2% and the relative density at saturated sur- Mixture name Type of activator Sodium
face dry condition was 2.67. concentration (%)
PC mortar – –
2.5. Experimental program Slag mortar Sodium hydroxide (SH) 4, 6, 8
Slag mortar Sodium carbonate (SC) 4, 6, 8
The proportions by weight of the control Portland Slag mortar Liquid sodium silicate (LSS) 4, 6, 8
cement mortar mixture were 1:2.75:0.5 cement, sand and (Ms = 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.5)

Table 1
Chemical composition of cement and ground slag (%)
Oxide SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 K2O Na2O LOI
Cement 19.71 5.20 3.73 62.91 2.54 2.72 0.90 0.25 0.96
Slag 36.70 14.21 0.98 32.61 10.12 0.99 0.76 0.42 NA
 C. Duran Atisß et al. / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 548–555 551

3. Results and discussion 3.2. Compressive strength

3.1. Setting times The compressive strength of alkali-activated slag and

PC mortars are presented in Table 4.
Initial and final setting times of PC and alkali-activated The compressive strength of the slag mortars increases
slag are presented in Table 3. The initial and final setting of as the sodium concentration of the activator increases. This
LSS and SH activated slag paste occur much earlier than finding is valid for each curing age. This can be explained
with PC paste. Slag paste activated with SC showed similar by the pozzolanic reaction.
setting times to PC paste. Similar findings were published The compressive strength was dependant on activator
by Jimenez and Puertas [14]. type. At 28-days, the ratio of the strength of the LSS mor-
The final setting times of alkali-activated slag paste tar to the PC mortar was 1.07–2.45, the SH mortar 0.72–
reduced with an increase in the sodium concentration of 0.88, and the SC mortar 0.75–1.08. At 3-months, the
the activator. Final setting times of LSS activated slag strength had increased a small amount and the strength
paste also reduced with increase in SiO2/Na2O ratio (Ms). ratio of the slag mortars compared to the PC mortar were
This result was also discussed elsewhere [33]. still approximately the same. The ratio increases as the con-
Since the setting times of LSS and SH activated slag centration of sodium increases. For the LSS mortar at a
paste is much shorter than the setting times of PC paste, constant sodium concentration, there is an optimum value
more research should be carried out using some setting for SiO2/Na2O ratio (Ms) at which the compressive
retarders to extend the setting times. strength becomes the highest. The optimum Ms value is
lower at higher sodium concentrations [33].
Due to the differences between curing conditions, a
proper comparison was not made with the published lit-
erature. However, the range of the compressive strength
published in the literature was provided for a comparison
Table 3 purpose. Jimenez et al. [10] obtained about 30, 40, and
Initial and final setting time of PC and alkali-activated slag paste 100 MPa compressive strength from SH, SC and LSS
Binder Activator Concentration Initial setting Final activated slag, respectively. Their samples cured at 98%
type (min) setting relative humidity with 25 C. The sand–slag ratio was
(min) 2:1, water-binder ratio was 0.51, fineness of slag was
PC – – 200 315 about 450 m2/kg. Krizan and Zivanovic [17] reported
LSS 4% Na, 26 127 compressive strength value from 50 to 65 MPa obtained
Ms = 0.75
LSS 4% Na, 15 70
from LSS activated slag mortar. Water-binder ratio was
Ms = 1.00 0.43, sand–slag ratio was 3:1, curing condition was
LSS 4% Na, 24 58 20 C with 90% relative humidity. Fineness of slag was
Ms = 1.25 428 m2/kg. The compressive strength obtained from this
LSS 4% Na, 35 54 current study seems to be higher than the values pub-
Ms = 1.50
lished by Ref. [10] and [17]. It should be noted that
LSS 6% Na, 22 77 Ref. [10] used more binder, and Ref. [17] used lower
Ms = 0.75
water-binder ratio and higher relative humidity than the
LSS 6% Na, 28 65
Ms = 1.00 present study.
LSS 6% Na, 33 55
Ms = 1.25 3.3. Flexural tensile strength
LSS 6% Na, 35 50
Ms = 1.50
The flexural tensile strength of alkali-activated slag and
Slag LSS 8% Na, 19 63 PC mortars are presented in Table 5.
Ms = 0.75 Similar findings to compressive strength were found for
LSS 8% Na, 15 60
Ms = 1.00
flexural tensile strength.
LSS 8% Na, 24 56 The flexural tensile strength of LSS alkali-activated slag
Ms = 1.25 mortar increases as the sodium concentration of the activa-
LSS 8% Na, 31 47 tor increases for a constant SiO2/Na2O ratio. This is also
Ms = 1.50 valid for the SH and SC activators. Therefore, it was con-
SH 4% Na 21 59 cluded that the more alkalis in the medium the higher the
SH 6% Na 9 34 flexural tensile strength. This finding is valid for each cur-
SH 8% Na 4 28 ing age.
SC 4% Na 190 306 For a constant sodium concentration, there is an opti-
SC 6% Na 180 294 mum value for SiO2/Na2O ratio (Ms) of LSS at which the
SC 8% Na 170 288
flexural tensile strength of alkali-activated slag mortar
552 C. Duran Atisß et al. / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 548–555

