Fluids

A fluid is something that can flow. Liquids and gases are fluids.

Pressure by a fluid due to its weight: Pressure = force exerted perpendicularly on

unit area
F
P=
Base area = A A
W
P=
A

Since W = mg ………. (i)

and
Density = mass/volume
m
ρ=
h V

Or, m = ρV ………….. (ii)

SoW water = ρwater V water g
Volume = Cross-sectional area A × height ' h '
W
So W = ρ ( A ×h ) g
F ρ ( A × h) g
Therefore, P = = =hρg
A per unit
Pressure exerted by a liquid is defined as the weight of liquid A area.
Weight of fluid F Where, h= height of fluid
P= Area
=A
ρ = density of fluid
P = hρg
g = gravitational field strength

Atmospheric Pressure

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Atmospheric pressure is the pressure due to the weight of the huge amount of air above
us.
ρ of air = 1.24 kgm-3
Atmospheric pressure near the surface of the Earth is roughly equal to 100,000 Pa.
As we go up, the height and density of atmosphere decreases and therefore the
atmospheric pressure decreases.

Pressure and depth, h:

Pressure at a given depth is independent of direction.

P
h

P P

The pressure is same in all directions.

The pressure on a submerged object is perpendicular to the surface at each point on the
surface.

The pressure at a given depth is independent of direction -- it is the same in all

directions with the same value of height. This is another statement of the fact that
pressure is not a vector and thus has no direction associated with it when it is not in
contact with some surface. The pressure on a submerged object is always
perpendicular to the surface at each point on the surface.

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Upthrust

Upthrust is the force exerted on an object by a fluid in the upward direction when the
object is immersed in the fluid, due to the pressure difference between the top surface and
the bottom surface of the object.
Upthrust of a fluid on a particular solid at a particular temperature remains constant.

P1 P1 = h1ρg
h1
P2 = h2ρg
1 h2
h
Since,
h2 > h 1 ,
∴ P2 > P 1 ,
P2

Resultant pressure = P2 –P1 in the upward direction.

P = (h2 – h1)ρg
Resultant force F (upward )
 = hρg (where h = height of the cylinder)
A

 F = Ahρg (A = cross-sectional area of the cylinder)

∴ Upthrust = vρg (v = volume of the object under the fluid,
ρ= density of fluid, g= gravitational field strength)
Hence the formula just became dimension independent.

h1

Here, upthrust is same

h2
because the volume of
the object is same
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At this moment, every object on Earth is immersed in the air/atmosphere. Theoretically,
everything on Earth is experiencing an Upthrust (that includes you).
 But according to Mathematics or Physics, if object’s density is very much larger than
the fluid’s density, then the upthrust due to the fluid can be ignored.
 If the immersed object has much higher value of weight than the upthrust acting on it,
the upthrust can be ignored.
Archimedes’ Principle

Vc

Up thrust on a body by a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
Volume of cuboid (under water) (V c ¿ = volume of fluid displaced (V f ¿
Volume of cuboid (V c ) * Density of fluid ( ρ f )=volume of fluid displaced (V f ¿ * Density of
fluid ( ρ f )
Volume of cuboid (V c ) * Density of fluid ( ρ f )= mass of fluid displaced (mf )
Volume of cuboid (V c ) * Density of fluid ( ρ f )*g = mass of fluid displaced (mf ) *g
∴ Upthrust on the cuboid = weight of the fluid displaced.
Floatation

An object will float if its weight = Upthrust acting on it.

Since Upthrust = weight of the fluid displaced

TITANIC

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Weight
The ship will float if,
Weight of the fluid displaced = Weight of the ship

In order to stay afloat, an object (e.g. a ship) in a fluid (e.g. water) needs to displace fluid of
weight equal to the object’s own weight. If the weight of the object is large, it will need to
displace a large volume of the fluid, else it will sink.
On the other hand, if the density of the fluid is high, the object will need to displace less
volume of water (since density is more, a smaller volume of the fluid will produce the
weight required to balance the object’s weight) and so the object will float.
Plimsoll Lines
Plimsoll lines are marked on the body of a ship so that
they are loaded without crossing the safety markings.
Otherwise, the ship may sink because of the change in
density or season.

