2021

Assignment 1

Subject: Behavioral and social science

Submitted by: Ghulam Anoosha

Registration no: 70100403

Submitted to: Ms. Ifzonia Babar

Topic: Explain Physiological development stages.

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 Psychological development
Psychological development, the development of human
beings’ cognitive, emotional, intellectual, and social capabilities and functioning over the course
of a normal life span, from infancy through old age. It is the subject matter of
the discipline known as developmental psychology.

Psychological development stages

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different
stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children
acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.

Piaget's stages are:

 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little
scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids
interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing
knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

How Piaget Developed the Theory

Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student, publishing his
first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to the intellectual
development of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore
Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.

Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his
observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his budding
hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds

Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of
stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children, he suggested.
Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young
children versus older children.

Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they
simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could
have thought of it."Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of
children. Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities.

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The Stages
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual
development that included four distinct stages:

Stage Age Description Goal

Sensorimotor birth to 2 years Coordination of
senses with motor
response, sensory
curiosity about the
world. Language used Object permanence
for demands and
cataloguing object
permanence
developed.
Preoperational 2 to 7 Symbolic thinking use
of proper syntax and
grammar to express Symbolic thought
full concepts.
Imagination and
intuition are strong
but complex abstract
thought still difficult.
Concrete 7 to 11 Concepts attaches to
operational concrete situation,
time, space and Logical thought
quantity are
understood and can be
applied but not as
independent concepts.
Formal 12 and up Theoretical,
operational hypothetical and
counter faclual Scientific reasoning
thinking. Abstract
logic and reasoning,
strategy and planning
become possible
concepts learned in
one context can be
applied to another.

Piagetes stages are age specific and marked by important characteristics of thought process they
also include goals children should achieve as they more through a given stage.

 Schema
 Assimilation

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  Accommodation
 Equilibration

Schema
Piaget claimed that knowledge cannot simply emerge from sensory experience; some initial
structure is necessary to make sense of the world.

According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited
and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based.

Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to form a mental
representation of the world.

Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined a schema as: "a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing
component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning.

In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior –
a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as “units” of knowledge,
each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions, and abstract (i.e., theoretical)
concepts.

Examples of Schemas

A person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is a stored form
of the pattern of behavior which includes looking at a menu, ordering food, eating it and paying
the bill. This is an example of a type of schema called a 'script.' Whenever they are in a
restaurant, they retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the situation.

Adaptation
Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a process
of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through assimilation, accommodation,
and equilibration.

Assimilation
Piaget defined assimilation as the cognitive process of fitting new information into
existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding. Overall beliefs and
understanding of the world do not change as a result of the new information. This means
that when you are faced with new information, you make sense of this information by
referring to information you already have (information processed and learned previously)
and try to fit the new information into the information you already have.
For example, a 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long
frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown”

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Accommodation
This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to
deal with a new object or situation.

For example: a child may have a schema for birds (feathers, flying, etc.) and then they see a
plane, which also flies, but would not fit into their bird schema.

Equilibration

Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information through
assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information
cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).

Support and Criticism of Piaget's Stage Theory

Support for the Theory

Piaget's focus on qualitative development had an important impact on education. While Piaget
did not specifically apply his theory in this way, many educational programs are now built upon
the belief that children should be taught at the level for which they are developmentally
prepared.

In addition to this, a number of instructional strategies have been derived from Piaget's work.
These strategies include providing a supportive environment, utilizing social interactions and
peer teaching, and helping children see fallacies and inconsistencies in their thinking.

Problems with Research Methods

Much of the criticism of Piaget's work is in regards to his research methods. A major source of
inspiration for the theory was Piaget's observations of his own three children. In addition to this,
the other children in Piaget's small research sample were all from well-educated professionals of
high socioeconomic status. Because of this unrepresentative sample, it is difficult to generalize
his findings to a larger population.

The Theory Underestimated Children's Abilities

Most researchers agree that children possess many of the abilities at an earlier age than Piaget
suspected. Theory of mind research has found that 4- and 5-year-old children have a rather
sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes as well as those of other people.

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Piaget's Legacy
While there are few strict Piagetians around today, most people can appreciate Piaget's influence
and legacy. His work generated interest in child development and had an enormous impact on the
future of education and developmental psychology.

Piaget's theory also helped change the way that researchers thought about children. Rather than
simply viewing them as smaller versions of adults, experts began to recognize that the way
children think is fundamentally different from the way that adults think.

Freud Psycho-sexual Developmental

Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place during five psychosexual
stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. During each stage sexual
energy (libido) is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body.

These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents the fixation of libido
(roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the body. As a person
grows physically certain areas of their body become important as sources of potential frustration
(erogenous zones), pleasure or both.

