Construction and Building Materials 176 (2018) 172–178

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

The effects of nano particles on freeze and thaw resistance

of alkali-activated slag concrete
Fatemeh Shahrajabian, Kiachehr Behfarnia ⇑
Department of Civil Engineering, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran

h i g h l i g h t s

 Adding nanoparticles could decrease the slump of AAS concrete.

 Nano-silica and nano-alumina induced more slump reduction than nano-clay.
 Adding NS, NA, and NC could increase the AAS concrete compressive strength.
 Adding NS, NA, and NC could reduce the compressive strength loss due to F-T cycles.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Alkali-activated slag (AAS) concrete could be considered as an environmentally friendly and economical
Received 29 December 2017 concrete. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of nanoparticles including nano-silica, nano-
Received in revised form 20 April 2018 alumina, and nano-clay on the resistance of AAS concrete against freeze and thaw cycles. Sodium hydrox-
Accepted 5 May 2018
ide and sodium silicate were used for the activation of slag in AAS concrete. In this investigation, a control
Available online 9 May 2018
mix without nano materials and 3 mixes containing 1, 2 and 3 wt% of nanoparticles were prepared.
Samples were tested by the freezing-thawing test, according to the ASTM C666-B standard. The compres-
Keywords:
sive strength and mass loss of AAS concrete specimens were measured. The results showed that nano-
Alkali-activated
Slag
silica and nano-clay, respectively, performed better than the nano-alumina in improving the strength
Concrete and durability of alkali-activated slag concrete subjected to freeze and thaw cycles. Adding 2% and 3%
Freeze and thaw of nano-silica had a marginally smaller effect on AASC properties compared with 1% nano-silica.
Nano-silica Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Nano-alumina
Nano-clay

1. Introduction called the two-part alkali-activated cement, the alkaline solution

As one of the components of normal concrete, Portland cement
acts as a binder for concrete aggregates [1]. Cement production
consumes a high level of energy in addition to other environmental
consequences [2,3]. Therefore, the use of alternative binders with
lower energy consumption and environmental risks (lower CO2
emission and the possibility of reusing industrial by-products)
with a comparable performance instead of Ordinary Portland
Cement (OPC) seems crucial. One of these alternatives, if designed
properly, is alkali-activated binders [4,5]. Various natural
resources, industrial by-products, and recycled alumina silicates
can be employed as the components of alkali-activated binders.
Alkali-activated slag (AAS) cement is a mixture of silica and alu-
mina components. To produce one type of this cement, which is
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kia@cc.iut.ac.ir (K. Behfarnia).
of sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide is prepared sepa-
rately and then added to liquid sodium silicate; the resulting solu-
tion is mixed with ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS).
Slag is a by-product of metallurgical industries [6]. In comparison
with OPC concrete, alkali-activated slag concrete (AASC) has
advantages such as rapid early strength development, high com-
pressive strength, remarkable resistance against chemical attacks
and chloride ion penetration, and resistance against freeze and
thaw cycles [7,8]. However, it suffers from drawbacks such as high
drying shrinkage and a high rate of carbonation [9].
On the other hand, numerous concrete structures need to be
repaired due to exposure to harsh low-temperature conditions.
Durability against freeze and thaw cycles is an important factor
influencing the durability of concrete structures in cold regions.
Concrete is a naturally porous material. Its freezing and thawing
strength depends mainly on the structure of its paste; for example,
its porosity, pore size, capillaries, distribution, and type of pores
(open or close). Proper pore distribution can cause pressure

