WORK AND ENERGY

Newton’s laws of motion allow us to analyze many kinds of motion.  However, the 
analysis is often complicated.  As an example, consider a puck sliding along a smooth 
track that includes several ups and downs (i.e., the angle of inclination 
( )  is not constant).  Given the initial speed, can you calculate the final speed of the 
puck at the bottom of the track?  It's true that the acceleration at any point is 
a  g sin  , but     is not constant. For solving such problems, we resort to a different 
strategy ‐‐ one based on energy.  Energy is a scalar quantity that is associated with the 
state (or condition) of one or more objects. (I know it's a rather vague description, but 
it'll clear up shortly.) 
 
We begin by defining the Kinetic Energy (KE for short).  The KE of an object is the energy 
associated with its state of motion.   Consider an object of mass  m  moving at speed  v  in 
some reference frame: 
1
  Kinetic Energy: K  mv 2  
2
(You can also write KE instead of K.)  The SI unit of kinetic energy is the joule:   1  J = 1 
N.m = 1 kg m2/s 2.  KE is a scalar quantity, as are all energies. 
 
If you accelerate an object by applying a force to it, you change the KE of the object.  We 
account for such changes in KE by saying your force has caused energy to be transferred 
between the object and you.   In such a transfer, work  W  is said to be done on the 
object by the force.  Formally, work ( W ) is the energy transferred to or from an object 
by means of a force acting on the object.  Work is obviously a scalar. 
  
WORK 

Suppose a constant force  F  acts on an object as it 

undergoes displacement  s .  Let the angle between 
  
F and  s  be   .   Then, the work done by  F  is defined 
as a dot product: 
 

Work done by a constant force: W  F ·s  Fs cos   
 
 
In the figure,  F and  s  are parallel, i.e.    0 ,  cos   1 , 
so  W  Fs . 
 
 
Work can be positive, negative, or zero, as the figures below show.  


If F is known in component form, then we may also write

Work done by a constant force: W  F ·s  Fx x  Fy y  Fz z ,

where (x, y, z ) are the components of the displacement s .
 
Net Work:  When two or more forces act on an object, the net work done on the object 
is the sum of the works done by the individual forces.  Alternatively, the net work is the 
work done by the net force. 
     
  Wnet  Fnet ·s where Fnet  F1  F2  F3    
As an example, consider a bead sliding along a smooth horizontal wire.  A constant 

force F , directed at an angle    to the wire, accelerates the bead, i.e.,  Fx  max .   As the 
 
bead undergoes displacement  s , its velocity changes from an initial value  v  to another 

value v . 
  Constant acceleration kinematics: v 2  v2  2ax s  
Multiply both sides by  (m / 2)  and use  Fx  max  to  get 
1 2 1 2
  Change in Kinetic Energy: mv  mv  Fx s  
2 2
where  Fx  F cos  .  Since  Fx s  is the work done by  F , we find that change in the 
bead's kinetic energy equals the work done on the bead.   This can be generalized into a 
theorem known as the work‐KE theorem. 

The theorem says that the change in kinetic energy of a particle is the net 
work done on the particle.

K  Kfinal  Kinitial  Wnet

`

Example:  A farmer hitches 
her tractor to a sled loaded 
with firewood and pulls it a 
distance of 20 m along level 
ground.   The total weight of 
the sled and load is 14.7 kN 
(or, 14700 N).  The tractor 
exerts a constant 5 kN force 
at an angle of    36.9  
above the horizontal, as 
shown.  There is a 3.5 kN 
friction force opposing the 
sled’s motion.  (a)  Find the 
work done by each force acting on the sled and the total work done by all the forces.  
(b)  Suppose the initial speed of the sled is  v1  2.0  m/s.  What is the speed after the 
sled has moved 20 m? 
 
