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Manila, Philippines (photo credit: travel oriented/flickr)26 Feb In the
Philippines, house aims to hold vote on economic amendment next month
Flag of the Philippines (photo credit: pixabay)20 Jan In the Philippines, lawmakers
may start debates on constitutional amendments by February
Manila, Philippines (photo credit: GreenArcher04/flickr)6 Jan In the Philippines,
senators call for a constituent assembly to amend the constitution
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Constitutional history
The Philippines had long been used as a trading port in Asia, and this led to their
colonization by the Spanish and later by the Americans. The Spanish converted most
of the population to Catholicism and the religion remains the dominant one in the
country. During the later part of more than 300 years of Spanish rule, nationalist
sentiment began to grow among groups of Indios (which was how the Spanish referred
to the Filipinos), fuelled in large measure by the writings of national hero Jose
Rizal (later executed by the Spanish authorities) and other ilustrados (the
Filipino intellegensia). A revolution was launched against Spain and the
revolutionaries declared Philippine independence in Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898.
What became known as the Malolos Congress was convened on September 15, 1898 and
the first Philippine Constitution, called the Malolos Constitution, was approved on
January 20, 1899, ushering what is called the First Philippine Republic. In the
Spanish-American War of 1898, the revolutionaries sided with the Americans, hoping
that, with the defeat of Spain, independence would be granted by the US to the
Philippines. This, however, did not happen. After Spain ceded (or sold) the islands
to the United States in the Treaty of Paris, the US immediately proceeded to
brutally suppress the Philippine independence movement.
In 1916, the US passed the Jones Act which specified that independence would only
be granted upon the formation of a stable democratic government modelled on the
American model, not the French model as the previous constitution had been. The US
approved a ten-year transition plan in 1934 and drafted a new constitution in 1935.
World War II and the Japanese invasion on December 8, 1941, however, interrupted
that plan. After heroic Filipino resistance against overwhelming odds finally ended
with the fall of Bataan and Corregidor in 1942, a Japanese “republic” was
established, in reality, a period of military rule by the Japanese Imperial Army. A
new constitution was ratified in 1943 by Filipino collaborators who were called the
Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod ng Bagong Pilipinas (Kalibapi). An active guerilla
movement continued to resist the Japanese occupation. The Japanese forces were
finally defeated by the Allies in 1944 and this sorry chapter came to a close.
Ferdinand Marcos was elected president in 1965 and was re-elected in 1969, the
first president to be so re-elected. Desirous of remaining in power beyond his
legal tenure, he declared martial law in 1972, just before the end of his second
and last term, citing a growing communist insurgency as its justification. He then
manipulated an ongoing Constitutional Convention and caused the drafting of a new
constitution – the 1973 Constitution – which allowed him to rule by decree until
1978 when the presidential system of the 1935 Constitution was replaced with a
parliamentary one. Under this new system, Marcos held on to power and continued to
govern by decree, suppressing democratic institutions and restricting civil
freedoms. In 1981, martial law was officially lifted, but Marcos continued to rule
by the expedient of being “re-elected” in a farce of an election to a new 6-year
term. He continued to suppress dissent and thousands of vocal objectors to his rule
either mysteriously disappeared or were incarcerated. Despite economic decline,
corruption allowed Marcos and his wife Imelda to live extravagantly, causing
resentment domestically and criticism internationally.
Executive branch
The Executive branch is headed by the President and his appointed Cabinet. The
President is the head of the state and the chief executive, but he is subject to
significant checks from the other branches, especially in times of emergency,
which, given the history of the country, was obviously intended to be a safeguard
against a repeat of Marcos’ martial law despotism. For example, in cases of
national emergency, the President can still declare martial law, but not for a
period longer than 60 days. Congress can revoke this decision by a majority vote,
or it can also extend it for a period to be determined by the Congress.
Additionally, the Supreme Court can review the declaration to decide if there were
sufficient facts to justify martial law. The President can grant pardons and
amnesty. He is also empowered to make or accept foreign loans. He cannot, however,
enter into treaties without the consent of the Senate. The President and Vice-
President are elected at large by a direct vote, but the President may only serve
one 6-year term. The Cabinet, consisting of the President’s advisers and heads of
departments, is appointed by the President and it assists him in his governance
functions.
Legislative branch
The legislative power is vested in a Congress which is divided into two Houses, the
Senate and the House of Representatives. The 24 members of the Senate are elected
at large by a popular vote and can serve no more than two consecutive 6-year terms.
The House is composed of 250 elected members. Most of these Representatives are
elected by district for 3-year terms, but 20% of the total membership is chosen in
proportion to party representation. Besides the exclusive power to legislate, one
of the most important powers of Congress is the ability to declare war, which it
can through a two-thirds vote in both houses. Even the power to legislate, however,
is subject to an executive check. The President retains the power to veto a bill
passed by both houses, and Congress may override this veto only with a two-thirds
vote in both houses.
Judicial branch
The Court system in the Philippines exercises the judicial power of government and
it is made up of a Supreme Court and lower courts created by law. The Supreme Court
is a 15-member court appointed by the President without need for confirmation by
Congress. Appointment, however, is limited to a list of nominees presented to the
President by a constitutionally-specified Judicial and Bar Council. This Council
consists of 7 members: the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Secretary of
Justice, a representative from Congress, a representative of the Integrated Bar, a
professor of law, a retired member of the Supreme Court, and a representative of
the private sector. The first four serve for four years, the law professor for
three, the retired Justice for two, and the private sector representative for one
year. The Supreme Court Justices may hear, on appeal, any cases dealing with the
constitutionality of any law, treaty, or decree of the government, cases where
questions of jurisdiction or judicial error are concerned, or cases where the
penalty is sufficiently grave. It may also exercise original jurisdiction over
cases involving government or international officials. The Supreme Court also is
charged with overseeing the functioning and administration of the lower courts and
their personnel.