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.033
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 F. Shahrajabian, K. Behfarnia / Construction and Building Materials 176 (2018) 172–178
diffusion and improvement in resistance against freezing-thawing
cycles. Obviously, utilizing a cementitious material with lower per-
meability in producing concrete could increase the lifetime of the
concrete structures; this, in fact, has been one of the main objec-
tives of this study.
Foo et al., investigated the durability of alkali-activated slag
concrete against freeze and thaw cycles. Their results indicated
that the product of the final reactions in AASC included C-S-H gel
with a low Ca/Si ratio. This gel resulted in the symmetric and com-
pact structure of the paste. High compactness of the paste hindered
water permeation, freezing, and saturation, thereby enhancing the
concrete durability against freezing-thawing cycles [11]. Recently,
numerous studies have shown that application of nano scale mate-
rials in the paste or concrete can result in a more compact struc-
ture and improve the paste properties [12,13]. Addition of
nanomaterials can also reduce the water permeability and efflu-
ents of concrete [10].
Fan et al., investigated the effect of nano-kaolinite clay (NKC) on
the normal concrete freezing-thawing cycle resistance. Their
results showed that the dispersion and activation effect of NKC
could enhance the resistance of concrete against freezing-
thawing cycles [14].
Gao et al., also studied the properties of alkali-activated slag and
the fly ash concrete containing nano-silica. Their results indicated
that incorporation of nano-silica significantly reduced slump-flow
due to an increase in the aspect ratio. Initial and final setting times
could be slightly increased by the rise of nano-silica content. Addi-
tion of 2% nano-silica also decreased porosity and increased the
compressive strength. However, higher contents of nano-silica
could have a negative impact on concrete properties [15].
Asaedi et al., investigated the impact of nano-clay on the
mechanical and thermal properties of geopolymers. They found
out that addition of 2% nano-clay to geopolymer compound could
enhance bending and compressive strength; however, further
addition of nano-clay did not have any positive impact on these
properties due to agglomeration and non-uniform dispersion; also,
it could increase porosity [16].
Young et al., studied the effect of nano TiO2 on the strength and
the fine structure loss of alkali-activated slag pastes; their results
showed that addition of TiO2 to the alkali-activated slag paste
would accelerate the hydration process and increase hydration
products, resulting in a compacted structure; moreover, addition
of nano TiO2 could increase compressive and bending strength [17].
Behfarnia and Rostami, on the other hand, studied the effect of
microsilica and nano-SiO2 particles on the permeability of AAS
concrete. They reported that both microsilica and nano-SiO2 could
reduce the permeability of AAS concrete samples effectively. They
also reported that the synergic application of microsilica and nano-
SiO2, if mixed properly, could more effectively reduce the perme-
ability of the AAS concrete samples [18].
T. Phoo-ngernkham et al., studied the effect of adding nano-SiO2
and nano-Al2O3 on properties of high calcium fly ash geopolymer
cured at ambient temperature; their results showed that the use
of nano SiO2 as additive to fly ash results in the decrease of the set-
ting time, while the addition of nano Al2O3 results in only a slight
Table 1
Chemical composition of nano materials (%).
GGBFS SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3
(%) 33.5 9.5 0.05
Nano SiO2 Ti Ca
Silica >99% <120 ppm <70 ppm
Nano Co Mn Na
Al2O3 <2 ppm <3 ppm <70 ppm
Nano-clay(%) LoI Fe2O3 TiO2
15.45 5.62 0.62
173
reduction in setting time. Adding 1–2% nano particles could
improve compressive strength, flexural strength, and elastic mod-
ulus of pastes due to the formation of additional calcium silicate
hydrate (CSH) or calcium aluminosilicate hydrate (CASH) and
sodium aluminosilicate hydrate (NASH) or geopolymer gel in
geopolymer matrix. In addition, the additions of both nano-SiO2
and nano-Al2O3 enhances the shear bond strength between con-
crete substrate and geopolymer [19].
Behfarnia and Salemi studied frost resistance and mechanical
properties of concrete containing nano-silica and nano-alumina.
Nano-particles were employed as a partial substitute of cement.
The specimens were subjected to cycles of freezing and thawing
in water according to ASTM C666A. The reduction in compressive
strength, loss of mass, change in length and water absorption of
specimens was measured after specified number of freeze and thaw
cycles. Experimental results showed that the frost resistance of con-
crete containing nano-particles were considerably improved, as
result of a more compacted microstructure. It was also concluded
that the frost resistance of concrete containing nano Al2O3 was bet-
ter than that containing the same amount of nano SiO2. Compres-
sive strength of normal concrete containing nano SiO2 was higher
than that containing the same amount of nano Al2O3 [20].
The aim of this research was the production of AAS concrete
with less permeability and more freeze and thaw resistance.
Researches showed that adding nano particles improve the perme-
ability and freeze and thaw resistance of regular concretes. There-
fore, in this research in order to improve freeze and thaw
resistance of alkali activated slag concrete, nano particles have
been used. Other novelty of this study was the application of
nano-clay in AAS concrete. In addition to nano-clay, the effects of
nano-silica and nano-alumina have also been investigated on the
durability of AAS concrete. Based on the authors experience and
also the suggestions of the other researchers such as Gao et al.
[15], Asaedi et al. [16], Young et al. [17], T. Phoo-ngernkham
et al. [19] alkali-activated slag mixes containing 1, 2 and 3 wt% of
nanoparticles were provided. A sample without nanoparticles
was also provided as the control. AAS concrete specimens were
subjected to 100, 200 and 300 freezing-thawing cycles and their
compressive strength and mass loss were measured.
2. Materials
In this research, slag was supplied from Isfahan steel plant (in
granule form); it had been ground in Madaen cement factory in
Isfahan. Nano-silica and nano-clay were purchased from the Ira-
nian Nanomaterial Innovation Company. Nano-alumina was pro-
vided by Mehregan Shimi Company. Chemical and physical
features of these materials are listed in Tables 1 and 2.
The density of the slag was 2.75 g/cm3 and its Blaine was about
4500 cm2/g. The slag was activated by sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
and sodium silicate (Na2SiO3). The used sodium hydroxide had
the purity of 98%; it had been dissolved in appropriate amounts
of water and used in a solution form. The ratio of SiO2 to Na2O
was 2.31 in the sodium silicate solution. (SiO2 = 33.5, Na2O =
CaO MgO
36 9.5
Na Fe
<50 ppm <20 ppm
Cr Fe Ca Al2O3
<4 ppm <80 ppm <25 ppm >99.7%
CaO K2O SiO2 Al2O3 MgO Na2O
1.97 0.86 50.95 19.6 3.29 0.98
174 F. Shahrajabian, K. Behfarnia / Construction and Building Materials 176 (2018) 172–178

