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IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

SALVADOR SALANDANAN Head, Land Utilization Section
Research & Development Division,
Operations Department
National Irrigation Administration
cl
I
INTRODUCTION

Agriculture in the Philippines depends much on water to sustain crop

Diliman, Quezon City production high enough to feed its 46 million people. For centuries the country
had thrived on mere rain to water lands for food production. However, with the
VICENTE E. SANTOS, JR. Chief , Research Irrigation Engineer, rapid population increase in recent time, the country readily recognized the urgent
Research & Development Division,
Operations Department, % importance of irrigation as the basis of our agricultural economy ( Figure 1 ) . At
present, more than one million hectares are under irrigation through 134 national
irrigation systems, 5,384 communal irrigation systems and 19,054 pump units ( see
! National Irrigation Administration
Diliman, Quezon City Appendix 1 ) . The location of the various irrigation systems in the country is ref -

'??
JOSE L. TABAGO
#

Head, Division of Land and Water

Department of Agricultural Engineering
f. lected in Figure 2.
Irrigation is the application of water to the soil to supplement low rainfall
and to provide moisture timely and appropriate in quantity and distribution for
Central Luzon State University plant "growth. Considering the uneven distribution of water supply in the different
Munoz, Nueva Ecija
H parts of the country and at different periods of the year, irrigation water has to be
managed for efficient utilization and conservation. This management process is the
PANTALEON LI. TABANAO Assistant Professor, Institute of Agricultural integration of storage, diversion, conveyance, regulation, measurement, distribu -
Engineering and Technology tion and application of the right amount of water at the proper time and removal
University of the Philippines at Los Banos
of excess water from farms to promote increased production in conjunction with
College, Laguna
I improved cultural practices.
BAYANI M. ESPIRITU Subject Matter Specialist, Soil and Water
Resources Research Division

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Philippine Council for Agriculture and

Resources Research
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Los Banos, Laguna
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Figure 1 . Efficient irrigation is a major boost towards

increasing crop production.

III
 1 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

I The essence of
management actually
irrigation water
revolves around
imperative to transmit a workable in -
formation attuned to the needs of

I maximizing water utilization and pro - people at the systems level and at the

li moting increased production. Speci-

fically, it embodies the following
objectives: ( 1 ) to maximize the utili-
zation of effective rainfall, ( 2 ) to
farm level .
On the irrigation systems level,
operation is generally focused on how
to deliver water from the source to the

URDANETA . PANGASINAN
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I reduce water losses, ( 3) to remove
excess water and ( 4 ) to regulate and
farm. To achieve this, in addition to
proper engineering designs and con-
FABUQUIN
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measure water in order to provide the
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struction, efficient operation, manage-

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ment of sufficient number of irrigation
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systems throughout the country is not farm ievel, we are concerned with
enough. This should be coupled with
AONO EXTENSION ,
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delivery of water to the fields in ways
ARNO U P P R
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how of the people involved to attain
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production.
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CAT TINOAS R | s j A 008 R I s ,
.
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SAN PABLO LAOUNA

STA
MAYOR
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KAY AKLE R | p , LUMRAN R I 8 500

a working knowledge on the manage-

1 000 BALANAC H I 8
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FRIAR LANDS
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The focus of this publication is
STA . CRUZ a NAOA CITY, CAMARINE 8 SUR
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water management for lowland rice ment of irrigation water among ex -

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tension workers. We hope to have it
HAHASDONS a , .
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production. Most of our irrigated areas
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are primarily devoted to lowland rice. disseminated ultimately to the largest
ILOILO CITY , ILOILO 1 0080NB

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cropping which are lowland rice -based affirm the belief that progress is pos-
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TACLOBAN CITY LEYTE . are also provided herein. Considering sible only with the concommitant up -
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the role of water mapagement in liftment at the grass root levels.
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sustaining these activities, it becomes
3
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Figure 2. The location of the various irrigation systems in

the country .

t 2 3
 IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT
IN THE PHILIPPINES
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Studying the past irrigation activ - Religious for the irrigation of church X *
aBBSBRT r
ities in the country is of much help in estates called Friar lands. Such systems
***-- iSl - '

understanding the present develop - served some 20,000 hectares. M •W

ment. On such premise, the present 1

The period of American Occupa - .«* **' •' ^ * 7 " 7*. - - - ' f
JA •

*
irrigation status, including the poten-
-sss^sSSsar
h 1 III mill

~
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tion ( 1901- 1936) was characterized by j * UMlUMlMtMMiai

tials and limitations of present thrusts,

could very well be evaluated. slow expansion of irrigation facilities. XXtfT
$ The heavy requirement of government BP
rsssm
Brief H istorical operations had precedence to and
Background priority over the construction of irriga - *
V

tion systems.
The development of irrigation in aJtiS am
-**
’
*
the Philippines had been a slow pro- From 1937- 1965, the obvious in- -

» U . > A

cess. Disruptions of what might have crease in population entailing corres-

been a progressively flourishing irri -
gated agriculture may be largely at -
tributed to the foreign colonizations
which altered land tenures and im-
provements from time to time . Pump systems were also introduced.
Even before the coming of the
Spaniards in the 16th century, the
Filipino farmers through their native
ingenuity were already utilizing
springs, rivers and mountain streams to
supplement rainfall in the growing of
rice. There had been efforts to divert
water from lowland streams with tem-
porary structures or devices that en-
abled them to irrigate some river valley
fields.
The world -famous rice terraces
around Banaue, Bontoc and other
areas in the Mountain Province are the
most significant and monumental
achievement of the early Filipinos
.
( Figure 3) Reportedly covering an
aggregate area of some 25,000 hec -
tares, these rice terraces withstood the
ravages of time to prove their worth as
the "Eighth Wonder of the World."
With the coming of the Spaniards,
new demands arose which put forth
new developments. New systems were
constructed during the Spanish regime
primarily through the leadership of the
pondingly high food requirements to
be satisfied forced the different admi-
nistrations to install different national
irrigation projects all over the country .
This pattern of development would
give us a picture of rapidly increasing
irrigation activities in the Philippines.
Present Status of Irrigation
Development
The government has decided to
make use of two options in managing
water for irrigation: one is by in-
creasing the available supply and the
other, by increasing water use efficien -
cy. The former is shown by the massive
irrigation infrastructure program and
the latter, by the emphasis in improving
water management both in the new
projects and in the existing irrigation
systems. The National Irrigation Ad -
ministration ( NIA ) has become the
primary government agency charged
with irrigation development. Lately,
the Farm Systems Development Cor -
poration ( FSDC) was assigned the role
to attend to smaller communal type
and pump systems. In its ten -year
program, NIA had a target to irrigate
130,000 hectares per year which
would bring the total irrigated area for
Figure 3. Early Filipinos were already practicing irrigation
even before the coming of the Spaniards.
The remaining areas which are less
rice to about 2.3 million hectares.
Within the next 25 years, the irrigated suitable will then be devoted to other
area is projected to reach about 3 crops such as the much -needed feed
million hectares. This would mean that grains, high -protein foods like soy -
i
by that time, all the present rice lands beans, winged beans and similar crops.
shall be fully irrigated. This is expected to lead to crop diver -
*
sification, sound land utilization and a
The country ' s surface water re -
more rational use and conservation of
sources are continued to be developed
water.
through loans obtained mostly from
the World Bank and the Asian Devel-
Present Irrigation Problems
opment Bank. Water resources projects
for multipurpose use, especially those One of the big problems often men-
with hydro -electric power generation tioned in irrigation water utilization
component, are now becoming more and management is the low efficiency
attractive with the sudden increase in of water use. Implied in correcting this
and the ever -rising cost of crude oil. situation is the upgrading of existing
This has given impetus to investment make them
irrigation facilities to
in more costly storage types. The in- functional and the provision of quali-
creasing availability of electric power fied, trained and dedicated personnel
is hoped to encourage mechanical and farmer - irrigators. A concerted
pumping of water for irrigation. program to install adequate facilities
A move is now afoot to confine rice in all systems, as well as the upgrading
of standards in the design of projects,
production only in areas which are
has been initiated through the NIA.
best suited to rice and which are ad -
Drainage works and access roads are
equate to take care of the present and
now requisite components of irrigation
future rice needs of the country in
terms of attainable unit productivity. systems. However, the type of social

