Solid Materials

Hooke’s Law

“Extension/compression of an elastic body is directly proportional to the force applied to

it until it exceeds its Limit of proportionality.” ---- AS
Or
Extension of an elastic body is directly proportional to the restoring force in it but in the
opposite direction until it exceeds its Limit of proportionality.” ---- A2

Original unextended length

F a α e or Fs α -e ( F a = applied force, Fs = Restoring Force, e = extension also represented

by Δx)
F a = ke Or Fs = -ke (The negative sign represents that the extension of the spring
and the restoring force are proportional but takes place in the opposite direction.)

F
k = e = spring constant/ or stiffness of a wire.

Qualitative definition of ‘k’ = How much force is required to extend or compress the
spring.
Car springs are stiffer than ordinary laboratory springs.

Quantitative definition: Spring constant is the force needed per unit extension.

Unit of K = Nm-1

Base Unit form: k gs−2

If force F1 produces an extension E1 and force F2 produces extension E2 on the same

F1 F2
spring, the spring constant, k = E 1 = E 2

Extension= present length – unstretched length

Force - Extension graph of average extendable materials:

E Y

Permanent
extension
L, Limit of proportionality: The force up to which extension is directly proportional to
force, that is, ‘F’ against ‘e’ graph is straight line passing through the origin, is called the
limit of proportionality. Beyond this force, even though force and extension are not
directly proportional to each other, but if the applied force is removed, the elastic
material goes back to its original shape.
E, Elastic Limit: The force beyond which an elastic material behave plastically that is,
the material does not return to its original shape or length when the force is removed is
called elastic limit. Limit of proportionality and the elastic limit are very close and the
limit of proportionality is a little less than the elastic limit. The extension or
deformation beyond the elastic limit is called plastic deformation.
Y, Yield Point: Beyond elastic limit, at a certain point, known as the yield point, the
extension of a body increases rapidly with even a small increase in force.
Fracture, Breaking point: If the object keeps extending, at a certain point, known as
the breaking point, the object breaks down.
[Original length= final length – permanent extension]

Springs with different spring constants:

F (N) 1
∴ k1>k2>k3
2
∴ Spring (1) is stiffer than spring (2)
k1
3
k2 ∴ Spring (2) is stiffer than spring (3)
Gradient = k3

e (m)
 F(N) Least
stiff
K3>K2>K1
Stiff

Stiffest

2
3.5
2
2 3.5

2
F(N)

If a line from any point on the plastic region is drawn parallel to the straight-line
portion of the graph, then the point on the extension axis it cuts, shows the amount of
permanent extension.
Energy stored in an elastic material.

Area under a force-extension graph/ Area

over the extension- force graph = Energy
stored in spring (or work done on the
spring) = Elastic Potential Energy/ Elastic
Strain Energy.

This energy is stored in the material, when

the force is ≤ Elastic limit.

Elastic potential energy up to limit of proportionality = Average Force x displacement

1 1
E = (F+0) x e = Fe[where ½ F=average force applied ¿the spring .]
2 2

Since F = ke then
 1 1
EPE = 2 (ke)e = 2 ke2

Area of a rectangle = l x b
Also,
F
Since F =ke then e = k

1
EPE = 2 Fe l

a b
1 F 1 F2 F2
( )
EPE = 2 F k = 2 k = 2 K

Unit: Joule
h
Experiment:
b To investigate Hooke’s law using a Helical Spring

1 1
Area of a trapezium = ( a+b ) h where ( a+ b )=average of the two sides
2 2

For a triangle, a = 0

½ (a+b)h = ½ (0+b)h = ½ x b x h
Marker

Elastic potential energy = (½ F) e where ½ F = average force.

Procedure: The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram. The initial length of the
spring is measured lo. A mass hanger of mass ‘m’ is added to the spring and the final
length l is measured. The experiment is repeated by adding more known masses to the
mass hanger and the corresponding final lengths ofe the spring are measured.

Calculations: Extension for every extended length of spring is calculated by

0+ F 1
Extension e = l –Work donel0=isF the
l0 (where e=length
x d =original Fe of the spring).
2 2

Force exerted on the spring when masses are added F = mg

A graph of force against extension is plotted.

 Gradient of the graph: dF/dx = Spring
constant

Unit: Nm-1.