Freud (1905) believed that life was built round tension and pleasure. Freud also believed that all
tension was due to the build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure came from its
discharge.
In describing human personality development as psychosexual Freud meant to convey that what
develops is the way in which sexual energy of the id accumulates and is discharged as we mature
biologically. (NB Freud used the term 'sexual' in a very general way to mean all pleasurable
actions and thoughts).
Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to the formation of adult personality.
The id must be controlled in order to satisfy social demands; this sets up a conflict between
frustrated wishes and social norms.
The ego and superego develop in order to exercise this control and direct the need for
gratification into socially acceptable channels. Gratification centers in different areas of the body
at different stages of growth, making the conflict at each stage psychosexual.

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The Stages:

Oral Stage (0-1 year)

In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets
much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id
demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and
breastfeeding. Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life. We see oral
personalities all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral
personalities engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.

Anal Stage (1-3 years)

The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives great pleasure from
defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are a person in their own right and that their
wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has
developed). Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in
which adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate. The nature of this
first conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of
authority.

Phallic Stage (3 to 5 or 6 years)

Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a
new source of pleasure. The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in
motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud
called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). This is resolved through
the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the characteristics of the same
sex parent.

Latency Stage (5 or 6 to puberty)

No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means hidden). The
libido is dormant. Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage,
and sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies,
and friendships. Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and
acquiring new knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same
gender.

Genital Stage (puberty to adult)

This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins in
puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of which is
settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person 4/5 in our 20's. Sexual
instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the phallic

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stage. For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual
intercourse. Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions
may develop. For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual
pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.

Summary of these stages:

Stage Age What happen in this stage?

Oral 0-1 Children derive pleasure from
oral activities, including
sucking and tasting. They like
to put things in their mouth.
Anal 2-3 Children begin potty training.
Phallic 3-6 Boys are more attached to
their mother and girls to their
father.
Latency 6 to puberty Children spend more time and
interact mostly with same sex
peers.
Genital Beyond puberty Individuals are attached to
opposite sex peers.

Criticism/Evaluation

 Although Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory can be backed up with visual

evidence and reasonable explanations, it is absurd to say that infants, toddlers and
children under the age of 12 years old experience sexual desires.
 One can argue that infants crave breast milk not because of sexual desire or pleasure from
sucking but because of hunger and nutrition.
 Out of all of the stages, the Genital Stage is the most reasonable and accurate, but can be
explained through biology. At the age of 12 most boys begin to produce sperm and girls
receive their menstrual cycles. These hormones is what causes their sexual attraction.

Erik Erikson's Social Developmental Stages

Erikson’s Theory
Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial theory of
psychosexual development and modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson emphasized that the
ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each
stage of development. This mastery helps children grow into successful, contributing members
of society. During each of Erikson’s eight stages, there is a psychological conflict that must be
successfully overcome in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.

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The stages
Erikson developed his eight stages of psychosocial development based on Freud’s psychosexual
theory.

Trust vs. Mistrust

From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when
adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so
caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a
sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers
who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their
baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met
appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their
actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for
certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to
resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is
the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-
old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be
appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of
independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her
abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating activities
and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson,
preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.By learning to plan and achieve
goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of
ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then
support the child’s choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of
purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by
over-controlling parents—may develop feelings of guilt.

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Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs.
inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up.
They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social
activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t
measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at
home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role confusion. According to
Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with
questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most
adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and
ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at
this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in
the face of problems and other people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not
make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the
future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure
of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role
will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs.
isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life
with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may
have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that
we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships.
Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of
loneliness and emotional isolation.

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Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to
the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity
involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities
such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults
begin contributing to the next generation, often through childbirth and caring for others; they
also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those
who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a
mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little
interest in productivity and self-improvement.

Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late
adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late
adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People
who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on
their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if
their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have”
been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.

Summary of these stages:

Stage Psychosocial crisis What happen at this stage?

1 Trust vs Mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic
trust.
2 Autonomy vs shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves or
they doubt their abilities.
3 Initiative vs Guilt Pre schoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans or they
fell guilty about efforts to be independent.
4 Industry vs Inferiority Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks or
they fell inferior.
5 Identity vs Confusion Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and
then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become
confused about who they are.
6 Intimacy vs Isolation Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain
the capacity for intimate love or they feel socially isolated.
7 Generativity vs The middle- aged discover a sense of contributing to the world
stagnation usually through family and work or they may fell a lack of
purpose.
8 Integrity vs Despair When reflecting on his or her life the older adult may feel a

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 sense of satisfaction or failure.

Difference between Piagetes, freuds and Erikson stages of development

Piagetes Freuds Erikson

 Focused on just  Focused on importance  Create understanding
infancy to late teenage of feeding. development through
years.  Stages are based on whole life span.
 Focused on cognitive changes in zone of  Focused on emotional
development. pleasure. development.
 Focused on changing   Based on social and
in mental functioning. environmental factor.

Q: which child development theory is best?

Freud’s psychosexual development theory

Because Freuds proposed the best grand theories of child development. In this
theory child development occurs in a series of stages focused on different pleasure
areas of the body.

References:

McLeod, S. A. (2008). Psychosexual stages. Retrieved from

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