L 4 •] 5

organization on a level that would be
effective in promoting the farmers'
welfare and in increasing water - use
efficiency are wanting in further study
and evaluation. The broader issue in-
volves the relationship of the central
authority and local users concerning
capital funding, operation and manage -
ment and the design and construction
of irrigation systems.
Another related problem involves
irrigation fees. Questions of how
much, how to collect, criteria for set -
ting the level and who should pay , are
constantly being raised. The claim is
that not only farmer - users are benefi -
ciaries of irrigation investment. Other
sectors of the economy as well should
therefore share the burden of repay -
ment directly or indirectly .
It used to be that the quality of irri -
gation water has generally been good
for agricultural purposes. However , in
recent years, water flowing in some
rivers is deteriorating in terms of sedi -
ment loads ( Figure 4 ) . With the in -
creasing volume of sediment entering
the irrigation systems, diversion facili -
ties are getting clogged and canals are
heavily silted. Under such situation,
Figure 4. Siltation if left unchecked is a threat to food
production and the people.
i
irrigation works are unable to supply
the required volume of water at
certain periods due to reduced capaci -
.
ties This eventually results to a de -
crease in service areas of the irrigation
systems. The increased sediment load
is attributed to the deteriorating con-
ditions of watersheds resulting in ac-
celerated soil erosion. Another prob -
lem affecting irrigation water is mine
tailings. This is true particularly in
irrigation systems served by the Agno
River in Pangasinan and the Ambu -
rayan River in La Union. Complaints
have , been received from farmers that
tillering of their rice crops is affected
adversely when silt - laden water is used
for irrigation.
To meet the requirements of
future irrigation systems, there is a
need among others to ( 1 ) improve the
collection, processing and dissemina -
tion of technical data, ( 2 ) promote
2!>,
closer coordination among water
resources planning and implementing
" and dry seasons; wet during the
agencies, ( 3 ) accelerate training pro -
grams for irrigation personnel, ( 4 ) safe-
guard the watersheds to improve water
yield, and ( 5 ) manage and utilize the
water resources properly .
i soon and trade winds or from the
CLIMATE A N D IRRIGATION
Climate is one of the major factors
affecting irrigation water requirements
of lowland rice. Rainfall distribution
and the amount of rainfall available to
replenish water in the soil are dictated
primarily by the existing climate.
Climatic conditions as exemplified
by rainfall cannot be directly con-
trolled. The importance of fully com-
prehending the existing climate in
any locality therefore is a must .
Instead of modifying climate, crop
scheduling, water application and
other farm practices are the ones ad -
justed to it.
The climatic conditions existing in
the country may be subdivided into 4
general types ( see Figure 5) .
1 . Type 1 — two pronounced wet
months of June to November and dry
from December to May. This type of
climate is found in the Western parts
of Luzon, Mindanao, Palawan, Panay
and Negros. The controlling factor is
topography . These regions are shielded
from the northeast monsoon and even
in good parts from the trade winds by
high mountain ranges but are open
only to the southwest monsoon and
cyclonic storms.
2. Type 2 —
no dry season with a
very pronounced maximum rain per -
iod in December, January and Februa -
ry . Catanduanes, Sorsogon, eastern
part of Albay, Camarines Norte, Cama -
rines Sur, eastern Quezon, Samar,
Leyte and eastern Mindanao are of this
type. These regions are along or very
near the eastern coast and are not shel -
tered either from the northeast mon -
cyclonic storms.
3. Type 3 — this is an intermediate
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT
type with no pronounced maximum
rain period and short dry season
lasting from one to three months only .
Areas under this type are the western
parts of the Cagayan Valley , eastern
part of the Mountain Region, southern
Quezon, Masbate, Romblon, north -
eastern Panay, eastern Negros, Central
and Southern Cebu, eastern Palawan
and Northern Mindanao. These locali-
ties are only partly sheltered from the
northeast monsoon and trade winds
and are open to the southwest mon-
soon or at least to frequent cyclonic
storms.
4. Type 4 — uniformly distributed
rainfall. The region affected by this
type are: Batanes, northeastern Luzon,
southwestern part of Camarines Norte,
western part of Camarines Sur and
Albay, Bondoc Peninsula, eastern
Mindanao, Marinduque, western Leyte,
northern Cebu, Bohol and most of
central, eastern and southern Minda -
nao. These regions are so situated that
they receive the moderate effects of
the northeast monsoon and trade
winds as well as the southeast mon -
soon and the cyclonic storms.
Such climatic types are a result of
variations in local air currents due to
differences in the general air streams,
positions of the islands and the most
unusual storm tracks. The four clima -
tic types likewise indicate variations in
rainfall distribution, amount of solar
radiation available, temperature, rela -
tive humidity and wind. These factors
exert predominant influence on what
crops to raise in certain localities, crop
scheduling to be adopted, timing of
the different farm practices ( e.g. land
preparation, fertilization, etc.) and
ultimately, the amount and timing ol
water application.
 >

IRRIGATION WAN It MANAGI Ml NI

Typhoons have a great influence on direction placing Mindanao outside ol

0 BATANES the climate and weather conditions of the typhoon belt .
S C A L E . 1 X 8 ,0 0 0,0 0 0 ( M the Philippines. A great portion of the
LAOAG Table 1 shows the existing schedule
IS] rainfall, humidity and cloudiness are
1100 1 2 3 4 of planting for irrigated lowland rice as
900
*
AUG . CLIMATIC TYPES due to the influence of typhoons.
13 / 10 yrs Q
influenced by climate for the dif -
700 They generally originate in the region
BABUYAN ISLANDS
LEGASPI ferent regions. In this manner , utmost
300
of the Marianas and Caroline Islands of
300 MOO utilization of rainfall is achieved with
the Pacific Ocean which have the same
IOO I,
JULY^s
^
1 1 / 1 0 UDCOS
-
r 900
latitudinal location as Mindanao. Their
the least amount of extra water

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JFMAMJ J ASON D / .-V f
700 applied.
/, movements follow a northwesterly
))r
'V CAOAVAN
500

IIOO
BAGUIO

II ocos
RSkr
, .
sun L MT
•' OVINCE
,HrUC" ,
300

IOO
Table 1. Existing schedule of planting for irrigated lowland rice as influenced by
900

700
J
/ V ^* AO

A
ISABELA
JFMAMJJASOND
climate for some provinces ( adopted from the Philippines Recommends
300 LL y VI /C V A BORONGAN for Rice, 1977 )
500 Iv&sLu* '
1
SEPT .