Precautions:

1) The meter ruler must be perpendicular. This is done by keeping a set square beside
it.
2) The readings of lengths must be taken from eye level and perpendicularly to avoid
parallax error.
3) Each mass must be measured with a digital top – pan balance before adding.
Safety precautions:

1) Protective eye goggles must be worn to avoid eye injuries from sharp ends of
snapped spring.
2) Protective shoes should be worn to avoid getting injured from falling loads.
3) The clamp and stand must be clamped with the table to avoid getting injured from
toppling stand and clamps.
 Hooke’s law for Straight wire.

Even straight wires obey Hooke’s Law but the ratio of force to extension is not called
spring constant rather called stiffness of the wire.

Experiment: To find the stiffness of a straight wire

The initial position of the marker on the meter rule is recorded as l 0. A mass hanger of
mass ‘m’ is added to the wire and the position of the marker l is measured. The
experiment is repeated by adding more known masses to the mass hanger and the
corresponding marker positions are recorded.

Calculations: Extension for every extended length of wire is calculated by

Extension e = l – l0 (where l0 is the original length of the wire).

Force exerted on the wire when masses are added f = mg

A graph of force against extension is plotted.

 Gradient of the graph:
dF/dx = Stiffness

Unit: Nm-1.

Precautions:

1) The meter ruler must be perpendicular. This is done by keeping a set square beside
it.
2) The readings of length must be taken from the eye level to avoid parallax.
3) Each mass must be measured with a digital top – pan balance before adding.
Safety precautions:

1) Protective eye goggles must be worn to avoid eye injuries from sharp ends of
snapped wire.
2) Feet must not be placed below the mass hanger to avoid getting injured from falling
loads.
3) The clamp and stand must be clamped with the table to avoid getting injured from
toppling stand and clamps.
4) Foot protection must be worn.
Springs in Series and Parallel:
Springs in series (end to end connection):
Total spring constant can be calculated by the formula:
1 1 1
= +
Ks K1 K2
1 1 1
= +
Ks K K
K
Ks=
2

In series the total spring constant decreases.

If two springs are connected in parallel:

Total Spring constant: K p =K 1+ K 2

K p =2 K

In parallel, total spring constant increases.

Problem: A spring extends by 6cm when a force of 18N is applied to it. Find the
extension of a combination of springs when a force of 24N is applied to it and when two
such springs are connected
(i) In series
(ii) In parallel

Solution:
F 18
K = e = 0.06 =300 Nm−1

300
(i) In series = 2 =150 Nm−1

F = ke
F 24
e = K = 150 =0.16 m

(ii) In parallel = 600

24
e = 600 =0.04 m
 Stress, Strain & Young Modulus

Stress: It is the force per unit area of cross-section.

Force
i.e. stress = Area of cross−section
Unit: Pa or N m−2

There are two types of stresses:

1) Tensile
2) Compressive

Compressive Stress
F

Tensile Stress

Tensile Force: A pulling force used to increase the length of a material

Tensile Stress: It is defined as the tensile force per unit area of cross-section.
Tensile Force
Tensile stress = Area of cross−section

Compressive Force: It is a pushing force used to decrease the length of a material

When a force tries to reduce the volume of a material, the force is also called a
compressive force.
Compressive Stress
It is the compressive force per unit area.
Compressive Force
Compressive stress = Area of cross−section
Strain: It is the change in length per unit original length is called the strain
ΔL e
Strain = L
or, L
L1
L2
Extension, e = L2 –L1

Strain has no unit – but it sometimes is expressed in %

Tensile Strain: It is the ratio of increase in length to original length of an object.

Compressive strain: It is the ratio of decrease in length to original length of an object.

Young’s Modulus
For materials that obey Hooke’s Law, the stress is found to be directly proportional to
strain i.e Stress α Strain.
Stress = E * Strain
F e
α
A l
stress α strain
stress=Young Modulus × strain

E = Young’s Modulus (Young Modulus)

Stress(σ )
Young modulus (E) = Strain(Ԑ )

Unit: Pa (Yes! It is same as Pressure’s unit)

Stress – Strain Graph beyond the elastic limit of a ductile Material:

Breaking stress

 A – Limit of proportionality: It is the point up to which the stress is directly

proportional to strain and the graph is a straight line passing through the origin.
After that the stress is not directly proportional to strain but will come back to
original shape after the removal of stress.

