Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences

Fog-Water Collection in Arid Coastal Locations

Author(s): Robert S. Schemenauer and Pilar Cereceda
Source: Ambio, Vol. 20, No. 7 (Nov., 1991), pp. 303-308
Published by: Springer on behalf of Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4313850 .
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 Article RobertS. Schemenauer
andPilarCereceda

Fog-water
Collection
inArid
Coasta
Locations

Themeanvolumediameters atthehighel-
The recentsuccess ofa large-scalepilotprojecttocollectfog-water innorthern Chile, evation(780 m) siteinChileareinthe8 to
indicatesthatthisis a resourcethatshouldbe serioulsyexaminedforuse incertain 12 pimrange(10) and dropletconcentra-
semi-aridand aridregionsoftheworld.Fifty 48 m2collectorsat a siteinChilehave tionsaretypically 100to400 percm3.Fog
producedan average of 7200 L ofwater perday during three drought years. This dropletsarecollected bya simpleimpaction
process.An object (collector)is placedin
paper reviewsthe fog-water collectionprocess and lists47 arid locationsin 22
thepathofthedroplets and,as thedroplets
countrieson 6 continentswherecollectionof fog-water by vegetationor artificial approach thesurface, someflowaround the
collectorshas been documented.One ofthemostexciting aspects ofthisresource objectand somestrikethesurface.Enor-
is thatin manyregionsthe supplyofwaterwillbe limitedonlyby the numberof mousnumbers offogdroplets mustbe col-
collectorsone chooses to install.Inaddition, since thesourceofthefogis normally lectedsinceitrequires abouttenmillionto
the movementof marinestratocumulus decks over coastal mountains, the water makea dropthesizeofa match head.
qualityis good and thewatercan be used fordrinking and forotherdomesticand The efficiency of thelargepolypropyl-
agricultural purposes. ene meshesused in Chilehas been both
measuredin thefieldand modelled(10).
The meshes are woven from a flat
INTRODUCTION polypropylene fibre1 mmwideand0.1 mm
One of themostpressing problems in the duce waterfromfog.However,it is only thickintoa meshwithtriangular openings
worldtodayistheidentification ofsufficientsince1987thata large-scale pilotproject approximately 1 cm on a side.A double
freshwater suppliesto support theworld's hasbeenundertaken (6, 7) withthegoalof layerofmeshis usedin Chile.Thecollec-
burgeoning population. Wealthy, orhighly providing wateron a permanent basisto a tionefficiency at thecenter ofa 12 m by4
industrializedcountries, generally havethe coastalvillageof330 peoplein Chile.The m collectorwas foundto increasewith
meansattheirdisposaltomovewaterlong CamanchacaProject(1987-1989) results windspeedup to 3.5 m s-' (theupstream
distancesortoutilizeexpensive solutionsto willbe discussedbelow. windspeed)andthenremained constant at
watershortages. Thesesolutions arebyand The initialsuccessofthefog-water col- about65%.Butthecollector as a wholehas
largeimpractical in developingcountries lectionprojectin Chile, the subsequent an efficiency ofcloserto 20% dueto low-
wherethefinancial resources are lacking, fieldwork in theDhofarRegionof Oman eredefficiencies awayfromthecenterof
yetthesesamecountries areoften facedwith during thesummer monsoons of 1989and themeshandduetowaterlossesinthesys-
rapid population increases, marginal 1990,andthe1990fieldprogram in Peru, tem.The arrayof fog-water collectorsis
landsandanalready
agricultural acutewater pointto thepotential widespread applica- completely passive.Waterdripsfromthe
problem (1). It is,therefore, thesecountries bilityof thisprocedure. This paperwill bottomof themeshesintoplastictroughs
thatwouldbenefit mostfrom newsources of presenta discussionof sites worldwide andthena gravity flowsystem delivers the
water. whereit is feltthatfurther investigationswaterthrough a network of pipes to the
Theaimofthispaperis todescribe what maybe warranted. The discussionwillbe pointofuse.
is arguablythefirsttrulynew sourceof basedonanexamination oftheexisting evi- The marineclouddecksthatapproach
freshwater thatshowssignificant potential denceoffog-water collection bynatural or thecoastinChilearerelatively thin(100 to
foruse in certainsemi-arid andaridlands. artificial collectors. 400 m) andrarelyproducedrizzleorrain.
Itis newinthesensethatitis notbeingex- Drizzledropsare largerthanclouddrop-
ploitedona largescalenowanditdoesnot lets,typically40 to 500 pm in diameter,
dependon precipitation, groundwater, ex- FOG-WATER COLLECTION and havean appreciable settlingvelocity.
istingfreshwater riversorlakes,oron wa- Fog is composed ofliquiddroplets. Fog,in Raindrops havelarger diameters andhigher
terfromtheoceans.It is thecollection of thesimplest of terms, is a cloudwhichis fallvelocities.As a consequenceof only
fog-water in coastallocationswherethe touching theground andthetypeoffogis havingfogdroplets, thecollectors in Chile
meteorological conditions andthetopogra- thendetermined by the physicalprocess can be optimizedfor this particle-size
phyare suitable.Despitethefactthatthe whichhas createdthefog.Whena cloud, range.In theDhofarRegionofOman,the
applicationis new,observations thatobsta- witha base somedistance abovethesea or fogis thicker, up to 1000m,andthereis
cles suchas treesand shrubscollectsub- theland,movesovera mountain, themoun- drizzlemixedwiththefog(11, 12).In con-
stantial
amounts offog-water go backhun- tainis covered byfog.Fogsproduced bythe ditionssuchas this,therelativecontribu-
dredsofyears(2, 3) andinfactprobably go advection ofcloudsoverhigher terraintend tionsof fogand drizzleneedto be deter-
as farbackas manhas livedin foggyhill- tohavehigher liquidwatercontents (8) than minedandthecollector designmodified if
toplocations.Butin desertenvironments,do fogsproduced atthelandorsea surface necessary.
duetothelackofvegetation, thefogpasses (9) anditis thesehighelevation fogsthatare
intodryinterior regionswithout beingin- of primary interestfortheproduction of
terceptedandthereitis losttoevaporation. waterinaridlands. FOG-WATER PRODUCTION
The literature on fog-water collectionhas The collectionof fogdroplets depends Theproduction ofwaterbyanarrayoffog-
been periodically examined(4, 5) and a on the diameterof the droplets,the watercollectors dependson thenumber of
considerable number of smallexperimentswindspeed andthenatureofthecollection collectors, theirsize,their efficiency,thefog
have been identified whereartificial and surface. Fogdroplets havediameters which frequency, thefogliquidwatercontent and
naturalcollectors havebeenshownto pro- aretypically from1 to 30 pmin diameter. thewindspeed.Figure1 is a plotof the
AMBIO VOL. 20 NO. 7, NOV. 1991 303