IOO r FL V r \ NUEVA
Y\
\ RUn PROVINCE or
13/10 yrs
AURORA
IIOO
900
ZAMBALEt ('.T/VRIAC; ec(JA / / Monthly Planting
JFMAMJ J AS ON D r oo
\ PAMPANOA ) VT
" Region Province
300 Profile

IIOO

900
MASBATE

|
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$ h au
~ V
RINES NORTE
300
IOO

JFMAMJJASOND
liocos Region ( I ) Blocos Norte
liocos Sur
May - March
May - April
BATA AS
0
700 ’
ANUUANiS La Union May - April
300

300
MINDORO OH
's .
r>
MAniunii
MARINOUOUE
c A ES SUR

MAY Pangasinari June- September

2 / 10 yrs
IOO I ,l MINDORO OCCIDENTAL
• O
RSOOON
Nov - March
ROMOl
JFMAMJJASO N D
NORIM SAMAR OCT . Cagayan Valley ( II ) Cagayan May - April
TROPICAL CYCLONE
CALAMI AN OROUP • 6/ 10 yrs . Isabela May - April
TRACKS WITH • rv
PROBABILITY 11 AK
<-> JUNE 15 / 10 yrs Kalinga- Apayao May - September
„
k
TEnN SAMAR
OF OCCURRENCE -
CAPIZ.1 > Dec - March
CUYO (IIIOUP ANTIQUI MLOIL e I PRIL 1/ 10 yrs Nueva Vizcaya May - April
a
FCJ / MAR . 1 / 50 yrs. NOV . 9 / 10 yrs
/> ci no Central Luzon ( III ) Bulacan May - August
CEBU UTHEHN LEYTE
EC. 4/ 10 yrs
IIOO
Nl OROS OCCIDENTAL /
Oct - April
JAN .
1 / 10 yrs.
900 ( BOHOL < Nueva Ecija May - April
PALAWAN 700 .
U A NORTE
Pampanga May - April
300
300
NLUHOS ORILII
ORIENTAL
o p.
M
AOUSAN
DEL Nor
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Tarlac May - April
Ml
J SUM Zambales May - April

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Southern Luzon ( IV ) Batangas May - August
DAVAO DEL NORTE
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IIOO Laguna May - March
r
900
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Mindoro Oriental May - August
700
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0111 TAL

300
MAGUINDANAO ^ Nov - February
^‘“5 Palawan May - March
SULTAN KUDARAT
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300 a* BASILAN IS
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COTABATO -.* O VAO DEL SUR
Quezon May -September
J F M A M J J A S O N D
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Nov - March
<43

oO Rizal June- March

TAWI TAW1 GROUP
VALUES ARE IN MILLIMETERS RAINFALL
Nov - February
» *
O

Bicol ( V ) Albay May - August

/ Camarines Norte April - Augusi
Oct- February
Figure 5 . The climate of the Philippines.
9

Table 1. Continued.
Region
Western Visayas ( V I )
Central Visayas ( V I I )
Eastern Visayas ( V I I I )
r;
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT
Monthly Planting (ri THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Province Profile
I IK? hydrologic cycle is the key to Part of the precipitation infiltrates
Camarines Sur April- February into the soil from the soil surface and
May- August undo standing the occurrence of water .
Sorsogon moves down or percolates into the
I he continuous circulation of water
Nov- February water table. The water which infil-
between the earth' s surface and the
Aklan May - July atmosphere is known as the hydro - trates into the soil also feeds the sur -
Nov - February logic cycle. It represents the balance face plant life and some gets drawn
Antique May - April between the amount received and the into this vegetation. Transpiration
Capiz June- July amount lost by the soil surface layer . from plant leaves takes place during
Oct-December I igure 6 presents the hydrologic cycle. the process. Part of the water remain -
Iloilo May -September ing in the ground surface evaporates
Water evaporates from land and
Nov- February back to the atmosphere but a greater
water surfaces, transported by moving
part of it flows to streams as surface
Bohol May- August ait masses and form into clouds upon
runoff . Part of the surface runoff may
Oct-January initial accumulation. Under favorable also infiltrate and move laterally to
Negros Oriental May - April conditions, the clouds are condensed
streams as subsurface runoff.
into water droplets and fall as precipi -
tation in different forms like rain, Knowledge about the hydrologic
Leyte May - July
Nov-January snow, sleet or hail. In the Philippines, cycle would serve as a conceptual
precipitation generally occurs in the framework for the subsequent dis-
Southern Leyte July- September
lorm of rainfall. cussions.
Dec-January

V
'
Western Mindanao ( I X ) Zamboanga del Norte June- August
Nov-January
Zamboanga del Sur May - August
Dec- April
Northern Mindanao ( X ) Bukidnon May- April r
Misamis Occidental May- April CLOUDS

Misamis Oriental May- April

Surigao del Norte May- August CLOUDS
r -.
N

Nov - February
VAPOR
J
Surigao del Sur May-July
Oct- April PRECIPITATION ( RAINFALL )

/ /cr,
Southern Mindanao ( X I ) South Cotabato June- August / \
Davao City
Davao del Norte
Nov-January
May- April
May- April
\ r
* *7o*
4

PERCOLATION
3
TRANSPIRATION

OVERLAND
EVAPORATION

Davao del Sur May-July

Dec-January
m SUBSURFACE FLOW

OROUNDWATER TO SOIL
PLOW

STREAM OR LAKE
OROUNDWATER TO VEOETATION PERCOLATION

Central Mindanao ( X I I ) Maguindanao May- April OROUNDWATER TO STREAM OR LAKE

OCEAN
OROUNDWATER TO OCEAN
Lanao del Norte May- April
Lanao del Sur May- August
Nov - February
Sultan Kudarat May- August I
Jan- February '
Figure 6. The hydrologic cycle .
10

ASPECTS OF IRRIGATION
WATER MANAGEMENT
Irrigation water is the portion ot
the total water required by a crop to
produce an optimum yield that is not
directly supplied by rainfall. It may
come from surface water or ground-
water.
The science and practice of irriga -
tion water management involves
knowledge of the properties of soils
and characteristics of crops as related
to irrigation. It draws facts from soil -
plant- water relations, engineering,
socio- economics and climatology. It
also considers the following questions,
as: ( 1) when and where does water have
to be applied, ( 2 ) how much water is
needed, and ( 3 ) how is it going to be
applied to the soil ?
A comprehensive overview of irriga-
tion water management could be
presented by discussing its several
broad aspects, as: ( 1) hydrometeorolo-
gical data and their collection, ( 2 ) land
classification, ( 3) irrigation diversion
requirement, ( 4 ) use of return flow
and ( 5) drainage.
Hydrometeorological Data
and their Collection
Hydrometeorological data refer to
the measurements of climatic / weather
factors and the other components of
the hydrologic cycle. Knowing these
data is very necessary in determining
the mode of operation of an irriga-
tion system.
The major hydrometeorological .
factors that would be considered are:
( 1 ) rainfall, ( 2 ) temperature, ( 3) rela-
tive humidity, ( 4) wind, ( 5) solar
radiation, ( 6) evapotranspiration and
( 7 ) stage and discharge of stream -
flows. Data on such factors for a given
locality may be obtained from the
nearest PAGASA station, except for
{/
( i
evapotranspiration and streamflows
which may be obtained from BPW and
NIA or from their branch offices.
Rainfall
Not all of the rain that falls in an
area is utilized by crops. A portion of
this may be lost through surface run -
off or through percolation ( downward
water movement ) beyond the crop
root zone ( Figure 7 ) . The amount of
rainfall retained within the root zone
is only the portion which is of benefit
to the crop. It is called effective rain-
fall and is accounted for in the compu-
tation of irrigation diversion require-
ment ( see p. 109 ) .
Rainfall data are important as
bases for maximizing rainfall utiliza -
tion. It is usually expressed in depth
( millimeter, centimeter, inches) or in
terms of intensity ( mm. /hr., cm. /hr.,
in. /hr.) . The rainfall depth measured
* to rainy weather result basically from
with the standard rain gage is the basis
for estimating the daily irrigation re -
quirements ( see Appendix 2 ) . In the
operation of existing irrigation sys-
tems, daily rainfall data is more impor -
.
tant than long- term data This applies
for the other climatic / weather data.
During the months of June to Sep-
tember, the whole country is relatively
wet though much of the rain is con-
centrated on the western sectors. This
is due to the prevalence of the south-
west monsoon. On the other hand,
heavy rainfall is concentrated on the
eastern coastal portion during the
months of November to March. This is
due to the prevalence of the northeast
monsoon coupled by the presence of
fronts at times. However, rainfall
during the months of April, May and
October are largely due to scattered
local convection and the presence of
the Intertropical Convergence Zone
( ITCZ ) .
Rainfall distribution throughout the
country varies from one region to an -
other depending upon the direction of
the moisture -bearing winds and the lo -
cation of the mountain systems. The
mean annual rainfall of the Philippines
varies from 965 to 4 ,064 mm. Baguio
City, eastern Samar and eastern Suri-
gao receive the greatest amounts of
rainfall while the southern portion of
Cotabato receives the least . At General
Santos, Cotabato, the average annual
rainfall is only 978 mm.
Figure 5 also shows the typical rain -
fall occurrence in the country.
Temperature
Weather depends upon the heating
and cooling of the earth ' s atmosphere.
Changes from warm to cold, from fair
RAINFALL
TRANSPIRATION
A
EVAPORATION
LEAKAGE
IRRIGATION ->
\
N
*
INFILTRATION
I /
LATERAL SEEPAGE
DEEP PERCOLATION
Figure 7 . Factors influencing water balance in the rice
paddy.
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT
temperature differences in the atmos-
phere.
Temperature is an indication of the
amount of solar radiation and it in-
fluences evapotranspiration of water.
It is measured with the use of maxi-
mum and minimum thermometers. The
former is used to measure the maxi-
mum tempterature and the latter, for
measuring minimum temperature. The
mean temperature, computed as the
average of the maximum and mini-
mum temperatures, has positive corre-
lation with evapotranspiration. With a
high mean temperature, crops exhibit
high evapotranspiration rate.
The mean annual temperature of
the Philippines is 27 C excluding those
of Baguio and Silang, Cavite. Latitude
is an insignificant factor in the varia -
tion of temperature while altitude
shows greater contrast in temperature.
Thus, the mean annual temperature of
Baguio with an elevation of about
1,500 m. is 18 C. There is essentially
A
DIKE
FLASHBOARD
L -
^DRAINAGE
/
» 1
I IRRIGATION
t
*
LATERAL SEEPAGE
LATERAL FLOW 4
 A

IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

no difference in the mean annual tem - northeast monsoon, high relative
2 3 0 IIA 1 ANI S 29
perature of places in Luzon, Visayas humidity is expected over the eastern
and Mindanao measured at or near sea
level.
portions of the country . During the
southwest monsoon, over the western
N 22.5"~l
1
\-v To
\

-
26 „30 *N
Temperature variations in the Phil -
portions, low humidities are recorded ^
—J — " /
/

ippines are not normally a limiting

factor to rice growth and production.
inland.
Due to high temperature and the
./
^
- AUJ

/ 32
26.5 LEGEND

However, in some highlands where the surrounding bodies of water, the

Philippines is a humid country . The
27
mu
%
23? '
I M BAN

temperature drops below the critical 23 -

temperature of 24°C, rice plant polli - average monthly relative humidity
C
^ MINIMUM
nation and fertilization is hindered. varies between 71% in March and 85%
,1
3026 -- ^ 33
^
MAXIMUM

This results in poor yields. Under these in September . The combination of

/ t 22U£- -
O
"n 32
circumstances, cropping warm temperature and high relative t

schedule / UNIO

and absolute humidities give rise to » 24 Vri l /

should be adjusted such that the

high sensible temperatures throughout
V/
ry
heading stage will not coincide with -r N IMA

the lowest temperature days. the archipelago . 2(?6

SUII PROVINCE Ol AURORA
/ 31

Figure 9 gives the annual mean rela -

ZAMUA
22 7 */ \A> l’A
, 23
Figure 8 shows the annual mean ^ £-7” i*oi ii 1» 2I,7ANDS
I 31
tive humidity in %. 31.5
temperature in the Philippines.
Wind
HA 1 AAN

HA VI
V
77
—
/ -
» X /

Relative Humidity 27 v
HA
ui JON
CA
^ AHINFS NbRTI

A /
)
27
Wind refers to air in horizontal

water
Relative humidity refers to the
v; por content of the atmos-
phere. It is the ratio of the vapor
motion. Wind direction refers to the
point from where the air is moving.
s? fSL
MINDOROOM \ / _ /v/ 27f .-» \ — ^^ " 7 jo&xT '
— L
Wind velocity is expressed in miles/ X
1PT
pressure ( e ) to the saturation vapor 27.5 SAM All
hour ( mph ) , knots/ hr or kilometers /
pressure ( em ) at existing temperature
hour ( kph ) . A wind vane is used to CAl
^ MIAly Xkliom
« \
expressed as percentage: determine wind direction while an Kl
31.5 >< \

—
/ I II SAMAII
• .V- 31
RH = anemometer is used to determine wind a
x 100
velocity .
* / // '// • AHIIO
Ml Oil (I I I VTI \
\
Lm • CUVO GROUP
/
I
\

Measurements of daily mean rela- // <

Gentle winds ( e.g. 2 - 5 kph ) are said < OUTHEAN LI YTI
!

r
tive humidity may be done by means to be beneficial to rice plants because
k
i
21
of a psychrometer. They may also be new air is thus blown around the
\
\
N
7
/
24.5 /

r
l / V T

-
N SURIOAO DEL NORTE
obtained from the graph of the self - plants and carbon dioxide ( C02 ) sup - 23.5 31 -AWATT
"“ -TT/T /
1

recording- clock - driven hygrothermo- ply is replenished. This favors photo - \

\
V
NEGRO
/
graph with the aid of a planimeter. But synthesis and likewise, the water
r x
24\ _ —- 7 77 / 1/ / / /
OR
G Ni
URIGAO

N
these have to be checked with psy - utilization of the crop. The circulation sx \7 / /7
/ 7 kMI
27
7/ Cl.
/
chrometrically - obtained relative hum- of dry and moist air generated by wind > IIOA
t 1

idity. within the immediate surroundings of

3 "'"' v,

-V-- /-
/ DEL NOt

OJ
the plant leaves creates vapor pressure Sv/ IOAVAO
Evapotranspiration by crops has Tv )
RIENTAI

negative correlation with relative difference. This results to an increase I

' NAO
!

in transpiration. 23 \ ^ 'V '

humidity. It is accelerated on days of » \ C y SULTAN/ KUDARAT

low humidity and slowed down during Heavy winds such as those which !)<
•
IIASILAN IS
^'
*® ^ 7
7 SOUT
COTAOATO,
>
^ l > AVAO Dl I SUII
I

periods of high humidity. If the re - occur during typhoons ( e.g. 20- 100
SIR U IS
' C>p i - X
X
\ '
22.5
lative humility is low during the grow - kph ) , if they take place after heading, /
-- -f oO
/3O ^ 31
ing season, a greater water use by crops may cause severe lodging and shatter - ^a ^
is expected. ing of grains in some varieties. The
T AW ! TAWI GROUP
^
The distribution of relative humid- damage is due largely to the increase in
22.5 3 '
ity follows the pattern of rainfall dis- the number of abortive endosperms.
tribution. During the occurrence of Strong winds occurring just before i> Figure 8. The annual normal temperature in the Philippines ( Atlas of
the Philippines, 1975) .
/
 IRRIGA TION WATER MANAG EMENT
J

heading cause a decrease in the num- is available. Even high- yielding varie -
/—
\
/ 0 IIA/'TANj S ber of spikelets. High winds at pollina - ties of rice generally show a decrease
f
^
tion time induces sterility. Further - in yield with a decrease in the
+N
/ /
/
/ /
/
/
/' */ / /
/
more, continued strong winds reduce amount of solar radiation received
/ /
. during the 45 -day period before
/ \O photosynthesis and enhance the spread
'Q xV>.\
/
/ /
harvest .
of bacterial leaf diseases of rice.
| UABUVAN ISLANDS
/ !