 
Solution:  (a) Draw a free body diagram (Fig (b) above).    The work done by  w  and  n  
are zero because they act perpendicular to the displacement.  That leaves the work 
  
done by the tractor’s force  FT  and the friction force  f .   The work done by  f will be 
negative.   
WT  FT s cos   (5000)(20)(0.8)  80000 N.m  80 kJ  
W f  fs cos180  (3500)(20)(1)   70 kJ (This is negative as expected.)
The SI unit of work is the joule: 1 J= 1 N.m. 
The total work is 
  Wnet  Ww  Wn W f  WT  0  0  80  (70) kJ  10 kJ  
There is another way to find the total work.  First find the net force, the vector sum of 
the four forces acting, which is best found using components. 
 Fx  FT cos   f  (5000)(0.8)  3500  500 N  
 Fy  FT sin   n  w  (5000)(0.6)  n  14700 N
We don’t really need the second equation:  we know that the  y  component of the force 
is perpendicular to the displacement, so it does no work.  Besides, there is no  y  
component of acceleration, so   Fy  has to be zero anyway.   The total work is 
therefore the work done by   Fx : 
 
 
Wnet   F ·s    Fx  s  (500)(20)  10 kJ, as before.  
(b)  We’ll use the work energy theorem:  The mass of the sled and load is 
m  w / g  1500  kg. 
1
  Wnet  K 2  K1  K 2  K1  Wnet  mv12  Wnet  3000  10000  13 kJ.    
2
1 2K2 (2)(13000)
K 2  mv22  v2    4.2 / m/s.
2 m 1500
Of course, we could have found v2 from v22  v12  2as , since the acceleration is constant.

  a
F x

500 1
 m.s 2  v2  v12  2as  17.3  4.2 m/s.  
m 1500 3
The work‐energy approach is the better one for this problem, since it avoids the 
intermediate step of finding the acceleration.  You’ll find several other examples in your 
text (Ch. 7 and 8) that can be done without resorting to work and energy but that are 
easier when energy methods are used.  When a problem can be done two ways, I 
recommend doing it both ways:  it is a very good way to check your work. 
 
Work done by gravity:  Suppose a body (mass  m ) falls down a height  h .  What work is 
done by gravity?   The force is  mg  directed downward and the displacement is  h , also 
downward.   
  Wg   mgh (work done by gravity on falling object)  
If the object were to rise a height  h , then 
Wg   mgh .   If you throw a ball up with initial 
speed  vo , you know it’ll return to your hand with 
the same speed  vo .   This is consistent with the 
work energy theorem:   Wnet   mgh  mgh  0 , so 
there is no change in KE during the round trip.  In 
the figure, an object starts at vertical coordinate  y1  
and ends up at  y2 .  It also undergoes a horizontal 
displacement during this motion.  However, 

because  mg is vertical, the horizontal motion is irrelevant, and the work done by gravity 
is simply  mg ( y1 - y2 ) .  This work is positive for the situation in the figure.    More 
generally, the work done by gravity is  Wg  mg y   mg ( y2  y1 ) .
Work and Energy with Varying Forces:  Suppose 
you stretch a spring.  The more you stretch it, the 
harder you have to pull, so the force you (and the 
spring) exert is not constant.   
 
The top figure shows a varying force acting on a 
body.  To find the work done by this force, we plot 
this force against  x , the position (Fig (b)).  The 
work done is the area under the curve (shown in 
pink).   In practice, this graphical method is never 
used;  one instead uses integral calculus:  
x2

W   Fx dx  
x1

This integral is defined to be the area under the 
curve that we seek.   
 
As an example, consider stretching a spring.  To 
keep it stretched beyond its relaxed state by an 
amount  x , we have to apply a force  Fx  kx , as 
shown.  Here  k  is called the spring constant and 
has the units of N/m.  In stretching it from  0  
to a maximum value  X , the work we do is 
X X
1
W   Fx dx   kxdx  kX 2  
0 0
2

 
If you are not familiar with integration, 
recognize that the area of the shaded 
triangle on the left represents the work 
we do, so  
1 1 1
  W  (base)(height)  ( X )(kX )  kX 2  
2 2 2
 
 
 
 
 