 B – Elastic limit: It is the stress beyond which the body or the material behaves
plastically and it fails to return to its original shape after the stress is removed.

 y = Yield Point: The point beyond which material shows large increase in strain for
a small increase in stress.

 u– Ultimate tensile stress: Ultimate Tensile Strength = Ultimate tensile strength

(UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS) or ultimate strength, is the maximum
stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before failing or
breaking.
When Ultimate Tensile Stress is reached, the material undergoes necking effect (that is
part of the cross-sectional area decreases). At that point, with the same load, the value
of stress becomes large. To avoid immediate breaking, some load is removed. The
material still continues to undergo strain since the smaller cross-sectional area causes a
large value of stress but since the calculations are made keeping the average cross-
sectional area constant so the average stress decreases.

If actual cross-sectional area was considered, the graph would have gone up.
 F – Fracture/Breaking point: The stress at which the object breaks.
The compressive stress beyond which a material breaks is called its compressive
strength.
The tensile stress beyond which a material breaks is called its tensile strength.

Relationship between Young Modulus and Stiffness.

Hooke’s Law: F α e

F=ke k=spring constant ∨stiffness

Stiffness/ spring constant = How much force do you require to extend the material by 1m?

Stress(σ ) F e F l F l l
Young’s modulus: = ÷ = × = × =k ×
Strain(Ԑ ) A l A e e A A

0.3GPa  F =1N, L=1m and CSA = 1m2 extension =?

l
E = k* A

EA 1
∴ k =  k α E ,k α A ,k α
l l

If the gradient of the force-extension graph or stress-strain graph is large, that means
the Young Modulus of the material is large and the material will be stiffer.
Scientists often work with young modulus instead of stiffness because young modulus
doesn’t change with dimensions. Young Modulus is a constant for a particular material.
Why do we calculate stress, strain and Young Modulus?
Let say, a physics student took a steel rod of 1m of length (and 0.01m 2 of CSA) and
applied a tensile force of 200N to it and he found out the rod extends by 0.1m.
If a guy buys a rod of 3m and applied a force of 200N to it, then he will find that the rod
will extend by 0.3m instead of 0.1m what he was promised.
On the other hand
A student measures Young’s modulus of the material of the rod as 0.3 GPa. What does it
mean?
It means, if you take a rod of 1m of length, 1 m2of cross-sectional area and apply a force
of 1N then the rod will extend by = 3.33 ×10−9 m
YM = 0.3GPa if Length =3m, CA = 0.1m2 Force = 1000N extension=1×10−4 m

Energy in elastic materials

Elastic material can store energy (when you do work on them) in the form of elastic
potential energy/elastic strain energy. The capability to deform allows them to store
the energy. Storing is also referred as absorbing. Therefore, it can also be said, elastic
materials can absorb energy.
Energy Density

The energy stored per unit volume or the work done per unit volume in an elastic
deformation is called the energy density.
** For a given volume of a material, how much energy will it be able to absorb.
i.e Energy stored ∨Work done
. Energy density=
Volume
Stress
(Pa)
F
Stress =
A
Δx extension
Strain = =
x originallength
F Δl Work done
∴ Stress * Strain = * = Unit: Jm-3
A l Volume
Strain
Stress = E * strain

Energy density is an important property when things like car seat belts are designed.
Car seat belts are designed to absorb kinetic energy (i.e. convert it to some other form
like heat) of the person inside the car when car decelerates.

Now seatbelt materials are chosen of high energy density so they can absorb large
amount of energy with given volume of material.

That is why Racing Cars use cross seat belts to use the total volume of the material so it
can absorb large amount of energy.

F x distance
Kinetic energy of EPE of the Kevlar vest (bullet
the bullet proof vest)
Problem:

The graph shows the stress-strain relationship for a material from which car seat belts
can be made.

a) What physical quantity does the area under this graph represent? [1]

b) A car seat belt is 2 m long, 6 cm wide and 1.5 mm thick. Show that the volume of the
seat belt is approximately 2 x 10 -4 m3.

1.80 x 10−4 m3

c) A passenger of mass 55 kg wears the seat belt when travelling in a car at a speed of
24 m s-1. Show that the kinetic energy of the passenger is about 16 kJ. [2]
1 2
KE = 2 m v =¿15.84KJ

d) Calculate the energy per unit volume which must be absorbed by the seat belt as it
restrains the passenger when the car stops suddenly. Assume that all the
passenger's kinetic energy is absorbed by the seat belt. [1]

Energy per unit volume = 15.84KJ/ (1.80 × 10−4 ¿ = 88000KJm−3

e) Use the graph to show that a seat belt made from this material would be satisfactory
for restraining the passenger in the situation described above. Assume the
maximum strain in the belt is 20 x 10 -3. [2]

1.12 ×108 J m−3 = 1.12 ×105 kJ m−3

The material has sufficiently large energy density to meet our requirement.
f) In what way would the design of a seat belt, made from the same material, need to
be changed to make it suitable for restraining the driver of a racing car when the car
stops suddenly? Explain your answer. [2]
 Increasing the thickness of the seat belt will increase the volume of the seat belt
and hence with the same material, the seat belt can absorb more energy.