/ /V
/ \ \
ANNUAL NORMAL
RELATIVE HUMIDITY ( %) Photosynthesis and respiration are
Solar Radiation
! \VllbcOS
\
&OHTf 1951 - 1970 the two plant processes governed prin -
\ \
Solar radiation is the radiant energy cipally by the intensity of light or
> 86
HA
V
from the sun, measured as a total solar radiation. When light intensity is
\ /

84 - 86
amount in gram - calorie per square low, respiration dominates; when high,
M
11 ocos /
If JAO
\ 82 - 84
1 A UNION centimeter per minute ( g-cal /cm /min) photosynthesis dominates. Floral ini-
\ 80 - 82
by an instrument called jjyrheMo; tiation is also inhibited by an excess of
NUtVAI
/ CAVA
7: 78 - 80 ^
NAN
1I
/
76 - 78
.
rnetjer A sunshine recorder may also light.
f HOVINCE Ol
be used but gives only an estimate of
AURORA

/ AMIlkl' AH
11 74 - 76
i l
the solar radiation based on the num - The duration of light is just as im-
\
•*0111.10 ISI ANDS Util
/
\

\
< 74 ber of sunshine -hours measured. portant to the growth and develop -
\ /A / \
ment of rice plants as its intensity and
\
V \ \
\ \:A> cu \ '
AlIJNrS NOIIII A strong correlation between solar
\llVlA
* radiation and grain yield of rice has sometimes even more. Photoperiod, on
the other hand, is the length of daily
NI S

/
/
been established. Seasons with high
exposure of plants to light. The high -

-— Vu ^ Y~ |AlBAYrF'>*<i

-k solar energy are indicative of lower

i , / ' s• „ J MAHfNOlKlUl *'
* r rain ( Figure 10) , more sunny days yielding, dwarf or semi- dwarf rice
TO X and high evapotranspiration which
seem to increase the yield potential
varieties are generally not photo-
sensitive unlike the traditional tall
/ CALAMIAN
.
' AVIAN
CARli . '
i.
^ \

SAM AH of rice provided ample water supply varieties.

I
-cuvo-unou
:>or*
*
° —
— .

N f:
j
EOIIO

^'!
!)
->fcuTli.
< /

<trf^
1
Cl II HNllEVTE
/
\
\ Nif (illOS OCCIOI N TAI
r S S
'/ )

RAINFALL ( mm)
1
SOLAR RADIATION ( kcalo nil 10 days )
I 50

HAI A IVAN
\
\
/
tT ^\ \
\ IGA »( NORTE

>11 OROS OMENTAL J A AG ISAN

^
^
V -O’ Ol L VlOR I radiation
s IGAO S
^
MISA SUM

? X
7^1feri /5j
OIIII TA 1
SUH

6 100
(] X
o o
VI

c
VAO

DA AO
©
B
o
o
D
o
L
'

/ COT AIIAT ©
o
\ V,
NORTH NT A a o ©
\ P MAGUINDANAO <

^ ^—
|
\
o
/ 1[ /
\
, vs>. . ,
-
,;
v O j' c/ 1 1 50

-
SOl AN K UOAHAT
%
‘
/ I |
Rainfall
A
^ ^
HASIIAN iV
0»
A \ V. "
- - N
COT

~ / 0
l
9rvAooEi / *" ' V /

</
sum is ' /
'
/
\ }jf / / 25
'

^0*
S
\ '' v. / /
/
/

I AWI TAW1 GROUP

a
20-30 30- 40 40- 50 50-60 60 -70 70-80 80- 90
I- 10 10 - 20
a 4
IRRIGATION DAYS

Figure 9. The annual normal relative humidity in the

Philippines ( Atlas of the Philippines, 1975 ) .
i Figure 10 . A generalized relationship between solar radiation
and rainfall for a given season (| R R |, 1973 ) .
1C ! i /
 Evapotranspiration
i<! IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

l vapotranspiration or consumptive
clearly use proportionately less water
for evapotranspiration than long-
maturing varieties.
•••
o
use represents the total amount of
water withdrawn from irrigation and Stage and Discharge
eflective rainfall through evaporation of Streamflows 6 Basco
from soil and water surfaces and trans-
piration from plants. Based on these Since rivers are the source of water 0
s
for most irrigation systems, the P’
relationships, computation of irrigation 4
LEGEND :
amount of discharge and elevation of Aparrl
requirement is primarily based on the 3 Laoaa
4

amount of water loss from the soil and water surface are pertinent to predict -
ing the actual amount of water avail- 5 Tugu«o rao F *-i_ -
:>
plants through evapotranspiration. The
rate of evapotranspiration is governed able. Stage, the elevation of water sur - 7 CVES
5
n
4
Isab ® 3
face oTa stream or canal with respect
(3
7
by ( 1 ) meteorological factors like solar 2
2 I BPI Baguio
radiation, temperature, relative humid - to a certain datum , is measured with a
ity and wind, ( 2 ) amount of moisture basic instrument called staff gage or by 2 Dagupan o J F M A M J J A S O N D

available in the soil surface, and ( 3 ) means of an automatic water stage

recorder. Discharge, on the other
j
V- 9 Iba
0 flabanatrian
7

amount of crop cover . When the soil is 9 IO Tarlac

wet and sunshine is abundant, a large hand, is the volume of water that IO • METEOROLOGICA
STATION
L

part of the solar energy is used in eva - passes a channel section per unit time. l7Cuya
I9
.
potranspiration When the soil is dry , It is usually expressed in cubic meters Tayabag IH
I50JPL
much of the energy is consumed in per second ( CMS) or liters per second 16 Q«I6 A
( Ips) . A stage - discharge relation or > •••
8
heating the soil surface and the air . 15 %IN

The possible occurrence of floods

rating curve is constructed by plotting
the measured discharge against the
stage at the time of measurement.
.
fV
Callus O
^ 0
Uga
94 Po —

l)(. ! >
—
20
farman
27

or droughts can be predicted by 12

knowing the normal load of rainfall ‘For small channels, further dis - Catalog
VI 23 Roxas
a

( Figure 5 ) and the average demand of cussion is presented under Control 29 28

water by crops as indicated by evapo - Structures and Flow Measurements. *

6
II Cuvo Iloilo
22
a
Boro

2 Taclobafti
transpiration ( Figure 11 ) for a given Land Classification for co
JCobu~
I /nc / C
//
/

locality . When evapotranspiration ex -

ceeds effective rainfall, this indicates
Irrigation Suitability
I
^ 29

the need for irrigation. When rainfall Land classification is the systematic
/ Tagbilaran
exceeds evapotranspiration, surplus appraisal of lands and their designation 23
22

water occurs which is an indication of by categories on the basis of similar

characteristics ( physical, chemical and 26
floods. Of course this may not always 32
de Oro
hold true depending upon the existing biological ) . Such classification involves a

seepage and percolation rates. the grouping of soil units into land 2?
24
^
*
33
Malaybalay
• 34^ 2
Hinatuan

classes according to ( 1 ) the extent and

degree of suitability for sustained irri- CJ Zamboanga MU

There is no evidence at present gation, and ( 2 ) their recommended

that would indicate that values of evapo- uses and cultural practices considering 31 'O 0

transpiration
&
3| jolo .
G Santoe
differ significantly present economic conditions and 32 36 • -L

among rice varieties, or between the physical factors. <

tall, traditional and the dwarf high -
yielding varieties. However, the total
evapotranspiration requirements
over a cropping season is also a
function of the growth duration of
rice. The short -maturing varieties
18
Land classification for irrigation *> J 34
suitability determination was first im - o
9) 30 35 38 33
plemented in the Philippines in 1968
by the NIA - ADB water management
pilot project in San Rafael, Bulacan. In i .
Figure 11 Potential evapotranspiration map of the Philippines
this pilot project and in later national ( Tamisin, 1977 )
 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

irrigation feasibility studies, land bution system to reach the lands (']
classification work delineated the areas having adequate productive capacity ,
suitable for sustained irrigation. The determine the cost of the system, and
work included the determination of eliminate expensive increments not (

the best irrigated land use. The land suitable for development . Finally , A 'v
v * .1

A V
-A V
I

classifiers identified on maps those they adjust the arable land area to the
lands which, under full irrigation, are available water supply . \V W

best suited for paddy rice cultivation, Close work with the economist is
those which are best suited for diversi - involved. The plans developed are Vw WUM
.
TVVV' W v Vl

