Modern English VI

Exploring spoken grammar in context (source: Exploring Grammar in Context)

Page 147:

Exercise 1

Look at the extracts from conversations (a) – (d). Mark words and phrases which make the conversations
informal. Which of the extracts (a) – (d) is the most informal? Rewrite it to make it sound more informal.

Key: page 270

Exercise 2

Which of these sentences (i- iv) is more likely to be used in formal situations and which is more likely to be
used in informal situations? Mark each sentence in the pair (F) formal or (I) informal?

Key: 270

Page 148:

Tails

Introductory remarks

● Tails – words added at the end of a sentence in spontaneous speech.

● Tails make the sentence more informal, and you can use them yourself when you want to sound more
casual.
● Due to their informality you should avoid using tails in, for example, the formal parts of a business
presentation or a formal interview.
● In conversation tails can help us to give emphasis to statements.
● Tails are single words or phrases which occur at the end of a clause and extend what has already been
said.
● A tail often consists of a phrase which extends a pronoun or demonstrative, e.g. It’s an exciting place,
Hong Kong is.
● Tails often occur in statements in which the speaker is evaluating things and saying positive and negative
things. As a result, words like exciting, very nice, great, too much, or a bit lacking occupy the position of
tails in a sentence.

Discovering patterns of use

1. Nouns and pronouns in tails

Look at the conversations (a) – (d) on page 148.

What do you observe about the order of words in tails? How do they compare with tag questions, e.g. She
does, doesn’t she?

Key: See Observations on the page 149.

Page 149:

2. Position and order of tails

Look at the sentences (a) – (d). The sentences are all typical spoken sentences. The tails in the sentences (a)
– (d) are repetitions or occur with question tags.
 a) I went there early. It would be about seven o’clock, it would. It wasn’t dark yet.
b) It’s difficult to eat, isn’t it, spaghetti? You have to suck it into your mouth.
c) It’ll melt, won’t it, the ice-cream?
d) She’s a good tennis player, Hiroko is, isn’t she?
e) You hardly ever show emotion, you don’t. Don’t you have any feelings for her?
f) She still hasn’t finished, hasn’t Maria.

What do you observe about the position and order of the tails?

Key: See Observations on page 149.

Page 150:

Patterns in action

Using tails to express attitudes

● Tails help us when we have positive or negative things to say. Tails are often used in connection with
names of people, places, etc. and allow us to express our attitude to them.

● Tails can also emphasize the subject or the main topic of a sentence, and so help the listener better
understand your point.

1. Have a look at the utterances (a) – (j).

Underline the tails in the utterances which are taken from authentic recorded spoken English.
Are any utterances used to help the speaker express an opinion?

Key: page 270

2. Complete the sentences (a) – (k) with an appropriate tail.

Key: page 271

Page 151:

Interactions and tails

1. Look at the extracts from conversations (a) and (b). How do the elements underlined in each
conversation relate to one another?

Key: See Observations on page 151.

2. Rewrite the dialogues (a) – (c) to make them sound a little more informal.

Key: page 271

Page 153:

1. Look at the extracts (a) – (d) from conversations. In each case the third line of each exchange sounds
particularly informal. Rewrite each of the third lines in these extracts so that it is more formal and
grammatical.
2. The exchanges (a) – (d) all involve questions and answers. They are all informal conversational
exchanges. Rewrite the questions so that they sound more formal.
Key: page 272.

Page 154:

Discovering patterns of use

Heads

● Heads are pre-posed elements of clauses, e.g. A city like London, it’s not safe at night.

1.Which grammatical structures can function as heads?

Look at the extracts from conversations (a) – (d). The fronted items (heads) are in bold.

● What kind of grammatical items are fronted?

● How do they relate to the next part of the sentences?

● What is the effect of fronting?

Key: See Observations on page 155.

Page 155:

2. Heads with different subjects

Have a look at the conversational extracts (a) – (f). Fill in the gaps in the conversational extracts, and
analyze whether the fronted or pre-posed item is the same as the grammatical subject that follows it.

Suggested answers:

a) wife, b) husband, c) boyfriend, d) family, e) he, f) her sister.

All the heads are different from the subjects which follow them, apart from (e).

Page 156:

Why do speakers use heads?

Look at the conversational extracts (a) – (e).