Example:  (a) You pull on a spring stretching it 3.0 cm, which requires a maximum force 
of 75 N.  How much work do you do?  (b)  If instead, you compress the spring 3.0 cm, 
how much work do you do?   
Solution:   (a)  First we need to find the spring constant: 
F 75
  Fmax  kxmax  k  xmax   2500 N/m  
max 0.03
Then the work you do stretching the spring is  
1 2 1
W kxmax  (2500)(0.03) 2  1.1 J
2 2
 
(b)  In compressing the spring, the force 
you exert is still  kx , though now  x  0   
(taking   x  rightward).  The work done is  
1 2 1
W kxmax  (2500)(0.03) 2  1.1 J,
2 2   
which is the same as for stretching it. 
  Figure 7.18

Example:  A horizontal spring of 
constant  k  360  N/m.  (a)  How much 
work is required to compress it from 
its relaxed length to  x  11.0  cm?  (b)  
If a 1.85 kg block is placed against the 
spring and released, what will be the 
speed of the block when it separates 
from the spring at x  0 ?  Ignore 
friction.    (c)  Repeat part (b) but 
assume that the block is moving on a 
table as in the figure, and some kind of drag force  FD  7.0  N is acting to slow it 
down, such as friction. 
 
Solution:  (a)  The work you do to compress the spring a distance of  x  0.10  m is  
1 2 1
W kx  (360)(0.11) 2  2.18 J.    
2 2
(b) In returning to its relaxed state, the spring does 2.18 J of work on
the block. According to the Work-KE principle, the block acquires 2.18
J of kinetic energy.
1 2K
  K  mv 2  v   1.54 m/s.  
2 m
(c) There are two forces doing work on the bloc: Fspring and FD . The
work done by Fspring  is 2.18 J.  The work done by  FD  is 
 WD  FD x cos180   FD x   (7.0)(0.11)   0.77 J.
The net work is the algebraic sum:
  Wnet  Wspring  WD  2.18  (0.77)  1.41 J.  
From work-KE theorem, with vi  0 ,
1 2 2Wnet 2(1.41)
mv  Wnet  v    1.23 m/s  
2 m 1.85
For the block’s speed as it separates from the spring ( x  0 ). 
The following set of figures summarizes the key ideas involved: 
 Example: A parent is pulling a child on a sled at a constant speed up a gentle slope
making an angle of 15to the horizontal. The sled is being pulled by means of a rope
which makes an angle of 30 to the slope. The coefficient of kinetic friction between
the sled and the slope is mk = 0.25.
a) If the child and sled weigh 600 N, what is the tension in the rope?
b) If the height of the hill is 15 m, what is the work done by the parent in pulling the
sled from the bottom to the top of the hill? How much of this work is done against
friction?

Solution:
y
a) The sled is moving with a constant T
velocity N x

\ a0
30 o
Balancing forces in x-direction, f
15 o
T cos30± = f + mg sin15±, where f = mkN mg
\ cos30± T = mkN + mg sin15±

In the y-direction, N + Tsin30± = mg cos15±

N = mg cos15± - Tsin30±
\ Tcos30± = mk mg cos15± - mk sin30± T + mg sin15±
sin 15 0   k cos15 0
T = mg =303 N
cos 30 0   sin 30 0
k

h h
b)  sin 15 0 , d   58.0 m T
d sin 15 0 d
Work done by parent = Wp
  h = 15 m
= T  d  Td cos 30 0 15 o
= 1.52 μ 104 J
By the work energy theorem,
Wnet  DK = 0 = Wp + Wf + Wg
\ Wf = - Wp - Wg

Wf = - Wp + mgh
= - 6.20 μ103 J
Therefore, the work done against friction is 6.20 μ103 J.
Example: In the diagram, a cord runs around
two massless, frictionless pulleys; a canister
with mass m = 20 kg hangs from one pulley;

and you exert a force F on the free end of the

cord. a) What must be the magnitude of F if
you are to lift the canister at a constant speed? d
b) To lift the canister by 2.0 cm, how far must
you pull the free end of the cord? During that 2
lift, what is the work done on the canister by
c) your force (via the cord) and d) the weight F m

mg of the canister. (Hint: When a cord loops
around a pulley as shown, it pulls on the pulley with a net force that is
twice the tension in the cord.)