Hydrometer
Hydrometer is a device used to measure the
density of a liquid. If the test liquid has low Low density marks
density, the hydrometer sinks more and vice
versa. The density value can be read directly High density marks
Fluidthe
from Movement:
scale on the hydrometer.

There are two types of fluid movement:

1. Laminar Flow
2. Turbulent Flow

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Laminar Flow:

In a fluid flow, where the streamlines are moving with low velocity and not mixing with
each other, is called a laminar flow. In this type of flow, the velocity of the streamlines in
the same place within the fluid is constant over time. No abrupt change in direction or
speed of flow takes place.

The lines those are used to represent lines of laminar flow are called stream lines.

Video link for Laminar flow:

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IN LAMINAR FLOW THE DRAG FORCE IS SMALL. Submarines should run through laminar
flow so it will feel less drag and will require less energy to spend.

Flow of water inside a pipe:

Friction between the outer layer of the fluid and the inner walls of the pipe is maximum.
So water in contact with solid walls has the slowest/negligible speed. Speed of water
towards the center of the pipe increases because fluid friction decreases towards the
center. Along the stream lines, the fluid elements have the constant velocity and so the
flow is Laminar.

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Turbulent Flow:

When fluid velocity in any given place changes over time, it is turbulent flow. Mixing of
layers takes place. Fluid flow as eddy current (circulating current), that is, sudden change
in direction or speed of flow takes place. Velocity of flow at a point is not constant over
time.

In turbulent flow, the water molecules passing at a given point do not follow the same
path and the flow lines keep changing randomly.

Above a certain speed, a laminar flow becomes a turbulent flow.

The value of speed above which the flow becomes a turbulent flow depends on:

1. The shape and size of the solid surface in the flow.

2. Density of fluid
3. Viscosity of fluid

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The turbulent flow increases the drag in a vehicle and so increases the fuel consumption.
Planes passing through turbulence will require more fuel than passing through laminar
flow or calm air.

E.g. As train passes a platform at high speed, the air surrounding the train are in turbulent
flow, where the flow lines change direction randomly and quickly. Any person standing on
the platform near the train at that moment, may be thrown away by the air turbulence.

Law about Fluid Motion:

Rate of flow of fluid at any cross-section in the tube is constant.

volume offluid flown ∆ V
Rate of flow of fluid = time taken
= ∆ t unit: m3 s−1

Rate of flow is the volume of fluid moving per unit time.

Volume = Cross -sectional Area ‘A’ × length of water column ‘l’
A×l
Rate of flow = t
l
∴ Rate of flow = A × v (v is the speed of fluid flowing = )
t
∴ A × v = constant

Therefore, in the narrow part of the tube water flows faster.

1 1
A ∝ ∨v ∝
v A

Viscosity:

Qualitatively, Viscosity is the quantity that describes a fluid’s resistance to flow when a
force is applied to the fluid. Water is less viscous than oil. It relates to the thickness of a
fluid. The thicker a fluid is, the more viscous it is.

Coefficient of Viscosity: The degree to which a fluid resists flow under an applied force.
Expressed by the symbol: ‘η’ Unit: Pas.

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At a particular temperature the coefficient of viscosity ‘η’ of a fluid remains constant. The
liquids and gases which behave this way are called Newtonian Fluids.

Now, WITH INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE THE VISCOSITY OF A LIQUID DECREASES.

An object falling through a fluid will feel much less resistance if the temperature of the
fluid is high.

WITH INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE THE VISCOSITY OF A GAS INCREASES. This is

because the particles will move faster and hence will collide with falling body more
frequently and the object will fall slowly.

Stokes’ Law:
Stokes’ law force is the drag force acting on a spherical solid of radius ‘r’ when it is moving
through a fluid and the relative velocity of the solid with respect to the fluid is small (fluid
flow around the solid is laminar).
The viscous drag ‘D’ on a spherical solid by a fluid depends on three factors:
1) Coefficient of viscosity, η of the fluid.
2) Speed v of the solid
3) Radius of the solid, r
Combining all the factors,
D ∝ vηr
D = 6πvηr  Stokes’ Law force
D
η= [unit: kg m−1 s−1=¿ N m−2 s=Pas]
6 πvr

This law is applied when the fluid motion is slow and is laminar flow, and the fluid is a
Newtonian fluid.
[Glue is a non-Newtonian fluid.]