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
number ofpeoplethatcouldbesupported per
.
:i ..F::, i1; ; -,, ". :1.:::i.: .i. -m ... ....
... .. ... . .... ...

1 kmof 5 m highmeshassumingtypical .... .......4

W

liquidwatercontent (LWC) conditions of kii-i -A

4

0.1,0.25andO.5g nm-3,a3m s-'wind,a40% ..........

fog immersiontime and a collection j j'sj

iNWORM-44
w Z

efficiency of 50%. These conditionsare

representative of potentialhighelevation
coastalsites.Clearly,1 kmof collectoris 0-7-_

capableof supporting a largenumberof

Vi.

people,3150foraLWCof0.25g m-M3, ifthe

... ... .....

waterrequirements arelow(20 L pers-' OfPi

day-'.Fora demandof200 L pers-'day-', R

only315peoplecouldbe supported.However,
thiscouldrepresent theentire population ofa
smallvillage.
Thereis currently onlyonelargearrayof
fog collectorsforwhichdata have been
published. Thefifty 48 m2collectors at the
El Tofo site in Chile (290 26'S; 710 15'W)
hadan averageproduction (13) forthefirst
16months ofabout4 L min2day-'.Butmore
recent datagivea 30 month averageof3 L
m-2day-'.It mustbe noted,however, that .. ...... . .....
Y. gml AlnUm",

thiswas during a dryperiodwhenaverage P. . .........6 Kj% _-M Kf_

aiap ..... . .........

-gp ................

annualprecipitation hasbeenabout10mm* N
,g,pp.
yr-'ina regionwherethelong-term average
is 80 mm yr-'.A rateof 3 L nml2 day-' .....

represents anaverageof7200L day-'.Each

i -R . ......
gjjO

ofthe330villagers inChungungo currently t; 1,

use (14) an averageof 14 L pers-'day-'. g

M
-'CIORI "'E

(Table 1). The averagesupplybeingpro- :.:4 N.. M

NVM

ducedbythecollectors is 22 L pers'Iday-'.
Normalized to 1 kmof5 m highmesh,this
collection ratewouldsupport 750perskm-' . ................... . . ....

at 20 L pers-'day-'which,is a verylow
g
w, -1

valueconsistent withthethinfogdecksin
Chile. Experiments withsmallcollectors
haveyielded muchhigher collectionratesin
somelocations. Forexamplein Oman(12) MREO."N9
liax",_

somesitescollected inexcessof50 L mn2 M

...........

day-'fortwoorthree months oftheyearbut

g

As
P.2
theannualaveragewillbe muchlowersince ..........

theremainder oftheyearis fogfree. R. O

RE
-,6
'N.,
Ogg
.44 MN,

In orderto determine whether thepro- y

duction ofwaterbythecollection offogis H M .......