'" „
fied crops and those which have po -
tential for multicropping ( e.g. dual
evaluated as to economic justification YO / 'W
'
mi vi \|/ )</ Vi
HI
\>w
< tJ
id
Vl V • V 11
l/ -
IV W \ VI
\U W
''' ,
1 ll ||
irrmi J/ \J
IV
>
iii
h
:
tt •v
i

and feasibility . The economist pro

land classes) . A typical land classifica -
tion map is shown in Figure 12.
Technical considerations in land classi-
fication for irrigation suitability deter -
mination are elaborated in Appendix 9
vides advice regarding land improve -
ments that may be too expensive to
develop. The design engineer provides
information regarding lands that could
1
mss®
be served with a distribution system,

§
JLX A , C [ CLASS I DIVERSIFIED CROPLAND
As a systematic procedure for de - and the cost involved. The drainage en - CLASS 2 DIVERSIFIED CROPLAND
lineating lands on the basis of suitabili- gineer provides data and information v/ CLASS 3 DIVERSIFIED CROPLAND
ty for irrigation use, land classifica - concerning drainage costs. In working
w f Vi Vll
•\
[ W V/ j CLASS
' Vf V ^ 'll BURQ V/
rM'
0
'
IR RICE LAND

*\GT,VA
AI
tion provides a sound basis for fitting
41 )
with the economist, decisions are v
' i Pt - % 1 CLASS 2 R RICE LAND

land resources in a general plan of irri - reached as to the economic feasibility CLASS 3 R RICE LAND

gation development. More specifically LV3 DUAL CLASS LAND

of providing the required improve -
it provides needed data and inform - ments on identifiable lands . The ir - p m -
CLASS 6 NON ARABLE LAND

M RESIDENTIAL
ation for the implementation of im - rigation engineer or irrigation agro -
proved water management practices nomist makes contribution by
( Table 2 ) . These include such factors
advising how many hectares of land
as ( 1 ) land use and size of farm
could be served with the available
( 2) water requirements, ( 3 ) methods :*S A -v i1 rYfml ••

water supply . Thus if it is found that

•

of land development, ( 4 ) payment

there is less water than the suitable
capacity or increased net farm return,
lands, a selection can be made to in -
( 5 ) assessment of water charges, ( 6 ) ir - /A
clude only the best arable lands within \
rigation benefits, ( 7 ) location and
layout of irrigation and drainage sys -
the irrigable area provided these lands
$f /S V v
^ : y . ; •' •"

tems, and ( 8 ) land values. Most of

these are functionally relevant to
occur in a body contiguous enough to
allow an economical layout of a dis -
tribution system. If more water than
wmwm V " • I. 'll I * *
water management . They apply gen - ry \ V

land is available, then the total basin X i - 1-

erally to irrigation and drainage, plan-

ning, construction, operation and
must be considered to see whether
m OAMU m -V
<
A l

alternative uses of the water are avail -

maintenance of an irrigation system.
Selection of Irrigable Land
After completing the delineation of
the arable area, plans are formulated
able. If not, and if it is important to
develop the water supply to the fullest
v* AvA V* Alt: v .
extent practicable, the soil scientist,
working with the economist and en-
gineers, must seek a suitable defini -
m / I /.
*

to provide the specific irrigation, tion as to which constitutes the lowest 'P
drainage, flood protection and other class of irrigable lands to be included ILAGAN

facilities needed to sustain irrigation in the development .

( Figure 13 ) . Irrigable area is therefore
Figure 12 . A typical land classification map.
selected, and the engineers study the
arable area. They also layout a distri -
21
 -—
O 2
o
as .
->
CO
I ff m I H

I!
V Vi «
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PRE - SURVEY
SURVEY POST SURVEY

: STUDIES NEEDED FOR ARABILITY DETERMINATION

_ IRRIGABILITY STUDIES
( ohNSPECT AREA
MAPS AND
SECONDARY DATA ^^ > DEVEU>P ARRAACE FOR
HELD WORK
SURVEy

^ ; REVIEW
CLASSIFICATION
2
DETERMINE
ARABLE
HECTARAGE
—& ( PREPARE M APS
& EXHIBITS
WRITE REPORT
-^^ )

— Observe Soils Develop Payment

Capacity or Net - Evaluate Soils

{
Secure
Base Maps
Farm Return ^ 3)
-Assign
-His )
for Irrigation "" •
‘'S'
Review Special Final Check for
Prepare Water
Table Profiles
Secure Irrigable
and Productive
$
^^!
Observe Personnel Studies made to vjg' Symbolization Hectarage
Topography
\
|
{
Secure Cost Estimate land 1
Support Survey 'T' Errors Prepare maps
- ^
. j l
I
and Land Forms Study Available of Maintenance
Determine for Development I of Land Forms
^\ |J / Make draft

^^
I

Observe
! Soil Data and Repairs
Estimates ^
\
Work Priorities
» 1
t 1
Costs j Review all maps Adjust to
Bureau of 3 Develop Typical W
/ of Appendij 5 2)

\!
{

^^ J
1
t 1 for Accuracy

—
Drainage 2 SeCUrC Determine
Determine v Secure 11 Lands Hectarage Profile Exhibi
Climatic Data
''
Allowable 05 \ 21 >1 Drainage \1 Review results ! {
Equipment
^H
0 S Correct any ' with landowner
^
—
1 2 Development 18 Requirement
24
-.
^^VjiK1 \
31 T)
-,
/ Cost / Erron Illustrate ^
Observe Arable Hectarage r
Study Water M
^
. •

/ / Perform Studies ' ,J Lab.. Data v

Correlation .Vreas | x
^— ^
late Physical Soil /
,e solve any /C5. { /!

_
Quality Data ^ /
Resolve /
s
v& Topographical / j \ \N Delinea //
on Special Finalize Lands ,
© * \\ Problem areas »! Problem Areas' ' Tabulate c5
Study
_ yS
Condition to
Productivity
1

•
Sur> e> 2 2
l
/
/I Arable Hectarage
Prepare
Arable Land .
^
/ Appendix
^ >

—
.Analyze
Determine
Irrigation Method ( 5 )
Correlation
.Area Data ^ Determine .Arrange for Lab. data &
- i
Class maps
Write Land 1 o
for Classification minimum
.Allowable Water
-it ) Laboratory
.Assistance Delineate Land
~~ *9^
I Secure Land
Qassification
Approval
. Release Arable
Hectarage to
other Discipline ^
Compile all
supporting data '
J