Solution: F F

a) 2F  mg = 0, since the acceleration is zero. a=0

mg
F =
2
m
 F = 98 N

b) If d = 0.02 m, you hand moves 2d = 0.04 m.

c) Work done by your pull is WF = + 2d  F = 3.9 J

d) Work done by gravity is Wg =  mg  d =  3.9 J

Pay attention to the plus and minus signs.

POWER: The definition of work makes no reference to the passage of

time. If you lift a barbell weighing 100 N through a vertical distance of
1.0 m, you do 100 J of work whether it takes you one second, 1 hour,
or 1 year to do it. But often we need to know how quickly work is
done. We describe this in terms of power. Power is defined as the
rate at which work is done. The average power, P , equals the work
done divided by the time it takes to do it:
W
  P (Average Power)  
t
Since the work done in a process involves the energy transformation
from one type (or object) to another, power can also be defined as the
rate at which energy is transformed:
W energy transformed
P 
t time
The instantaneous power, P , is
dW
P (Instantaneous Power)
dt
As mentioned, this power also represents rate of energy
transformation:
dE
P (Instantaneous Power)
dt
The SI unit of power is the watt: 1 W = 1 J/s. A 100-W bulb converts
100 J of electrical energy to light and heat each second. (The
kilowatt-hour (kW.h) is the usual commercial unit of electrical energy.
One kilowatt.hour equals 3.6 MJ (megajoules).) Another common unit
of power is the horsepower: 1 hp = 746 W.

It is often convenient to express the power in terms of the force on an

object and its velocity:

dW  ds  
P  F·  F· v
dt dt
If a force is perpendicular to the velocity (direction of motion), then
the associated power is zero.

Example: Elevator power. An elevator has mass 600 kg, not

including passengers. The elevator is designed to ascend, at constant
speed, a vertical distance of 20.0 m (five floors) in 16.0 s, and it is
driven by a motor that can provide up to 40 hp to the elevator. What
is the maximum number of passengers that can ride in the elevator?
Assume an average passenger mass of 65.0 kg.

Solution: The work done by the motor in raising a mass m a height

h is W  mgh .
W mgh Pt
P   , m   Total mass
t t gh
 746 W 
P  (40 hp)    2.984  10 W .
4

 1 hp 
Pt (2.984  104 W)(16.0 s)
m   2
 2.436  103 kg  Total mass
gh (9.80 m/s )(20.0 m)
This is the total mass of elevator plus passengers. The mass of the
passengers is 2.436 10 kg  600 kg  1.836 10 kg. The number of
3 3

1.836  103 kg
passengers is  28.2. 28 passengers can ride.
65.0 kg

Example: Power needs of a car. Calculate the power required of a

1400-kg car under the following circumstances: (a) the car climbs a
10 hill at a steady 80 km/h (about 22.2 m/s); and (b) the car
accelerates along a level road from 90 km/h (25 m/s) to 110 km/h
(30.6 m/s) in 6.0 s to pass another car. Assume that the average
retarding force on the car is FR  700 N throughout.

Solution: (a) To move at constant velocity up the hill, the car’s

forward force must equal the component of gravity down the hill
plus FR .
F  FR  mg sin   700  (1400 g )(0.174)  3100 N.
The speed is v  80 / 3.6  22.2 m/s and the associated power is
  P  Fv  (3100)(22.2)  68.0 kW.  
(b) The car accelerates from 25
m/s to 30.6 m/s. Thus, the
car’s forward force must equal
FR plus the force providing the
acceleration:
   
30.6  25
a  0.93 m/s 2 .  
6.0

F  FR  ma  700 (1400)(0.93)  2 kN.  

Try this problem from the

workbook: M54 An electric
motor delivers 2.0 kW to a winch
which uses 80% of this power to
haul a 3,500 N ingot up a 10
incline at a constant speed of
0.80 m/s.
(a) What is the tension in the
cable? (2.0kN)
(b) How much work is done by the motor as the ingot is dragged 8.0 m along the
incline? (20.0 kJ)
(c) How much work is done by the frictional force on the ingot as it dragged the
8.0 m? (-11.1 kJ