.......... ...
4-1

reasonable, oneneedstoknowtherangeof NM
................

valuespeopleactually use intherural,arid N

.9-TiMPAP-.1,
Mi

partsof developing countries. Table 1 at- S. R

tempts to addressthis,butactualmeasure-
mentsare few(15, 16), and so someesti- PL OIF-17- :--.,Z

mateshavebeenincludedforcomparison. g.

Itappearsthatvaluesfrom10to50 L-pers'I
*day-' aremeasured
M-N
andtherefore, a value q; jEl H Mi:i:i

of 50 L * pers'I day-'shouldbe an improve- f:Mxfij-W%i 'Ur;

inmostruralarid
mentforsmallsettlements
........... .

lands.A properly
sitedfog-water
collection ... ......

systemshould be able to providethis

... ......

amountto morethanone thousand people M ,

..........
R
perkilometer
oflength.
.. ....... ..........
Am
Ti

l ..............
.......... mg
U
i: 1f: im. MM g

AXM.ItIMK,'!i`4?

FOG-WATERCOST
W4,

The costofproducing waterfromfogwill

dependnotonlyon theamountof water
producedbuton local laborand material
costsandon theease of siteaccess.It has
beenestimated(14) thatthecostofthewater
producedinChilewillbe aboutUSD 1 per
n-3onthemountain.Thisincludesallcollector
costs.Thecostwillbe aboutUSD 2 perm~3
deliveredto a village 6 km away. The
additional
costresultsfrom theconstruction
of a pipeline,storagetank and small
chlorination
plant.Thisis significantly
less
304 AMBIO VOL. 20 NO. 7, NOV. 1991

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 .

Figure 1. The number of

kilometer of fog-water co
of the desired water c
liquid water content (0.1, 0
assumed that the collec
high, the collector is 150
the collection efficienc
-
speed is 3 m s-1. The p
50, 100, 200 and 500 L
-0
!,..-
0
0
0- 3
I
V
Q
CL 2
0
Q)
C
100

o 11
. 0100

Water Requirement

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 thanthesubsidized cost,approximatelyUSD
8 m73,ofwatertrucked tothevillage.Italso
pointsoutanimportant fact,thecostoffog-
wateralwayshastobe putinperspective by
comparing it to otherexistingor proposed
watercosts.Anditmustbeborneinmindthat
thesuggested locationsforfog-water col-
lectionsystemsare thosewithouteasily
lowcost,surface
accessible, andsub-surface
watersupplies.

........~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
......