3
I
Chapter for (M)
$
Table Depths Classes
m
x
S
>
7*
>
m
3
3
2
r
Figure 13. A land classification performance
network .

\
Water Requirement
Determination
\ classes are defined on the basis of a
The total irrigable hectarage,
the classes of land, and their lo-
cation enter directly into the de-
termination of water require-
ments. In a given area with the same
climatic conditions, kind and distribu-
tion of crops to be grown are deter -
mined, to a considerable extent by
the type of land. As crops differ
in their water requirements, the
overall and peak water requirements
ar-e affected accordingly. Soils vary
widely in their infiltration rates,
hydraulic conductivity and moisture
retention capacities, primarily because
of differences in texture. Such factors
not only affect water requirements but
also conveyance losses in canals. These
preliminary data can be used by engi -
neers to select sections of canals and
laterals requiring testing to guide deci -
sions on the need for canal linings.
From the soils data obtained, the
soil scientist, farm economist, agrono-
mist and the hydrologist can then
develop suitable cropping patterns, fre -
quency of irrigation and depth of
water applications. They assist in
selecting turnout capacities and in esti -
mating the irrigation efficiencies.
Land Use and Size of Farm
Land classification data are used to
make projections of the land use pat-
terns based on crop adaptabilities, in-
volved in the particular climatic or
ecological situation. Some crops are
best adapted to particular soil condi-
tions. Tuber crops are not as well
adapted to fine- textured soils as they
are to the medium- and coarse- textured
soils. Lowland rice, on the other hand ,
is adapted to f ine - texturedsoils that can
be readily puddled.
Classification can serve as a guide to
the layout of the farm unit . When land
suitably chosen economic value, the
farm size can be selected so that ap-
proximately equal net income may be
derived from the individual farms. The
determination of land use and size of
farm is conducted as joint study
between farm economists and soil
scientists. Their findings need to be
related to the work of the hydrolo -
gists in establishing the water require-
ments and system capacities.
Soil - Plant - Water
Relationships
The physical properties of soils and
plants affect the movement , retention
and use of water . Such soil - plant - water
relationship is considered in designing
and operating irrigation systems.
The plant takes its water from what
is stored in the soil within the plant
root zone. As this stored water is
depleted or if it is not enough for
normal growth of the plant, irrigation
becomes necessary . The amount of
water to be applied in each irrigation
and the frequency of application are
dependent on the properties of the
soil, weather conditions and the crop
to be irrigated.
Water Needs at Different
Crop Growth Stages
The amount of water already in
the soil, the waterholding capacity of
the soil, the fertility of the soil, the
length of time that a crops occupies
the land and the method of cultivation,
all influence the amount of water that
may need to be added for good crop
growth and yield. The rice plant, how -
ever, has been shown to have different
moisture needs ( Table 3 ) at dif -
ferent growth periods as follows
( Table 4 gives a description of each
growth stage and Figure 14, the plant
parts of rice) :
/
c .
1 At transplanting. The puddled
held should be covered with only a
shallow sheet of water , preferably 2 -3
cm. Deeper water levels are not de -
sirable since they cause the farmers to
transplant the seedlings too deep into
the soil. Deep planting will delay the
development of new root systems.
2. After transplanting . As soon as
transplanted plants are established and
start vegetative growth, water in the
field should be gradually increased
from i 3- 5 cm. during the succeeding
period of 8 weeks after transplanting
except for occasional drainage.
3. Tillering stage. Water depth
should be kept as shallow as 2 -3 cm.
depth and temporary drainage may
take place at the start of the maximum
tillering stage.
4. Panicle formation stage. Abun-
dant water must be kept in the field
as much as possible. Extreme water
deficiency can cause serious reduction
in yield. Water depth may vary from
10 -5 cm.
Table 3. Water needs of rice at different growth stages.
Growth Stage
After transplanting
Tillering
Panicle formation
After full flowering
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT
5. After full flowering. Water Mow
should be gradually reduced until the
field is finally drained at about 2 -3
weeks before harvest . Undue delay
of the terminal drainage prolongs
ripening of the grains and would not
help to promote favorable conditions
for efficient harvest.
Submergence Tolerance of Rice
Excessive water depth in the paddy
field for a prolonged period will sig -
nificantly reduce yield. Prolonged pe -
riods of submergence may be caused
by floods in cases where the capacity
of the drainage system is not enough
to drain excess water . The allowable
submergence depth and time differ
greatly according to the crop grow -
ing stage. For example, the greatest
flood damage occurs at the panicle
formation stage ( submergence for
more than 2 days seriously affects
crop growth) . Table 5 shows the re-
lationship between flooding condi -
tions and yield of rice.
Water Depth
3- 5 cm up to 8 weeks ( with occasional
drainage)
2 -3 cm ( may drain at start of maxi -
mum tillering stage)
10 - 5 cm ( decreasing water depth )
( water should be gradually withdrawn;
full drainage at 2 -3 weeks before bar
vest )
 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Table 4. Description of the different growth stages of rice .

Growth Stage Description

Tillering follows the seedling stage; starts with

appearance of the first tiller from the LEAF SHEATH
axillary bud and continues until the
maximum tiller number is reached. SPlKELET

Panicle initiation start of the reproductive phase and is

marked by initiation of panicle primo -
dium; this state occurs approximately
70 to 75 days before expected date of FLAG LEAF

maturity . TILLERS PANICLE BASE

Booting stage ' duringwhich panicle develop -
ment continues and spikelets become
distinguishable; occurs about 55 days B - A RICE PANICLE

before expected date of maturity . ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS

^
Heading follows booting stage and marked by
the emergence of panicle tips out of
A RICE TILLERS
the flag leaf sheath.
Flowering blooming of spikelets in panicles; oc - ANTHER
STAMEN
curs about 25 days after booting FILAMENT

Dough stage turning of the starchy portion of the

grain ( caryopsis) into soft dough and
later, into hard dough
\ STIGMA
Maturity stage when the once starchy portion of
%
grain is fully developed in size and is \
hard, clear and free from greenish tint ;
EDICEL
stage is completed when more than
90% of the grains are fully ripened C - A SPlKELET

Figure 14 . The plant parts of rice.

. '
* i

26 27
 IRRIGATION W A R M MANAGI Mt NT -
.

.
by unfertilized flowers High moisture ( transplanting to panicle initiation) . In
Table 5. Submergence damage of rice at different growth stages ( Tsutsui, 1972 In
Irrigation and Drainage Paper, Farm Water Management Seminar, FAO ) stress near maturity may also cause cases where there is critical water
considerable yield reduction because shortage, one has to make a choice for
of partially unfilled grains. that which is least damaging; priority
has to be given to supplying enough
3. The stage of growth from 60 to water during the reproductive stage
Clear Water Muddy Water 30 days before harvest ( the reproduc - for least yield losses.
1 ive stage prior to ripening ) is the most
Days of Submergence critical stage in terms of the need for Irrigation Diversion
water. Stress experienced during the
Requirement
1 -2 3 -4 5 -7 7 1 -2 3 -4 5 -7 7 vegetative growth may have very little
effect on yield provided that a proper Irrigation diversion requirement is ‘

»
% Yield Reduction stand is established in the first place the total quantity of water diverted
and full water supply is eventually from a source for evapotranspiration,
made available. percolation, farm waste, farm ditch
4. Rice has a critical stage of growth loss and conveyance loss in the main
20 days after 10 20 30 50
wherein a moisture deficit would result canal and lateral minus effective rain -
transplanting
in a reduction in yield. Water shortage fall in the field and re-use of water.
Young panicle
during the reproductive stage ( panicle Figure 15 will help a beginner visualize
formation partly
initiation to flowering) is likely to the terms mentioned. For a sample es-
inundated J / 10 30 65 95 20 50 85 90 -
result in more serious yield loss than timation of irrigation diversion re -
100 100
shortage during vegetative growth quirement, see Appendix 11.
Young panicle for -
mation, completely
i
inundated 25 45 80 80 - 70 80 85 90 -
100 100
Heading stage 15 25 30 70 30 80 90 90 R O A D
LATERAL CANAL
Ripening stage 0 15 20 20 5 20 30 30 ss
- M-U-TURNOUT
1/ Partly means leaves ( 9- 15 cm. long) remain above water surface.