○ Underline the parts of the sentences which are fronted.

○ How are they different from the fronting which occurs in the examples in A1 on page 153.

○ Why do you think speakers introduce people into conversations in this way in the conversational extracts
(a) – (e).

Key:

○ The following are fronted:

a) this friend of ours

b) Madge, one of our secretaries at work
c) Brian
d) The chap in Cardiff I bought the car from
e) His cousin in London, her boyfriend
○ In each of these cases the fronted items are different from the item being introduced, whereas in A1 they
are the same.

○ Speakers often introduce a person into the conversation in this way to link the new character to one
already known by the listener.

Page 157:

Fronting in narratives

Underline the main pre-posed unit at the beginning of the narratives (a) – (d).

Why does the speaker focus on the topic in this way?

Key: page 272.

Page 174:

Discourse markers

● Discourse markers are words or phrases which help us to structure and monitor a stretch of written or
spoken language. You have probably learned how to use them in writing to help readers understand your
ideas.

1. Have a look at the three extracts (a) – (c), which contain discourse markers in bold.

Choose one of the functions listed on page 174, and decide which applies to them.

Key: page 277.

Page 175:

Look at the conversational extract that the page 175 opens with. Read the extract, and underline any words
or phrases which you consider to be a discourse marker.

What do each of the markers help the speaker to do?

Key: page 277.

Discovering patterns of use

Read the extracts (a) and (b) on pages 175-176, and underline the words and phrases which you think
function as discourse markers.
Furthermore, say whether you think each chosen marker mainly focuses on the listener (explanation i), or
the speaker (explanation ii).
Key: page 277.

Page 176:

The variety and function of spoken discourse markers

The exercise 2 on page 176 points to the fact that the absence of discourse markers makes the conversation
sound rather cold and impersonal. Furthermore, it points to the functions of spoken discourse markers and
their variety.
Therefore, have a look at the dialogue on page 177 and answer the questions which relate to it.

Key: page 277

Page 177:

The exercise no. 1 on page 177 emphasizes the difference between formal and informal markers.

By way of illustration, have a look at the extract from an advert and answer the pertinent question.

Key: See Observations on page 178.

Page 178:

Discourse markers in casual conversation

Have a look at the conversation between a husband and wife who are planning a summer holiday with the
help of a friend. Write an explanation for learners of English of the discourse markers which are in bold in
the text on page 178.
Key: See Observations on page 178.

I Circle the correct answer. Only one option is possible:

1. Which of the following phrases mean to do something successfully:
A to get a move on
B to get on
C to make a go of
D to get about