At terminal velocity,
D = 6πηrvt

Terminal Velocity: The constant velocity with which an object moves through a fluid
when the resultant force acting on the object is zero.
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This can occur in any direction of motion, i.e. both horizontal and vertical.

When an object moving through a fluid in the downward direction

Weight ‘W’ is an unbalanced force(upthrust<<Weight). The

object accelerates at the rate of ~9.81 m s−2 from rest
W
U + D 1 (U = constant, drag = changes with speed)
V1 The object gained a velocity and a certain value of air
resistance started acting on it. Total upward force increases.
Resultant force is still in the downward direction but lower.
U +D 2 than ‘W’.

V 2 >V 1 The object gained a higher velocity faces greater air

resistance. Resultant force decreases even more.

U +D 3
The object gained such a velocity which made the air
V t >V 2 resistance + upthrust= weight, the object’s resultant force
becomes zero and the object continues to fall with a constant
velocity called terminal velocity.

As a solid sphere is released, it accelerates downward due to the unbalanced force caused
by weight. As the speed of the sphere increases, the upward drag force ‘D’ increases and
‘W’ and ‘U’ remain unchanged. At a certain speed, D +U become equal to W and the
resultant force on the solid becomes zero. So, the solid no more accelerates and moves at a
constant velocity which is called terminal velocity, ‘vt’.
At this point: Upthrust + Drag force = Weight

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When an object moving through a fluid in the upward direction
3. U

W + D2

U
2.

W + D1

U
1.

As a bubble is released from the bottom of a fluid, it accelerates upward due to the
unbalanced force caused by upthrust. As the speed of the sphere increases, the downward
drag force ‘D’ increases and ‘W’ and ‘U’ remain unchanged. At a certain speed, D +W
become equal to U and the resultant force on the bubble becomes zero. So, the bubble
accelerates no more and moves at a constant velocity which is called terminal velocity, ‘vt’.
At this point: Upthrust = Weight + Drag force

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If a parachutist opens his/her parachute when skydiving:

Velocity – time graph

Whenever a parachutist opens his parachute, the surface area above his head increases by
a large value, which increases the air resistance acting on him by large value. An upward
resultant force acts on the person which decelerates the person. The drag force decreases
with velocity and at a certain lower velocity, the total upward force again becomes equal
to the total downward force and a new lower terminal velocity is obtained.
When an object moving through a fluid in the horizontal direction
 Even with high speed cars, when the speed of the cars increases, the air resistance
acting in the opposite direction to the car increases. The resultant force acting on the
car decreases. Velocity will increase at a decreasing rate. Eventually, the velocity
reaches a maximum constant value.

When any object falls with terminal velocity, its GPE decreases but gets converted to heat
energy and dissipated to the surrounding.
 When air resistance is neglected:
GPE decreases = KE increases.
 When air resistance is considered
GPE decreases = KE and Heat energy increases
 When object falls with terminal velocity
GPE decreases = Heat energy increases

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 EXPERIMENT: To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a fluid.
Small solid sphere

Density of the solid material used ∈the sphere=ρs

Tall glass cylinder with Density of the fluid through which the solid is falling= ρf
glycerol

Parallel markings

Several solid spheres of same material but different diameters are taken. Diameter of each
sphere is measured at several places using a micrometer screw gauge and an average
diameter ‘D’ is calculated. Radius of each sphere, r, is calculated, D/2.
One of the spheres is released from the top of the liquid surface. As the sphere reaches the
upper marking, a stopwatch is turned on and when it reaches the lower marking, the
stopwatch is turned OFF. The time taken is recorded ‘t’ and the gap between the markings
is measured ‘h’ with a meter rule.
Calculations:
h
Terminal velocity vt = t

In this case, at terminal velocity, resultant force in the sphere is zero.