DISTRIBUTION
OF SITES
A concisereviewis presented inTable2 of
theliteratureon fog-water with
collection,
summary statementskeyedto themap in
- Figure2. Onlyreferences to specificsites
~~~~~~~~IM willbelisted.
Theareascovered willbasically
dissipating on the leeside. be thosethatareclassifiedas dryclimate,
desertorsteppe(BwandB ), bygeographers
.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..
_ ~~~~~~
~. butwiththeinclusion of islandsandsmall
regionsthatcouldbe considered severely
waterdeficient. In a fewcases, thismay
includean areathathasampleprecipitation
forpartoftheyearbutisaridfortheremainder
oftheyear.

SouthAmerica
InSouthAmerica theprimary fogcollection
locationsare foundalongthe westcoast
wheretheclimateis conducive totheforma-
tionoflowclouddecks.A largenumber of
siteshavebeenstudiedin Chile;onlyfour
arelistedhere.Summaries offogfrequency
observationsforChileandArgentina have
beenproduced (19) butwithout reference
to
waterproduction.Inlandsiteswithhighfog
frequenciesbut also with high rainfall
amountssuchas Baeza, 1908m(00030'S; 770

An arrayoffifty fog-watercolflctors has been setup on the ridgeat El Tofo,Chile at an

ahittudeof 780 m. Each collector Is 12 m x 4 m withthe base 1 to 2 m above the terrain
erectedInpairs(24 mx 4 m)foreconomy.
Thecoliectorsaresometimes

1050E
60ON

W 02~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

233C -

-------
L~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

A double layerof polypropylenemesh Is used A 1 m x 1 m collectorand a 1 m3storage tank

as a collector In the Camanchaca Project In
Chile. The fiberIs 1 mmwide and 0.1 mm
thick.The horizontalfibersIn the weave are 1
cm apart.
of the typeused to studythe Dhofarmonsoon
In Oman In the summerof 1989.
60?S

306 AMBIO VOL. 20 NO. 7, NOV. 1991

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 52'W) andTena,512m (010 00'S; 770 48'W) haveproduced largeamounts thoughtheroleof fogin the
of fog-waterexperiments,
inEcuador(20) arenotincluded. fortheislanders
(2). growthofforests
in wetenvironments
has
beennotedhereandinAustralia.
NorthAmerica MiddleEast
Thearidregions inNorth America arefound Almostthe entireregionlacks readily DISCUSSION
in thesouthwestern UnitedStates,Hawaii, availablefreshwater intheform ofriversand Fog-water collection isa resource thatshould
MexicoandpartsoftheCaribbean andCen- lakes.Therearethough, extensive supplies be seriously examined in certain semi-arid
tralAmerica. Fogfrequencies fortheUnited of groundwater in manyareas.One non- andaridregions oftheworld. Itisparticularly
States have been summarized(28) but traditional source ofwater that hashistoricallyattractiveinareaswhere conventional sources
without reference to fog-water collection. receivedconsiderable attention in thisre- ofwaterarenonexistent oraredisappearing.
Again,fogdripmeasurements in areasof gionis thedeposition ofdewonplants(59, Thisreviewoffog-water collection in arid
highprecipitation such as nearPortland, 60). This, however,does not providea landsshowsthatat47 sites,in22 countries,
Oregon,100 m (450 32'N; 122040'W) (29), managed watersupply. on six continents, references existto the
areofinterest butexcludedfrom thelisting. collectionof fog-water by plantsor man-
HoweverLa Llorona,theweepingforests made devices.These latterexperiments
(30),ofseasonally dryHonduras arelisted. Asia indicatethatfoghas beenconsidered as a
Thisvastcontinent withmajordesert regions, waterresourcein some arid or desert
includingsome bordering coastlines,has environments butithasnever beendeveloped
Europe almostnoreported observations offog-water as a seriouswatersupply. TheCamanchaca
Thesemi-arid landsofEuropeareconfined collection by vegetation andno concerted Project(1987-1989)at theEl Tofositein
tothesouthern border ofthecontinent. The efforts to workwithfog collectors.The Chilehas gonethenecessary nextstepand
morenortherly countries are wetterand, exceptionsare some discussionsof fog combineda scientificstudy with the
though somehavefrequent fogs,arenotin covered hillsintherainyclimates ofSoutheast implementation ofa large-scale pilotproject.
needofwater from thissource.Observations Asiawhicharenotrelevant toourdiscussion IthasclearlyshownthatattheEl Tofosite,
offog-water collectionbytreesgo backat here.Cherrapunji, India,however,is so and by extension(19) at otherlocations
leastas faras 1776inEngland(3). unusualthatitbearslisting. Thelocation has studied alongtheChileancoast,substantial
thehighest meanrainfall in theworldbut amountsof watercan be obtainedfrom
now because of deforestation it suffers persistent highelevation coastalfogs.In ad-
Africa droughtsforninemonths of theyear(65). dition, itappearsthatthewatercostpresents
Africahasaridanddesert conditions inboth Areasinextreme Southwest Asiahavebeen an attractive altemative totrucked water.
theextreme north andtheextreme southof coveredabovein thesectionoftheMiddle The application of theChileantechnol-
thecontinent as well as on islandsin the East. ogyandtheresultsof theexperiments, to
Atlantic Oceanandonthesouthwest coastof otherlocations intheworld,is neither sim-
Madagascar.Fog-water collectionsystems plenorautomatic. Beforean operational or
mayhaveapplication at manylocationsin Australia evena pilotprojectcouldbe undertaken at
Africabut of date therehave been few Thereare veryfew fog-water collection a site,an initialsiteassessment needstobe
experiments toverify this.One ofthemost references forthedrycontinent ofAustralia. done.Thefogfrequency andaltitude range
interesting
reportswasofa treeintheCanary New Zealandandotherpartsof theSouth needtobe identified; a windclimatology is
Islands,whichas earlyas 1764,wassaidto Pacificseem to be devoidof collection necessary; thetopography hasto be exam-

__ -- r Figure2. A map showing

950E locations an arid regions
600N withreferencesto fog-water
<,7 1 } 9 0 ,>, ,: t | collectionby vegetationor
artificial
collectors.
The
numbers arekeyedto
listings inTable 2.
21

12,16,17
13,14 26~~~~~
27
41?42~~2

------------- --- - - ---- --- -

-----------? __ z23030'
29

30
23 31
5,7 25
22

6~~~~~~~~~~ 24 -23030

3,4
36,37,3

950E
I - _

AMBIO VOL. 20 NO. 7, NOV. 1991 307

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 sites;and thefog
inedto locatepreferred designoftheappropriatelargecollectorand yearfieldproject
followed(ifwarranted)by
liquid watercontentsand dropletsizes forthechoiceof sites.Ideallyone would a parallelresearchandpilotproject
seemsto
shouldbe measured.Data fromtheseand prefer recordofall parametersbe thelogicalprogression
a long-term atpotentialsites.
otherstudiescan normallybe obtainedat beforeproceeding butfiscalor otherre-
lowcostandareessential
relatively forthe often
straints precludethis.Therefore,a one

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