Postmodernizam u književnosti je epoha nastala u drugoj polovici
20. stoljeća, a trajala je do kasnog 20. stoljeća. Najčešće je
prihvaćeni stav da je postmodernizam započeo nakon 2. svjetskog
rata, iako neki književni teoretičari kažu da je ovo razdoblje započelo
smrću Virginije Woolfe i Jamesa Joycea, jednih od najvećih svjetskih
modernističkih pisaca. Također, mnogi teoretičar smatraju da se
utjecaj postmodernizma osjeća i u današnjoj književnosti. Budući da
je postmodernizam započeo nakon svjetskog rata i svih njegovih
stradanja, ne čudi da se u njegovom stvaralaštvu osjeti utjecaj
velikih stradanja, ali i velike borbe za ljudska prava, razvoj društva te
visoke tehnologije (potaknuto naglim razvojem i rastom računalne
tehnologije). Postmodernizam je u ideji svojeg stvaralaštva zadržao
neke ideje modernizma, poput usmjerenosti prema individualcu i
njegovom unutrašnjem svijetu, psihologizaciji i slično. Razlika je
samo u tome što su likovi iz postmoderne svojevoljno samokritični,
njihovi životi produkt su jasnih odabira, pa je tako i njihovo
nesavršenstvo vlastiti, za razliku od likova iz moderne koji su žrtve
unutrašnjih konflikta te pate zbog otuđenosti i nesvakidašnje
individualnosti. Upravo zbog svjesne samokritike, postmodernizam
se odlikuje i ironijom, koja je usmjerena i na okolinu i na pisca i na
njegovo djelo. Rat sa samim sobom nastao u modernizmu, u
postmodernizmu prestaje, a pripovjedač i likovi postaju ti koji
kritiziraju, kako sebe tako i okolinu. Postmodernizam zato nije
opreka modernizmu (kao što je većina književnih smjerova u odnosu
na one koje nasljeđuju) već je njegov nastavak.
Postmodernistička djela, u odnosu na modernistička, postaju
jednostavnija, pristupačnija širem čitateljstvu, ali u njima
pronalazimo i mnogo intertekstualnosti, alternativne sadašnjosti i
povijesti te, po prvi puta u povijesti književnosti –
intermedijalnost. Intertekstualnost označava odnos dva ili više
tekstova. Stilovi pisanja u postmodernizmu su različiti, pa kažemo
da u njemu vlada stilski pluralizam. I upravo je taj originalni,
provokativan i nesvakidašnji način izražavanja tipičan za ovo
razdoblje. Postmodernizam se ne odriče ni jednog književnog
razdoblja, pa tako ni tradicionalizma, već uzima od svakoga po
nešto kako bi se stvorio novi, unikatni stil izražavanja. Za vrijeme
postmodernizma razvilo se nekoliko važnih književnih smjerova:
fantastičnu književnost, novi istorijski roman, žensko pismo.
Kasnije koristi se i takozvana žanrovska proza, odnosno horor,
avanturistički, kriminalistički i bulevarski roman. ensko pismo
nastalo je zbog kretanja u zapadnoeuropskoj prozi i teoriji.
Književnice kroz svoja djela predočavaju ženski svijet kroz poglede
iz očiju žena i njihovog iskustva. Unose u književnost pripovjedne
tehnike, neortodoksne motive. Dodaju autobiografičnost, miješaju
duhovnost i filozofiju ili realizam i fantastiku.
 II Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence. You must
use between two and seven words including the word given which cannot be changed.

1. With all due respect, your claims are utter and complete fabrications! I request your immediate
apology! (FURTHER)
With all due respect, your claims are ____________________ ! I request your immediate
apology

III Write one word in each gap.

DRIVERLESS CARS
Driverless cars would of course, do (1) …………… with the stress if driving, allowing their occupants to
read, browse the internet or take a nap, and they would also eliminate accidents caused by human
error.The benefits would go (2) …………… comfort and safety, however, since they would also
revolutionise transport and urban planning. Traffic lights and road signs would no (3) …………… be
needed…….

V Fill in the blanks using the words from the box below:

outgoings lookout

1. It is not easy when your ______________ are so high that your salary can barely cover it.
2. I do not want to sound like your mum, but you should on the ____________ for someone new in
your life. You constantly whining about how hard is to be single is not going tosolve anything.

VI Fill in the blanks using the phrasal verbs from the box below:

to set up to take out

1. Unfortunately, weddings are not cheap, so he had to ___________a loan from the bank.
2. For years he has been accumulating means to finally ___________ his own business.

VII For each question, write one word which can be used in all three sentences:

1. The youth club should be opening in the near future.

People came from near and far to attend the festival.
The car didn’t hit me, but it was a very near thing.

VIII Provide the appropriate definitions of the words below. Then use them in a context.
1. stalemate –
 2. to repurpose –
1. Fill in the table with language items functioning as hedges or booster in the examples below.

1. This change may also have been in progress in other countries.

2. Your research has obviously been very thorough.
3. Literature, it is claimed, seeks to recapture and reconstruct tradition.
4. Apparently, the company is losing a lot of money.
5. You don’t know what time the shop opens, do you?