Therefore, W = D+ U where, D = Drag force & U = Upthrust

If the density of solid is ρs and the density of the fluid is ρf,

Weight of the solid sphere = msg

= ρs v s g
4
= ρs( 3 πr 3s)g
4
Up thrust = ρf ( 3 πr 3s) g
IF W = D+U

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 4 4
ρs * 3 πr3g = 6πηrvt + ρf * 3 πr3g

vt = ( 43 ) π r g(ρs−ρ f )
3

6 πrη

2r 2 g(ρs−ρ f )
∴ vt =
9η

The experiment is repeated with other spheres and a graph is plotted vt against r2 and a
straight line passing through the origin is obtained.

vt

2 g( ρs−ρ f )
Gradient:
9η
2 g( ρs−ρ f ) r2(m2)
η=
9∗gradient

Precautions:
1. The diameter of the sphere and height ‘h’ are measured from eye level and
perpendicularly to avoid parallax error.
2. The stopwatch must be checked before using, in order to avoid any zero error. If there
is any zero error, the stopwatch must be reset to zero.
3. The micrometer screw gauge jaws should not be over tightened otherwise the diameter
might change.

Safety precautions:
1. Each sphere must be released with the help of a tong and dipping the sphere, a bit, in
the fluid, to avoid spillage.
2. Precaution must be taken in order to avoid tilting the cylinder to avoid liquid spillage.
3. Protective shoes must be worn, to avoid getting injured in case the cylinder falls on
feet.

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Similarities between Frictional Force and Drag Force:

Similarities:
1. Frictional Forces and Viscous Drag causes a body to reduce its speed.
2. They both act in the opposite direction of motion.

Differences:
1. Frictional forces occur in solids whereas drag force occurs in liquids and gases.
2. Viscous drag depends on temperature, density of fluid and speed but friction
doesn’t.

Relative Velocity: The vector difference between the velocities of two bodies. Also
defined as the velocity of a body relative to one regarded as being at rest.

To find the relative velocity, one must subtract the velocity of the object regarded as being
at rest from the one which is considered to be moving.

For the example below, (right is taken to be positive):

3m/s Air (Stationary)

1. What will be the velocity of air relative to the person with which it will hit his face?

Solution: 0 (velocity of air) – 3 (velocity of Person) = -3

Relative to the person, the air would appear to move towards left with a speed of 3 m/s.

Even though the air was stationary, the person was moving towards the air. So, relative to
the person, the air was moving in the opposite direction.

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 -3m/s
3m/s Air (Stationary)

2. What will be the velocity of air relative to the person with which it will hit his face?

Velocity of air – Velocity of the person = -3 – (3) = -6m/s

Relative to the person, the air would appear to move towards him (left) with a speed of
6 m/s

500m

V 2=U 2+2 as

Momentum p = mV = 60 * 99 = 5940kg m/s

Final momentum after hitting water = 0
Time to stop = 3sec
mv−mu 0−5940
F= = =2000 N
t 3

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Relative to the person, water would appear to HIT the PERSON, with a speed of 99m/s
(Even though, water wasn’t moving, the person was!!!) and the resultant force acting on
the person will be 2000N.

V air =15 m s−1 V = 6m/s

What will be the velocity of the air relative to the boat?

Speed of air relative to the boat = 15m/s – 6m/s = 9m/s
Air would appear to hit the boat with a speed of 9m/s (even though air is still moving with
a speed of 15m/s)

When something falls freely, it experiences apparent weightlessness.

For a person walking on a treadmill:

Relative to the person, the belt would move back at the same speed and therefore, the
person would be stationary (would not go anywhere despite running).
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Aerodynamic Foil

V = High, P = low

V = low, P =high

Low velocity of air pressure high

-10m/s High velocity of air pressure low
[This is a different situation]
10m/s air

Bernoulli’s Principle:

When an object is moving through a fluid, the fluid passes along the top and bottom
surfaces of the object. If an imaginary hollow cylinder is considered, at any given time, the
volume of air entering the cylinder is equal to the volume of air leaving the cylinder. Since
the wing is streamlined, the fluid along the top surface has to travel a greater distance
than the fluid along the bottom surface. In order to keep the fluid volumes at both ends
constant, the fluid travelling along the top surface moves faster than the fluid travelling
along the bottom surface.

Bernoulli’s Principle states that “A slow moving fluid exerts higher pressure than that
exerted by a faster moving fluid.”

As a result, the wing (or an aerodynamic foil) experiences a lift due to the resultant
upward pressure.

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Spinning Ball

V = low P =high
Air Motion

Ball’s Motion

Air Motion V = High P =low

When the ball spins through the fluid, the surface rotating along the fluid motion is
supporting the fluid motion and hence the velocity of the fluid is faster. So the pressure
along that surface is lower than the other. The Ball in the picture eventually goes down.

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