Table 2
Physical composition of nano materials.

Material Particle size (nm) Density (g/cm3) Blaine (m2/gr) Purity (%) Product name
Nano-silica 11–13 2.4 200 99 –
Nano Al2O3 20 – 100 99.7 –
Nano-clay 1–2 0.5–0.7 220–270 – Montmorillonite

14.5, H2O = 52). Fineness modulus of the sand was 3.03. Humidity
percent in SSD state was 1.8 for the sand. The gravel was a crushed
type with a maximum size of 12.5 mm, and the humidity percent-
age was 0.5 in the SSD state. The fine and coarse aggregates grading
results in accordance with the ASTM C33 [21] standard are shown
in Figs. 1 and 2.
3. Mixture, preparation, and samples curing
In this study, 9 mixes with different percentages of nanoparti-
cles (1, 2 and 3%) and one control mix were provided. Details of
these mixes are listed in Table 3. In all of these mixes, the ratio
of water, including water in Sodium Hydroxide, in Sodium Silicate,
and extra water to the cementitious binder, including solids in
Sodium Hydroxide, in Sodium Silicate, and slag was 0.5, the ratio
of aggregate to the total mixture was 0.75, the ratio of fine to
coarse aggregates was 55%, the ratio of the alkaline solution to
the slag was 0.45, the ratio of sodium hydroxide to sodium silicate
was 3, and the molarity of sodium hydroxide was 4. Cubic speci-
mens, 100  100  100 mm, were cast and kept in laboratory con-
ditions for 24 h (temperature of 23 ± 2 °C). Specimens were then
removed from the mold and cured in water till the time of the
experiment. Nanoparticles dispersion in water and alkaline solu-
tion was carried out by magnetic stirring and the nanoparticles
were applied in the form of a solution.
4. Experimental methods, results and discussion