Hedging Boosting

Veliki Gersbi je priča o prošlosti kao i kao i o poteškoćama mijenjanja nečije budućnosti. Glavni junak
romana je Jay Gatsby, koji je misteriozni i bogati komšija naratora, Nika Karaveja. Iako u početku
malo znamo o Gatsbiju, iz Nikovog uvoda - i iz naslova knjige - znamo da će Gatsbijeva priča biti
fokus romana. Kako roman napreduje i Nik postaje sve više uvučen u Gatsbijev komplikovani svijet,
saznajemo šta Gatsbi želi: Dejsi, djevojka koju je nekada volio. Bilo ko ko stane između Gatsbija i
Dejsi postaje antagonist. Iako je Daisin muž djeluje kao originalni antagonist, različiti apstraktniji
pojmovi - poput klasne razlike, društvenih očekivanja i Gatsbijevih prošlih laži - takođe se mogu
smatrati antagonistima. A najmoćniji antagonist je vrijeme, vrijeme koje sprečava Gatsbija da
povrati ono što je izgubio. Nakon kratkog odlomka o Nikovog sjećanja na ljeto iz njegove prošlosti,
dešavanja je većinom linearna, počevši od Nikovog prelaska u New York, što ga čini Gatsbijevim
komšijom. Gatsbi je bogat, sa misterioznom prošlošću kojoja je predmet mnogih nagađanja. Nakon
susreta sa komšijom na zabavi, Nik saznaje da uprkos Gatsbijevom uspjehu, on čezne samo za Dejsi.
Gatsbiv glavni cilj kroz roman je vidjeti Dejsi ponovo i ponovno uspostaviti njihovu zajedničku
prošlost. Na izlazak u grad sa Tomom, Nik upoznaje Tominu ljubavnicu, Myrtle. U nastavku romana,
Nik dogovara ponovni sastanak između Gatsbija i Dejsi, a Jordan priča Niku o Dejsinoj i Gatsbijevoj
prošlosti. Gatsbi i Dejsi se zaljubljuju ponovo, a Gatsbi govori Nicku jednu verziju svoje životne priče.
Mnoge priče koje Gatsbi govori o sebi se na kraju ispostave da su laži ili poluistine. Fantastična
priroda njegovih priča daje Gatsbijevoj istoriji mitski kvalitet, koji jača osjećaj za njega kao tragičnog
junaka. Gatsbi i Dejsi su nakratko srećni zajedno, iako se izgled budućnosti para čini beznadnim,
uglavnom zbog nemogućnosti Gatsbija da odvoji svoje snove od stvarnosti.
I čitatelj i Nik mogu uočiti nesklad između Gatsbijeve idealizirane slike Dejsi koju je poznavao pet godina
ranije, i njenog stvarnog lika. Ficdžerald predstavlja Dejsi kao površnog, materijalističkog lika, uveličavajući
osjećaj da Gatsbi juri za snom, a ne stvarnu osobu. U jednoj sceni Gatsbi govori svima u sobi da su on i Dejsi
zaljubljeni i da će zajedno pobjeći I vjenčati se. Međutim, Tom kaže da ga Dejsi nikada neće napustiti, a ona
nije u mogućnosti reći Tomu da ga nikada nije voljela. Ovde se Gatsby po prvi put mora direktno suočiti s
mogućnošću da njegov san ne može biti ostvaren, , i vidjeti Dejsi kakva je trenutno, a ne njegovo idealizirano
sjećanje na nju. Vrhunac romana dolazi kada se grupa vozi iz Nju Yorka u dva automobila, a Myrtle, Tomova
ljubavnica, pogriješi Gatsbijev automobil za Tomov i istrči na ulicu, gdje vozilo je udari I ubije. Automobil koji
ubije Myrtle pripada Gatsbiju, ali Daisy je bila za volan. Nakon toga, radnja se brzo rješava. Gatsby preuzima
krivicu kako bi zaštitio Daisy, a Myrtlein suprug Džordž ubija Gatsbija (a potom i sebe) kao osvetu. Gatsby je
već umro simboličnom smrću, kada shvati da ga Daisy neće zvati i da ipak neće pobjeći s njim. Njegov san
konačno raspada, i on prvi se put suočen sa stvarnošću na jutro njegove smrti. Nik opisuje svijet kako ga
Gatsbi sada vidi kao nepodnošljivo ružnim: " “he found what a grotesque thing a rose is and how raw the
sunlight was upon the scarcely created grass.” Za razliku od prethodne opsesije prošlošću, konačni odlomci
Gatsbyjevog života odnose se na novost, stvaranje i budućnost – budućnost koja nema san o Dejsi čini mu se
groznim.Na kraju Nik pokušava organizovati sahranu za Gatsbija, ali nitko od gostiju s njegovih raskošnih
zabava nije došao. Daisy i Tom napuštaju grad, a Nick je ostao sam s Gatsbyjevim ocem, koji otkriva istinu o
njegovim skromnim počecima kao "James Gatz. Nakon sahrane, Nick odlučuje da se vrati na Srednji zapad,
ali prvo posjećuje Gatsbyjevu kuću posljednji put, i razmišlja o snazi zelenog svjetla na kraju Dejsinog
pristaništa, svijetlo koje je rasplamsalo Gatsbijevu nadu da će oživjeti prošlost.