Table 4
Compressive strength of alkali-activated slag and PC mortars
Binder Activator type Concentration Compressive strength (MPa)
7-Days 28-Days 3-Months
PC – – 30.6 33.1 35.0
LSS 4% Na, Ms = 0.75 31.1 35.5 37.6
LSS 4% Na, Ms = 1.00 33.4 41.2 42.0
LSS 4% Na, Ms = 1.25 35.2 42.9 47.4
LSS 4% Na, Ms = 1.50 32.5 38.6 42.0
LSS 6% Na, Ms = 0.75 62.7 71.7 74.4
LSS 6% Na, Ms = 1.00 62.0 71.3 72.5
LSS 6% Na, Ms = 1.25 50.1 56.8 58.4
LSS 6% Na, Ms = 1.50 39.9 48.4 51.2
Slag LSS 8% Na, Ms = 0.75 67.0 81.1 84.2
LSS 8% Na, Ms = 1.00 66.7 80.9 85.6
LSS 8% Na, Ms = 1.25 52.3 58.9 62.6
LSS 8% Na, Ms = 1.50 47.3 57.5 59.2
SH 4% Na 19.7 23.9 23.2
SH 6% Na 22.7 26.2 31.1
SH 8% Na 22.1 29.2 33.2
SC 4% Na 16.8 24.7 26.4
SC 6% Na 21.7 27.6 28.3
SC 8% Na 24.7 35.7 37.3

Table 5
Flexural tensile strength (MPa), flexural to compressive strength ratio at 28-days, and internal friction angle of alkali-activated slag and PC mortars at
28-days
Binder Activator type Concentration 7-Days 28-Days 3-Months Fts/Cs U
PC – – 4.7 5.2 5.5 0.16 47
LSS 4% Na, Ms = 0.75 3.0 3.2 3.1 0.09 57
LSS 4% Na, Ms = 1.00 3.2 3.5 3.6 0.08 58
LSS 4% Na, Ms = 1.25 3.9 4.6 5.1 0.11 54
LSS 4% Na, Ms = 1.50 3.5 4.4 4.2 0.11 53
LSS 6% Na, Ms = 0.75 5.9 6.1 6.2 0.09 58
LSS 6% Na, Ms = 1.00 5.4 5.6 5.9 0.08 59
LSS 6% Na, Ms = 1.25 4.9 5.1 5.5 0.09 57
LSS 6% Na, Ms = 1.50 3.4 4.3 4.6 0.09 57
Slag LSS 8% Na, Ms = 0.75 5.9 6.2 6.4 0.08 59
LSS 8% Na, Ms = 1.00 5.2 5.9 5.9 0.07 60
LSS 8% Na, Ms = 1.25 4.9 5.1 5.6 0.09 57
LSS 8% Na, Ms = 1.50 3.4 4.0 4.7 0.07 60
SH 4% Na 2.5 2.6 2.8 0.11 54
SH 6% Na 3.3 3.4 4.4 0.13 50
SH 8% Na 3.4 3.8 4.9 0.13 50
SC 4% Na 2.8 2.8 2.8 0.11 53
SC 6% Na 3.5 4.2 4.4 0.15 47
SC 8% Na 3.7 5.3 5.6 0.15 48