120 4.1. Slump

100
Passing Percentage

To investigate the effect of nanoparticles addition on the work-

80 ability of alkali-activated slag concrete (AASC) mixtures, the results
60 Sieve Analysis of slump test are shown in Fig. 3. The slump test was carried out
Upper limit according to the ASTM C143 standard [22]. The results showed that
40 nanoparticles addition could reduce the slump of concrete. As
lower limit
20 nanoparticles were smaller than slag grains, they had a larger
aspect ratio, resulting in the higher absorption of water and there-
0
0.15 0.3 0.6 1.18 2.36 4.75 fore, the reduction of the concrete slump. By the increase of
Sieve size (mm) nanoparticles incorporation, the slump was further decreased.
Regarding Fig. 3, it could be seen that nano-silica (NS) reduced
Fig. 1. The fine aggregates grading results in accordance with the ASTM C33 limits. the concrete slump more than nano-alumina (NA) and nano-clay
(NC). Nano-alumina was also more effective in slump reduction
when compared with nano-clay. Nano-silica and nano-alumina
could rapidly react with water and alkaline solution, producing a
120
viscous and thick liquid; on the other hand, nano-clay remained
100 in a non-reactive form in contact with water and the alkaline solu-
Passing Percentage

80 tion. That was probably the reason for more slump reduction in
concrete containing nano-silica followed by nano-alumina, in com-
60 Sieve Analysis
parison with nano-clay.
Upper Limit
40
lower Limit
20 4.2. Compressive strength

0
2.36 4.75 9.5 12.5 To investigate the effect of nanoparticles on the compressive
Sieve size (mm) strength of the alkali-activated slag concrete, the 7, 28, 90 and
120-day compressive strength of the samples was measured. The
Fig. 2. The coarse aggregates grading results in accordance with the ASTM C33 compressive strength test was carried out on cubic samples
limits. according to BS 1881 [23].

Table 3
Mix compositions.