Experiment to measure the Young Modulus of a straight wire

Before adding the loads, the length of the wire ‘l’ is measured using a meter rule.

The diameter of the wire is also measured at several places of the wire using a
micrometer screw gauge and an average diameter ‘d’ is calculated.

A known mass ‘m’ is hung with the help of the mass hanger and the extension ‘e’ is
found with the help of the meter rule.

The experiment is repeated with several known masses and the corresponding
extensions of the wire are measured.
 Stress/Pa
Calculations
d
Radius of the wire: r = 2

Cross Sectional Area of the Wire: A = π r2

Force applied to the wire F = mg

Stress applied to the wire = F/A

Strain = e/l

Strain
A graph of Stress against Strain in plotted and the gradient of the linear section of the
graph gives the young modulus of the material.

Precautions:

1) The meter ruler must be perpendicular. This is done by keeping a set square beside
it.
2) The readings of length must be taken from the eye level to avoid parallax.
3) Each mass must be measured with a digital top – pan balance before adding.
4) The screw gauge should be handled carefully to avoid damage of the wire.

Safety precautions:

1) Protecting eye goggles must be worn to avoid eye injuries from sharp ends of
snapped wire.
2) Feet must not be placed below the mass hanger to avoid getting injured from falling
loads.
3) Foot Protection must be worn.
EXPERIMENT: To measure Young modulus of a metal using Searle’s apparatus

Procedure

The length L of the wire from the top to the point of suspension is measured using a
meter rule.
The diameter of the wire is measured at different positions of the wire and an average
diameter is calculated.
Two wires are suspended from a height using Searle’s apparatus. Initially, both the
wires are kept under tension. Load is kept fixed on the left wire. Load on the right wire
is increased. Micrometer screw gauge is adjusted so that the bubble of the spirit level is
centralized. The extension is counted from scale reading.
The experiment is repeated several times increasing the load but without exceeding the
elastic limit.
Measurements
i) Average diameter d
ii) Load applied F
iii) Extension e or Δx or ΔL
iv) Original length L

Calculations
Area of cross-section = π(d/2)2 = πd2/4
Stress = F/A
Strain = ΔL/L
 Stress/Pa
A graph of stress against strain is plotted for different values of load and from the
gradient of the linear section of the graph the value of Young’s modulus is obtained.

Strain

According to general observation, solids are categorized into the following types:

1) Rigid: Materials which do not deform easily when a force is applied. E.g. block of
metal, wood
2) Flexible: Materials which deform easily when force is applied. These types of
materials are easily foldable. E.g. Rubber strip, Clothing materials.
3) Plastic: materials which deform permanently when a force is applied and do not
return to their original shape when the force is removed. E.g. wet clay, dough, etc.
4) Elastic: materials which deform easily when a force is applied and returns to its
original shape when the force is removed. E.g. spring, rubber band
5) Strong: An object is strong if it can withstand a large stress before it breaks. The
strength of a material will depend on its size. For e.g. thick cotton thread requires a
bigger breaking force/stress than a thin wire. E.g Bullet Proof Glass.

The strength of a material is defined in terms of its breaking stress.

Hysteresis Graph

σ (MPa)

Loading

Unloading

Ԑ
Hysteresis graph shows that some materials do not have the same stress-strain graphs
for loading and unloading conditions. From the above hysteresis graph, it can be seen
that the area under the loading graph is not equal to the area under the unloading
graph. Hence, there is a difference in energy density between loading and unloading.
This difference in energy density represents the energy converted to internal energy of
the material. This phenomenon is called hysteresis.

Rubber is the example of a material which undergoes hystereris.

IMPORTANT:

Rubber:

i) Does not obey Hooke’s Law.

ii) show’s hysteresis nature
iii) is perfectly elastic. It will not deform permanently and will always come back
to original shape after removal of stress.

Composite Materials

Combination of more than one material is called composite material. Those kinds of
materials are made to gain the best property of each of its constituents.

Graphs to show properties of materials.

Stress

Strain

Which graph, A or B, shows that is has:

(i) Higher stiffness or Young’s Modulus

(ii) More breaking stress
(iii) Higher energy density