Dear Rosa

Hope this finds you all well. I suppose by now school (1) will close/will have closed for Christmas and
you (2) will be enjoying/will have been enjoying a rest. It’s hard to believe that Tim’s already 18 and
it’s only a few months until he (3) will be leaving/ will have been leaving school for college.
My main news is that my brother John, and his family (4) will have been arriving/will be
arriving next Friday as part of their big trip around the world. By the time they get here they (5) will be
going/ will have been to California and New Zealand. No doubt John’s children (6) will have been
planning/ will pan it all out for months. They (7) won’t be spending/won’t have spent all their time
with me. John has to go to Perth on business, so I (8) will have kept/ will be keeping the rest of the
family entertained while he’s away. Then they will all be going to Sydney…

LISTENING FOCUS (P.159)

EXERCISE 1: Match the words on the left to their appropriate definitions on the right.
 1. to knock (someone) down with a feather a) (ph.v.) to waste time, especially when
F you should be doing something useful
or paying attention;
2. to be at a loose end G b) (adj.) enjoying something so much that
you are unable to stop having it,
watching it, doing it, etc.
3. flabbergasted H c) (v.) to have a strong feeling of wanting
something;
4. to muck about/around A d) (ph.v.) to surprise someone by being
very beautiful, impressive, unexpected
etc;
5. hooked B e) (adj.) extremely surprised;
6. gobsmacked E f) (phrase) used to say that one was
extremely surprised or astonished when
he or she found out about something;
7. to hanker C g) (phrase) with nothing in particular to
do;
8. to work one’s way I h) (adj.) very surprised or shocked;
9. to bowl over D i) (phrase) to achieve a better position
within the organization you work for;

EXERCISE 1: Read the text on page 153. Then, find the words which correspond to the definitions given
below:

Termin realizam (lat. stvaran, istinit) ima dvojako znacenje: oznacava metod
oblikovanja knjizevnog umjetnickog djela, na jednoj strani, I oznacava knjzevni pravac,
epohu u istoriji knjizevnosti, na drugoj strani. Realizam kao metod, postupak u
obilkovanju knjizevnog umjetnickog djele, prisutan je u knjizevnosti od najstarijih
vremena. Realisticki metod je postao dominantan vec u trecoj deceniji XIX vijeka jer
ga postepeno prihvata vecina pisaca I na snazi je, zavisno od knjizevmne sredine, sve
do kraja vijeka. Čim je metod realizma prihvacen od vecine pisaca koji pokazuju slicna
tematska opredjljenja, koriste slicne stilsko-izrazajne postupke I iskazuju slicna
shvatanja o drustvenim I umjetnickim pitanjima, nastao je knjizevni pravac realizam,
posebna epoha u istoriji evropskih knjizevnosti.
Javlja se prije svega kao opozicija romantizmu koji se usredsredjivao na subjektivni
svijet, na razigranu maštu I naglašenu emocionalnost. Realizam se usredsredjuje na
objektivni svijet, na pozitivne cinjenice, prirodnost I odmjerenost u pokazivanju
osjecanja.
U razvojnom toku realizma uocavaju se tri faze. Rani realizam oznacava evropske
pocetke realisticke epohe cije su temelje udarili Stendal, Onore de Balzak i Nikolav V.
Gogolj. Razvijeni realizam obuhvata pedesete i sezdesete godine XIX vijeka kada su
stvarali Gistav Flober, Alfons Dode, Ivan S. Turgenjev, Ivan A. Goncarov. Visoki
realizam obilježen je unošenjem ideološke, etičke I filozofske problematike-Lav N.
Tolstojm I Fjodor M. Dostojevski.
Odlike:
teme za svoje stvaranje realisti nalaze u stvarnosti koja ih okruzuje, u svakodnevnom zivotu
obicnih ljudi, u obicnim dogadjajima koji ne predstavljaju nista izuzetno. Ova knjizevnost
predočava sliku društvene sredine, odnose i sukobe u njoj, idejne i ideološke tokove.
Posebna pažnja se poklanja slikanju prirodnog okruzenjai ambijent.
junaci su obicni ljudi iz svakodnevnog zivota, koji su prirodni u djelovanju, ponašanju i
izražavanju. Glavni junak je uglavnom tipični predstavnik sloja ili grupe ljudi , prikazuje se
svestrano, motivacija je zasnovana na prirodnoj i logickoj kauzalnosti.
fabularnost je bitna osobina realisticke proze; fabula je cvrsta, ima hronoloski tok i u
kontinuitetu prati životnu priču junaka. Zamrsenost zapleta nije svojstvo realisticke fabule:
mora da bude dinamicna i zanimljiva, da bude u funkciji postepenog otkrivanja likova koji
prolaze kroz niz situacija. Svojstvo realisticke fabule je razgranatost, postojanje vise tokova,
razvijene epizode.
pripovjedanje je objektivno, uzdržano i odmjereno, bez jakih strasti, bez patetike i
hiperbolisanja. Ima hronoloski tok i prati zivotna zbivanja, drustvene tokove, intimna stanja.
dijalog je znacajno sredstvo umjetnickog oblikovanja u realistickoj prozi i dominantna forma
samoiskazivanja i indirektne karakterizacije.Vrlo je razvijen, sa obimnim dijaloskim nizovima.
monolog se kasno javlja u prozi realizma, prvo kao opis psiholoskog stanja a kasnije i kao
direktni unutrasnji monolog.
opis Predmet opisivanja su pejzaz, interijer, portret, karakter, sredina, atmosfera.
jezik realista je jednostavan, kolokvijalan, bez figurativnosti. Ima dosta zargonske,
profesionalne ili dijalekatske leksike cime se jezik funkcionalizuje kao sredstvo za
karakterizaciju i individualizaciju likova.