becomes the highest. This optimum value for Ms
decreases when the sodium concentration of the activator
increases.
The flexural tensile strength was dependant on activator
type. At 28-days, the ratio of the flexural tensile strength of
the LSS mortar to the PC mortar was 0.62–1.19, the SH
mortar 0.50–0.73, and the SC mortar 0.54–1.02. At
3-months, the flexural tensile strength had increased a
small amount and the strength ratio of the slag mortars
compared to the PC mortar were still approximately the
same.
LSS activated slag mortar can develop higher or compa-
rable flexural tensile strength to that of PC mortar depend-
ing on sodium concentration and SiO2/Na2O ratio module.
SC slag mortar developed equivalent flexural tensile
strength to PC mortar for 8% sodium concentration. How-
ever, SH activated mortar developed lower flexural tensile
strength than that of PC mortar.
 C. Duran Atisß et al. / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 548–555 553

Table 6
Drying shrinkage of selected alkali-activated slag and PC mortar (%)
Mixture-time 3-Days 7-Days 14-Days 28-Days 2-Months 3-Months 6-Months
PC 0.0309 0.0484 0.0614 0.0765 0.0933 0.1004 0.1004
4% LSS 0.75 0.1439 0.1874 0.2204 0.2449 0.28 0.2842 0.2926
4% LSS 1.00 0.1832 0.2372 0.2737 0.3018 0.3467 0.3509 0.3614
4% LSS 1.25 0.2737 0.3684 0.3993 0.4196 0.4463 0.4512 0.4625
4% LSS 1.50 0.4196 0.5418 0.5867 0.593 0.6175 0.6232 0.6372
8% LSS 0.75 0.1782 0.254 0.287 0.3151 0.3425 0.3474 0.3642
4% SH 0.0267 0.0737 0.113 0.1621 0.2035 0.2049 0.2119
8% SH 0.0989 0.1326 0.167 0.214 0.2688 0.2828 0.2968
4% SC 0.007 0.0512 0.0653 0.0744 0.0744 0.0751 0.0772
8% SC 0.0021 0.0491 0.0814 0.0954 0.0975 0.0989 0.1053