Mix Slag Fine aggregates Coarse aggregates Sodium Hydroxide Sodium Silicate Extra water Nano-silica Nano-Al2O3 Nano-clay
kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 % kg/m3 % kg/m3 %
S 362.8 990 810 122.4 40.8 74 0 0 0 0 0 0
SN1 0 0 0 0 3.628 1
SN2 0 0 0 0 7.256 2
SN3 0 0 0 0 10.88 3
SA1 0 0 3.628 1 0 0
SA2 0 0 7.256 2 0 0
SA3 0 0 10.88 3 0 0
SC1 3.628 1 0 0 0 0
SC2 7.256 2 0 0 0 0
SC3 10.88 3 0 0 0 0
 F. Shahrajabian, K. Behfarnia / Construction and Building Materials 176 (2018) 172–178
180
160
140
120
Slump(mm)
100
80
60
40
20
0 10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Nano particle (%)
Fig. 3. The effect of nanoparticles on the slump of AASC.
4.2.1. The effect of nano-silica on the compressive strength of AAS
concrete
To examine the effect of nano-silica on the compressive
strength of AAS concrete, compressive strength variation curves
of the samples after 7, 28, 90 and 120 days were plotted as a func-
tion of nano-silica percentage in Fig. 4. According to this curve, it
could be seen that addition of nano-silica up to 3% resulted in an
increase of the AAS concrete compressive strength. However, add-
ing more than 1% of nano-silica had small effect on improving the
compressive strength of AAS concrete.
The reason for the increase of the compressive strength of AAC
concrete by adding nano-silica could be nanoparticle’s micro-
propagation properties. In addition, the presence of more than
99% of SiO2 in nano-silica caused the formation of larger silicate
chains by adding these nanoparticles to concrete. A rise in the silica
content led to more densely packed, more gels with improved
mechanical properties.
However, it should be noted that if nanoparticles were not
mixed well with other concrete components and that there was
no proper distribution in the concrete mixture, nanoparticles
might be agglomerated, forming weak regions in the concrete.
4.2.2. The effect of nano-alumina on the compressive strength of AAS
concrete
To examine the effect of nano-alumina on the compressive
strength of AAS concrete, compressive strength of samples after
7, 28, 90 and 120 days were measured and plotted as a function
of nano-alumina percentage, as shown in Fig. 5. As can be seen,
application of 1% and 3% nano-alumina in AAS concrete resulted
in a reduction of compressive strength in 7 and 28-day, in compar-
ison with the control sample; however, after 90 and 120 days, the
compressive strength was higher than that of the control sample.
The addition of 2% nano-alumina to AAS concrete increased the
compressive strength of the samples in all ages. The amount of
increase in the compressive strength of 90 and 120-day samples
containing 1 and 3% nano-alumina was lower than that in the
sample containing 2% nano-alumina. The increase of compressive
strength in the sample containing 2% nano-alumina could be
related to the creation of micro-dispersion by nano-alumina in
compressive strengh (MPa)
70
60
50
7-day
40
28-day
30
90-day
20
120-day
10
0 0
0 1 2 3
NS (%)
Fig. 4. The effect of nano-silica on the compressive strength of AASC.
175
compressive strengh (MPa)
70
60
50
NS
40 7-day
NA
30 28-day
NC
90-day
20
120-day
0
0 1 2 3
NA (%)
Fig. 5. The effect of nano-Al2O3 on the compressive strength of AASC.
the pastes at their early ages, contributing to the gel formation
and creation of a concentrated structure in the long term. The rea-
son for the reduction of compressive strength in the concrete con-
taining 3% nano-alumina at the age of 90 and 120 days, in
comparison with the samples containing 2% nano-alumina, could
be the lack of uniform distribution and nanoparticles agglomera-
tion and the formation of weak regions in the concrete.
However, the addition of nano-alumina had a slight effect on
increasing the compressive strength of AAC concrete; therefore,
due to the high cost of these particles, the use of nano-alumina
for the improvement of the compressive strength of alkali acti-
vated slag concrete could not be considered as a prime solution.
4.2.3. The effect of nano-clay on the compressive strength of AAS
concrete
To examine the effect of nano-clay on the compressive strength
of AAS concrete, compressive strength of the samples after 7, 28, 90
and 120 days were measured, as shown in Fig. 6. As can be seen,
application of 1% nano-clay in AAS concrete resulted in the reduc-
tion of compressive strength in the 7 and 28-day concrete speci-
mens in comparison with the control sample; however, after 90
and 120 days, compressive strength was increased in comparison
with the control sample. The reason could be the chemical process
speed reduction as a result of the nano-clay addition. Incorporation
of 2 and 3% nano-clay led to the increase of compressive strength;
however, the amount of compressive strength increase in the sam-
ple containing 2% nano-clay was higher than that in the sample
with 3% nano-clay content. The reason for compressive strength
increase in samples with 2 and 3% nano-clay content could be
related to the creation of micro-dispersion by nano-clay in the
paste at their early ages, as this contributed to gel formation and
creation of a concentrated structure in the long term. In addition,
presence of 50.95% of SiO2 in nano-clay caused the formation of
larger silicate chains by adding these nanoparticles to concrete. A
rise in the silica content led to more densely packed, more gels
with improved mechanical properties.
The reason for the compressive strength reduction of the 3%
nano-clay sample, in comparison with the 2% nano-clay sample,
compressive strengh (MPa)
70
60
50
40 7-day
30 28-day
90-day
20
120-day
10
0 1 2 3
NC (%)
Fig. 6. The effect of nano-clay on the compressive strength of AASC.
176 F. Shahrajabian, K. Behfarnia / Construction and Building Materials 176 (2018) 172–178

could be lack of uniform distribution, nanoparticles agglomeration

compressive strengh (MPa)