1. RARING TO GO – (phrase) excited about something

and impatient to begin it;
2. OUTLET – (n) a shop or place where a particular product is sold;
3. TO MAKE A GO OF – (phrase) to do something successfully;
4. CANNY – (adj.) good at judging situations, especially in business, and careful not to be tricked;
5. RESTRAINT – (n) the limit or control of the expression of strong emotion or opinion; an act of
limiting or controlling something, or a situation in which this happens, especially in business or
politics;
6. TO SINK – (v.) to invest money in something because you hope you will make more money;
7. TO TAKE OUT – (ph.v.) to get something officially, especially from an insurance company,
bank, or law court;
 8. OVERDRAFT – (n,) an agreement with your bank that allows you to spend money when you
have no money left in your account;
9. VENTURE – (n.) a new business or activity;
10. BACKER – (n.) someone who gives help or money to a plan or organization;
11. TO SET THE BALL ROLLING – (phrase) to make something start happening;
12. CONFIDENTIALITY AGREEMENT – (n.) an agreement in which a person or organization
that has important information about the activities of another organization promises not to give it
to anyone else;

Moderna je razdoblje u razvitku evropske i srpske književnosti od
poslednjih decenija 19. veka do Prvog svetskog rata 1914. godine.
Moderna je jedinstvenija i kompaktnija kao vremensko razdoblje
u istoriji književnosti nego kao skup književnih ideja jer je
obeležena različitim raspoloženjima, filozofskim orijentacijama,
tematskim opredeljenjima i oblikovnim postupcima. Ova epoha
donosi promene u odnosu prema svetu, u duhovnim
orijentacijama, u senzibilitetu, raspoloženjima, umetničkoj formi i
umetničkim sredstvima. Pesnicima ove epohe pripala je čast da
izvedu stvaralačku revoluciju nizom promena:
- tematske promene: osećajnost, unutrašnji život, iracionalno,
misticizam
- promene afiniteta: muzika (muzikalnost stiha), pikturalnost,
ironija, groteska, simbol
- promene raspoloženja: individualizam, usamljenost, osećanje
dosade
- promene stava: bunt, negacija svega što nameće društvo,
bekstvo od stvarnosti (zatvaranje u "kulu od slonove kosti"),
boemija;
- modernizacija poetskog izraza;
- negovanje forme, težnja savršenom obliku, artizam;
- estetizam - estetičke vrednosti imaju primat nad nacionalnim,
socijalnim, moralnim i didaktičkim;
- težnja za čistom umetnošću - larpurlartizam.
Raznolikost ove epohe ogleda se u brojnosti umetničkih i
književnih pravaca: parnasizam, impresionizam, simbolizam,
ekspresionizam. Ipak, osnovno obeležje ovoj epohi dao je
simbolizam kao dominantan književni pravac sa najvećim
brojem pristalica, koji su obično i najreprezentativniji pisci
svoga jezika. Utilitarizam je filozofsko i književnoteorijsko
gledište da je svrha ljudskog rada (i književnog rada) korisnost i
upotrebljivost (lat. utilis = koristan). Larpurlartizam je estetička
teorija formulisana u drugoj polovini 19. veka, koja negira
utilitaristička shvatanja umetnosti i književnosti zastupajući
tezu da umetnost ne treba ničemu da služi osim lepoti, da je
ona dovoljna sama sebi. Parnasovci nisu bili potpuno
jedinstveni u shvatanju poezije i njene funkcije. Poetiku
parnasizma karakteriše: - prezir prema masi, gomili;
- umetnost je mogućnost da se pobegne od besmislene