An attempt was made to evaluate the influence of the
activator type on the brittleness of alkali-activated slag
mortar.
It was reported that brittleness is one of the important
properties of a material [34]. On the other hand, it was sta-
ted that as the brittleness of a material increases the ratio of
flexural strength to compressive strength decreases, and the
angle of internal friction obtained using the Mohr envelope
increases [34,35]. Angle of internal friction can be shown as
U = 0.5*ARCTAN((CS-TS)/SQRT(CS*TS)), where CS
and TS are compressive and tensile strength. In this work,
flexural tensile strength was replaced by tensile strength.
The ratio of flexural tensile strength (FTS) to compres-
sive strength (CS), and angle of friction at 28-days are pre-
sented in Table 5.
The LSS and SH activated slag mortars are more brittle
than the PC and SC activated mortar. For example, the
LSS activated slag mortar with Ms = 0.75 and 4% sodium
concentration had, at 28-days, internal friction angle of
57. However, a similar strength grade SC activated slag
mortar with 8% sodium concentration and PC mortar
had the friction angles of 48 and 47, respectively. It
should be remembered that increase in friction angle indi-
cates increase in brittleness.
The LSS activated slag mortar is more brittle than the
SC activated slag mortar and PC mortar. More similar
example can be made. Therefore, when comparison was
made on similar strength grade mortar, it may be con-
cluded that, in general, LSS activated slag mortar and
SH mortar behaves more brittle than that of SC activated
slag mortar and PC mortar.
The flexural tensile to compressive strength ratio and
internal friction angle of SC activated slag mortar with
6% and 8% Na were found to be similar to that of PC mor-
tar. Therefore, the brittleness in these cases was similar to
that of PC mortar.
3.4. Drying shrinkage
The drying shrinkage of the alkali-activated slag mor-
tars is presented in Table 6. The drying shrinkage of LSS
activated slag mortar increases from 3 to 6 times that of
PC mortar with the increase in SiO2/Na2O ratio at constant
sodium concentration. For a constant SiO2/Na2O ratio, an
increase in sodium concentration from 4 to 8% increases
drying shrinkage from 3 to 3.6 times that of PC mortar.
An increase in sodium concentration also increased drying
shrinkage for SH and SC activated slag mortar. For the SH
mortar the increase was from 2.1 to 3 times that of PC mor-
tar, and for the SC mortar the change was from 0.77 to 1.0.
The SC mortar had a similar or lower shrinkage than the
PC mortar. This result was also discussed elsewhere [33].
Collins and Sanjayan [12,13] also reported that shrinkage
of alkali-activated slag mortar was higher than the PC
mortar.
It should be remembered that, in flexural tensile strength
section, it was concluded that, in general, LSS and SH acti-
vated slag mortar were more brittle than the PC mortar
and SC activated mortar. There is direct correlation
observed between shrinkage and brittleness of LSS and
SH activated mortar. The higher the shrinkage the higher
the brittleness can be observed. Therefore it can be hypoth-
esised that, the higher shrinkage may cause micro cracking
in the matrix of the LSS and SH activated mortar, thus,
causing to a reduction in the tensile strength properties
which means increasing brittleness.
Since the shrinkages of LSS and SH activated slag mor-
tar are higher than the shrinkage of PC mortar, more
research should be carried out on shrinkage using expand-
ers to reduce it to the level of PC mortar which may help to
reduce the brittleness of LSS and SH activated slag mortar.
4. Conclusions
The following conclusions were made from this labora-
tory study.
1. Initial and final settings of LSS and SH activated slag
paste occur much earlier than that of PC paste.
2. Slag paste activated with SC showed similar setting
times to PC paste.
3. Final setting times of alkali-activated slag paste
reduced with increase in the sodium concentration
of the activator. Moreover, final setting times of
LSS activated slag paste reduced with increase in
SiO2/Na2O ratio (from 0.75 to 1.5).
554 C. Duran Atisß et al. / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 548–555
4. LSS was the best; SC was the second; and SH was the
third in terms of compressive and flexural tensile
strength of mortar studied.
5. Increasing the sodium concentration of the activators
results in an increase of compressive and flexural ten-
sile strength of mortar.
6. There is an optimum SiO2/Na2O ratio for LSS to
obtain the highest compressive and flexural tensile
strength.
7. At 28-days, the ratio of the compressive strength of
the LSS mortar to the PC mortar was 1.07–2.45,
the SH mortar 0.72–0.88, and the SC mortar 0.75–
1.08. Similarly, the ratio of the flexural tensile
strength of the LSS mortar to the PC mortar was
0.62–1.19, the SH mortar 0.50–0.73, and the SC mor-
tar 0.54–1.02. Slag mortar activated with LSS results
with comparable or higher compressive and flexural
tensile strength than that of PC mortar, depending
on SiO2/Na2O ratio module and sodium concentra-
tion. Slag mortar activated with SH developed com-
parable compressive and lower flexural tensile
strength than that of to PC mortar strength. Depend-
ing on sodium concentration, slag mortar activated
with SC developed equivalent or comparable com-
pressive and flexural tensile strength to PC mortar.
8. Mortar made with alkali-activated slag was more
brittle than PC mortar. Mortar with the SC activator
came closest to the PC mortar.
9. The shrinkage of LSS and SH activated slag mortar
was 3 and 6 times more than that of PC mortar,
respectively. The shrinkage of SC activated slag mor-
tar was lower or similar to PC mortar.
10. The use of SC as an alkaline activator for the slag
used in this study was recommended since the slag
mortar activated with SC has comparable setting
times, strength, and shrinkage properties to PC
mortars.
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