70
and the formation of weak regions in the concrete. 60
However, the same as nano-alumina, the addition of nano-clay
50
had a slight effect on increasing the compressive strength of AAC
40 0 cycles
concrete; therefore, due to the high cost of these particles, the 100 cycles
30
use of nano-clay for the improvement of the compressive strength 200 cycles
of alkali activated slag concrete could not be considered as a prime 20
300 cycles
solution. 10
0
0 1 2 3
4.3. Compressive strength of AAS samples exposed to freezing-thawing
cycles NA (%)

In order to investigate the effect of nanoparticles on the durabil-
ity of AAS concrete, the compressive strength test was performed
on the samples under freezing-thawing condition. After 90 days
of curing in water, the samples were tested by the freezing-
thawing test for 100, 200 and 300 cycles. Two series, each includ-
ing 3 specimens of each mix were casted, among which one series
were used for the compressive strength test and one for the weight
variation test.
4.3.1. Impact of nano-silica on the compressive strength of AAS
concrete under the freezing-thawing conditions
The curve of Fig. 7 was plotted for investigation of compressive
strength of samples under freezing-thawing conditions. This curve
exhibited the variation trend of compressive strength versus nano-
silica percentage; it could be seen that nano-silica had a positive
impact on the compressive strength of AAS concrete under
freezing-thawing conditions. The increase of nano-silica could
enhance the compressive strength under freezing-thawing cycles
in comparison with the control samples; moreover, the addition
of nano-silica up to 3% to AAS concrete would decrease the amount
of compressive strength reduction in comparison with its value
before the freezing-thawing cycle. For example, after 300 cycles,
compressive strength reduction was 6.14% in the control sample,
while this reduction was 5.56%, 4.89% and 4.1% in the samples con-
taining 1%, 2% and 3% nano-silica.
However, adding more than 1% of nano-silica had minor effect
on improving the compressive strength of AAS concrete under
freeze and thaw cycles.
4.3.2. Impact of nano-alumina on the compressive strength of AAS
concrete under the freezing-thawing conditions
The curve of Fig. 8 was plotted for investigation of the effect of
nano-alumina addition on compressive strength of AASC samples
under freezing-thawing conditions. This curve exhibited the varia-
tion trend of compressive strength versus nano-alumina percent-
age; it could be seen that nano-alumina had a positive impact on
the compressive strength of AAS concrete under freezing-
thawing conditions. The increase of nano-alumina up to 2% could
enhance the compressive strength under freezing-thawing cycles
Fig. 8. Compressive strength of the control and nano Al2O3 modified AAS concrete
exposed to F-T cycles.
in comparison with the control samples; however, the addition
of 3% nano-alumina resulted in the reduction of compressive
strength in comparison with the sample containing 2% nano-
alumina. Moreover, the addition of nano-alumina up to 2% to
AAS concrete could decrease the amount of compressive strength
reduction in comparison with its value before the freezing-
thawing cycle. However, addition of 3% nano-alumina could
increase the compressive strength reduction percentage after
freezing-thawing cycles, in comparison with the sample containing
2% nano-alumina. For-example, after 200 cycles, compressive
strength reduction was 5.1% in the control sample, while this
reduction was 4.86%, 3.98% and 4.38% in the samples containing
1%, 2% and 3% nano-alumina, respectively.
However, the addition of nano-alumina had a minor effect on
improving the compressive strength of AAC concrete under freeze
and thaw cycles; therefore, due to the high cost of these particles,
the use of nano-alumina for the improvement of the compressive
strength of alkali activated slag concrete under freeze and thaw
cycles could not be considered as a prime solution.
4.3.3. Impact of nano-clay on the compressive strength of AAS concrete
under the freezing-thawing conditions
The curve of Fig. 9 was plotted for the investigation of the effect
of nano-clay on compressive strength of AASC specimens under
freezing-thawing conditions. This curve exhibited the variation
trend of compressive strength versus nano-clay percentage. It
could be seen that nano-clay had a positive impact on the com-
pressive strength of AAS concrete under freezing-thawing condi-
tions. The increase of nano-clay up to 2% could enhance the
compressive strength under freezing-thawing cycles in compar-
ison with the control samples; the addition of 3% nano-clay to
AAS concrete could decrease the compressive strength of the sam-
ples in comparison with those containing 2% nano-clay. Moreover,
the addition of nano-clay up to 2% to AAS concrete would decrease
the amount of compressive strength reduction in comparison with
compressive strengh (MPa)