stvarnosti; - cilj umetnosti (poezije) jeste ona sama; - forma je
na prvom mestu i neguje se do savršenstva; - hladan i
objektivan odnos prema stvarnosti; - umetnost ne treba da
služi ničemu osim lepoti; - obrađuju teme iz istorije i
mitologije; - izbegavaju subjektivne teme i subjektivna
osećanja. * On je reakcija na realizam i naturalizam koji su
predmete i pojave, misli i ideje, osećanja i raspoloženja,
događaje i ličnosti sagledavali i umetnički predočavali u
njihovom pojavnom obliku, dosledno verno i jednoznačno.

Lead as a noun:

1. For the first time in the race Harrison is in the lead.

2. With a final burst of speed she went into the lead.
3. We'll go through the dance routine again - follow my lead.
4. A lead from an informer enabled the police to make several arrests.
5. Please keep your dog on a lead when on the beach.
6. After five games, she was still ahead by a point in the chess tournament, but her lead was
shrinking.

Lead as a verb:

1. I think we've chosen the right person to lead the expedition.

2. After 30 minutes the challengers were leading by two goals.
3. The Lions are leading the Hawks 28–9.
4. The brochure led me to believe that the price included home delivery.
5. It's worrying that such a prominent politician is so easily led.
6. The opposition leader led a very forceful attack on the government in parliament this
morning.
 7. I don't know the way, so you'd better lead.
8. The company has been leading the way in network applications for several years.
9. This information led the police to a house near the harbor.
10.He was able to lead a normal life, despite the illness.

Lead off (phrasal verb):

1. I want to lead off by thanking everyone for coming.

2. Who swam the lead-off leg of the race?
3. Reducing speed limits should lead to fewer deaths on the roads.
4. The Times leads with the coming mayoral elections.
5. All that time she'd been leading him on, but she was only interested in his money.
6. The pilot had no recollection of the events leading up to the crash.
7. He started telling me about a wonderful new restaurant he'd been to and I wondered what
he was leading up to.

1. to thatch P a) (n.) employment as an apprentice;

apprentice (n.) pay, in order to learn the
type of work that they do;
2. craftsman Q b) CONTIGENCY - (n.) something that
might happen in the future, especially
something bad; used for describing plans
or actions that help you to prepare for
possible bad events;
3. nothing could be further from the truth L c) (phrase) something that you add or do to
make something complete;
4. to come in handy D d) (phrase) to be useful in a particular
situation;
5. with the benefit of hindsight N e) (n.) the ability to make good quick
decisions and judgments;
6. straw U f) (v.) to use a word or phrase that no one has
used before;
7. tile M g) (n.) the quality of being very determined
and thinking only about achieving a
particular thing;
8. wire netting R h) (phrase) not suitable for people who are
easily frightened or shocked;
9. fastening T i) (n.) a line formed where two sloping
surfaces join, especially at the top of a
roof;
10. apprenticeship A j) (n.) a period of time during which a
 business or organisation stops working for
some reason;
11. single-mindedness G k) (n.) material used for preventing heat, cold,
noise, or electricity from passing through
something;