70
compressive strengh (MPa)

70
60
60
50
50
40 0 cycles
40 0 cycles
100 cycles
100 cycles 30
30 200 cycles
200 cycles 20
20 300 cycles
300 cycles
10 10

0 0
0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
NS (%) NC (%)

Fig. 7. Compressive strength of the control and nano-silica modified AAS concrete Fig. 9. Compressive strength of the control and nano-clay modified AAS concrete
exposed to F-T cycles. exposed to F-T cycles.
 F. Shahrajabian, K. Behfarnia / Construction and Building Materials 176 (2018) 172–178
its value before the freezing-thawing cycle. However, substitution
of 3% nano-clay could increase the reduction percent of compres-
sive strength under freezing-thawing cycles, relative to the sample
containing 2% nano-clay. For example, after 200 cycles, compres-
sive strength reduction, relative to the state before the cycle, was
5.1% in the control sample, while this reduction was 4.68%, 3.59%
and 4.23% in the samples containing 1%, 2%, and 3% nano-clay.
However, the addition of nano-clay had a minor effect on
improving the compressive strength of AAC concrete under freeze
and thaw cycles; therefore, due to the high cost of these particles,
the use of nano-clay for the improvement of the compressive
strength of alkali activated slag concrete under freeze and thaw
cycles could not be suggested as a prime solution.
4.4. Mass loss
Different samples were tested by freezing-thawing cycles; after
100, 200 and 300 cycles, their dry weights were measured and
their difference with the initial dry weight was recorded in the
form of percentage values. Concrete weight could be reduced as
a result of exposing to freezing-thawing cycles or the pressure
exerted from the internal sections. The main contribution of
weight reduction was related to the concrete edges which would
be damaged more as a result of freezing. Although the value of this
weight reduction was very small in some cases, the small value of
weight reduction could be interpreted as the higher durability of
the concrete against freezing and thawing cycles.
4.4.1. The effect of nano-silica on weight loss of AAS concrete samples
under freezing-thawing conditions
The curve in Fig. 10 was plotted to investigate the impact of
nano-silica addition on the weight variation of the samples as a
result of the freezing-thawing cycles. This curve exhibited the
trend of weight variation by a change in nano-silica percentage
in AAS concrete. Closer examination of Fig. 10 shows that AAS con-
crete samples experienced weight loss under freezing-thawing
cycles. This weight loss was the result of damages in the edges of
the concrete specimens. The results show that addition of nano-
silica up to 3% to AAS concrete could result in reduction of weight
loss in the samples in compare with the control sample.
4.4.2. The effect of nano-alumina on the weight variation of AAS
concrete samples under freezing-thawing conditions
The curve in Fig. 11 shows the impact of nano-alumina addition
on the weight variation of the samples subjected to freezing-
thawing cycle. This curve exhibited the trend of weight variation
by a change in nano-alumina percentage in AAS concrete. The
results show that AAS concrete samples experienced weight loss
under freezing-thawing cycles. This weight loss was the result of
damages in the edges of the concrete specimens. Addition of
5 The addition of nano-clay had small effect on reducing the mass
Mass loss (%)
4
3 tance of AAS concrete could not be recommended.
100 cycles
2 200 cycles
300 cycles
1
0 This study investigated the effect of nano particles including
0 1 2 3
NS (%)
Fig. 10. Mass loss of the control and nano-silica modified AAS concrete exposed to
F-T cycles.
177
5
4
Mass loss (%)
3
100 cycles
2 200 cycles
300 cycles
1
0
0 1 2 3
NA (%)
Fig. 11. Mass loss of the control and nano Al2O3 modified AAS concrete exposed to
F-T cycles.
5
4
Mass loss (%)
3
100 cycles
2 200 cycles
300 cycles
1
0
0 1 2 3
NC (%)
Fig. 12. Mass loss of the control and nano-clay modified AAS concrete exposed to F-
T cycles.
nano-alumina up to 2% to AAS concrete could result in reduction
of weight loss in the samples in compare with the control sample.
However, the addition of 3% nano-alumina to the AAS concrete
would result in a condition in which the amount of weight loss
was more than that of the samples containing 2% nano-alumina.
Generally, addition of nano-alumina had not a considerable
effect on freeze and thaw resistance of AAS Concrete.
4.4.3. The effect of nano-clay on the weight variation of AAS concrete
samples subjected to freezing-thawing cycles
The curve in Fig. 12 was plotted to investigate the impact of
nano-clay addition on the weight variation of the samples as a
result of the freezing-thawing cycle. This curve exhibited the trend
of weight variation by a change in nano-clay percentage in AAS
concrete. Closer examination of Fig. 12 shows that AAS concrete
samples experienced weight loss under freezing-thawing cycles.
This weight loss was the result of damages in the edges of the con-
crete specimens. Addition of nano-clay up to 2% to AAS concrete
could result in weight loss reduction in AAS concrete samples in
comparison with that in the control sample. However, the addition
of 3% nano-clay to the AAS concrete would result in increase of
weight loss in compare with that of the samples containing 2%
nano-clay.
loss of AAC concrete under freeze and thaw cycles; therefore, the
use of nano-clay for the improvement of the freeze and thaw resis-
5. Conclusion
nano-silica, nano-alumina and nano-clay on the slump, compres-
sive strength, and durability of alkali-activated slag concrete sub-
jected to freeze and thaw cycles. The results of this study can be
summarized here:
178 F. Shahrajabian, K. Behfarnia / Construction and Building Materials 176 (2018) 172–178
- Adding nanoparticles could decrease the slump of AAS concrete
due to the smaller size and higher specific surface of nano par-
ticles and the increase of aspect ratio in the concrete. Nano-
silica and nano-alumina induced more slump reduction, in
comparison with nano-clay. The reason could be the faster reac-
tion of nano-silica and nano-alumina with water and alkaline
solution during the initial dispersion process, resulting in the
formation of a thick solution; while nano-clay did not enter into
no reactions during initial mixing and dispersion processes.
- Adding nano-silica up to 3%, nano-alumina up to 2%, and nano-
clay up to 2% could result in the highest compressive strength in
AAS concrete at the ages of 7, 28, 90 and 120 days. This could be
due to the production of more products and the formation of a
more compact structure in AAS concrete due to the added nano
particles. However, adding more than 1% of nano-silica had a
slight effect on improving the compressive strength of AAS con-
crete. The addition of nano-alumina and nano-clay could have
little effect on increasing the compressive strength of AAC con-
crete; Due to the high cost of these particles, the use of nano-
alumina and nano-clay for the improvement of the compressive
strength of alkali activated slag concrete could not be consid-
ered as a prime solution.
- Adding up to 3% nano-silica, up to 2% nano-alumina and up to
2% nano-clay in AAS concrete could reduce compressive
strength loss and the weight reduction of concrete under
freezing-thawing cycles. However, adding more than 1% of
nano-silica had little effect on improving the compressive
strength of AAS concrete under freeze and thaw cycles. The
addition of nano-alumina and nano-clay could have little effect
on improving the compressive strength of AAC concrete under
freeze and thaw cycles. The addition of nanoparticles had a
slight effect on improving the mass loss of AAC concrete under
freeze and thaw cycles.
- It can be concluded that nano-silica acts more effectively in
improving the compressive strength and durability of AAS con-
crete under freezing-thawing cycles; in addition, nano-clay can
have a better performance in comparison with nano-alumina.
The reason for this is the presence of more SiO2 in nano-silica
and nano-clay. Due to the greater impact of nano-silica and
its lower price, in order to improve the compressive strength
and durability of concrete under freezing-thawing cycles, it is
recommended to use nano-silica up to 1%.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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