FARM
Soil Moisture Stress transplanting can completely kill the - J ^
Tolerance of Rice rice crop; early stress ( no irrigation for < o <1 FARM WASTE
1 month during the vegetative growth < <
Present knowledge on the responses o H
stage) is significantly less damaging to o
<1
of rice to moisture stress indicates that yield compared with late stresses ( no • I

the magnitude of yield reduction de -
pends not only on the intensity and
duration of moisture stress but on the
time of moisture stress occurrence as
well. Thus, for a given rice variety, the
effect of drought should be evaluated
in terms of intensity, duration of stress
and the stage of the crop growth. Se -
veral studies reveal the following con -
clusions :
1. Severe stress immediately after
J
irrigation for 1 month beginning just
before panicle initiation to harvest ) .
<
3
M \\W DRAIN
TARM
2. Rice has 3 critical periods where - in
in a moisture deficit reduces grain
yields substantially . These are : ( a) trans-
planting period ( or seedling establish -
ment) , ( b) tillering stage, and ( c ) the 1
period from about 14 days before to a
week after panicle initiation. Yield re -
duction due to moisture stress during Figure 15 . Illustration of terms pertaining to irrigation
diversion requirement .
heading ( or flowering) is largely caused

28 29
 * IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

( I he average percolation rates after The requirements to soak or saturate

c puddling for the three generalized soil
types are as follows ( National Irrigation
Administration, 1974 ) ;
The following terms are a key to understanding irrigation
diversion requirement : Soil Texture Percolation Rate
( mm/day )
sandy 2.5 - 8.0
1. Evapotranspiration = Evaporation + Transpiration loamy 1.5 - 2.5
clayey 1.0 - 1.5
2. Water Requirement = Evapotranspiration + Percolation
0
Field Water Requirement
3. Irrigation Requirement = Water Requirement + Farm
waste — Effective rainfall Some distinct features of paddy rice
production include land soaking and
land preparation ( involvespuddling un-
4. Farm Turnout Requirement = Irrigation Requirement + Farm like that for upland crop production) .
Ditch Losses The two components of field water re-
quirement are defined as follows:
5. Diversion Requirement = Farm Turnout Requirement + Con - 1 . land soaking irrigation require-
veyance Loss in the Main Canal and ment — it consists of irrigation water
Lateral up to Farm Turnout or rainfall required to soak or saturate
the land to soften it prior to the initial
the soil is influenced by the depth of
the hard pan, amount of pore spaces
to fill, the rate with which water could
infiltrate the soil, the moisture content
of the soil and the associated losses. At
the start of the irrigation period, a large
portion of the water supplied is used
for saturating the land and only a small
part of the supply is used to maintain
the already saturated area. Towards
the end of the period, nearly all the
water is used to maintain the water
level in the field.
Land soaking requirements are in-
fluenced to a large extent by the
moisture left in the soil before the
initial irrigation water delivery. This
moisture is termed as residual moisture.
For 1 R ( good riceland soils) and dual
land classes ( suitable for both rice and
diversified crops) , an example of de -
termining land soaking requirements

Crop Water Requirement
Crop water requirement is defined
as the sum of evapotranspiration and
percolation losses. Evapotranspiration,
termed as consumptive use, refers to
the quantity of water which evaporates
from the water or soil surface in the
field and from transpiration of the
plants. Percolation, on the other hand,
is the quantity of water lost due to the
downward flow through a depth of soil
and is primarily influenced by soil tex -
ture. The various factors affecting the
rate and amount of percolation are
as follows:
1. soil texture and structure in lay -
ers of the soil profile — soil with less
percolation are fine - textured and
have massive structure ; coarse - text -
ured soils and those with columnar
structure have higher percolation rate.
* ,
' breaking down of the soil by using the based on residual moisture is given in
plow or other mechanical means. Appendix 10.
2. land preparation irrigation re- The minimum water required for
quirement — it consists of the amount land soaking may be estimated from
2. soil permeability — percolation
of water needed from the first plowing the following experimental data as
rate varies with permeability ; per -
to the last harrowing. shown in Table 6.
meable soils tend to have more perco -
lation; less permeable soils, less perco -
lation. Table 6. The minimum water required for land soaking.
3. depth of impervious layer — shal -
low soils tend to have less percolation; Source Water Needed ( mm ) Remarks
deep soils, more percolation
4. depth to water table — shallow Kampen ( 1970) 125 to 170 For moderately heavy soils in
water table tends to induce less perco - the dry season in Central Lu-
lation; deep water table, more percola - zon ( variability due to initial
tion. soil moisture content)
- do - 150 Assumed average to saturate
The puddling of the soil during the soil
land preparation creates a less perme -
Julian ( 1973) 150 - West season
able layer which reduces the percolation 120 Dry season
rate. When the soil dries out and
cracks, the effect of puddling appears Reyes ( 1969 ) 118 to 114 For padies wherein land pre -
to be lost. When irrigation water issup - 7) paration is done within or 2 -
plied again, the percolation rate tends day period in the dry season
to stabilize at a higher rate.

31

Figures similar to the above may be
obtained based on the residual moisture
determination ( Appendix 10) . It could
be seen that the water needed to soak
the land is largely influenced by the
moisture left in the soil before the
initial irrigation water delivery .
For the whole process of land
preparation, heavy soils are known to
require 600-700 mm of water, 1,050
mm. for light soils ( Valera, 1977 ) and
260-300 mm for medium -textured
soils ( NIA, 1977) .
It is difficult to give exact figures
for the duration ( number of days) of
land soaking or land preparation. A
discrepancy lies between the observed
duration taken collectively for an ir -
rigation site as a whole and the average
duration for each farmer 's field ( Vale-
ra, 1977) . In the case of collective ob -
servation, duration of land preparation
or land soaking is reckoned from thqi
time water is first delivered into the
whole irrigation area. In the case of
the individual farmer, duration , is
reckoned from the time he actually
.
receives water into his field It could
be seen, therefore, that delay in land
soaking or land preparation is attri-
butable to the long delay before wa -
ter reaches the farmer 's field.
On the average, provided water is
readily supplied to each farmer, land
soaking could be accomplished in a
week 's time and land preparation in a
month's time.
' Water Losses
The gross water requirement in low -
land rice irrigation is the total quantity
of water that must be made available
to provide the crop with adequate wa -
ter for optimum yields. The gross water
requirement includes water to cover
losses. Only a portion of the gross wa-
ter requirement, however, is used to
prepare the land or sustain plant
32
growth and development. The water
loss component, often a larger portion,
goes to non-productive purposes.
The components of water losses
are: ( 1) farm waste, ( 2) farm ditch
loss and ( 3) conveyance loss.
Farm waste is defined as the water
lost in the farm due to seepage, perco -
lation and leakage in the paddy dikes,
over - application of irrigation water,
scheduled and unscheduled drainage
and spillage.
Farm ditch loss is the quantity of
water lost due to seepage, percolation
and Ie3kage in the slope surface of ca -
.
nals
Conveyance loss is the amount of
water lost in the canals due to seepage,
percolation along the wetted perimeter
of the canals and leakage through canal
holes and gates and illegal diversions.
Evaporation from water surfaces and
transpiration from weeds in the surface
and slopes of canals are also included.
This loss is limited to the main canals
and laterals only.
Factors affecting degree of losses.
The quantity of farm waste is depen -
dent on the state of maintenance of
the paddy dikes and spillways, co -
operation of farmer - irrigators and the
degree of supervision of water distri-
bution. During crop development, farm
waste is determined primarily by the
degree of control and management of
scheduling and distribution. Many
think it possible to considerably re -
duce this type of water loss for both
land preparation and during crop de -
velopment with proper management
and control.
Farm ditch and conveyance losses
are affected by soil texture, depth of
water table, soil permeability, age of
canal, degree of compaction of em -
bankment, state of maintenance and
degree of supervision to avoid illegal
diversions.
I i
Ways of minimizing losses. When
seepage and percolation losses are
very substantial, lining of canals may
be undertaken provided it is eco -
nomical in relation to the expected
benefits.
For leakages, proper maintenance
i of canals, embankments and farm
ditches will help remedy the problem.
Close supervision and proper main-
tenance of control gates would also
help.
Illegal diversions can be prevented
through close supervision and patrol-
L ling of canals. Getting the cooperation
I
* of farmer -irrigators/ water users is also
a must.
\ Measures to minimize farm wastes
include: ( 1 ) proper maintenance of
paddy dikes, ( 2 ) avoiding over -appli-
cation of water to the farms by regula -
ting inflow at the turnouts, ( 3) avoid-
ing unscheduled draining of the field
and ( 4) campaigning for the coopera -
tion of the farmer - irrigators/ water
i
users.
Evapotranspiration rrjay be mini-
mized through elimination of weeds
in the canals, farm ditches and farms.
For the measurement of water los-
ses, see Appendix 8.
Effective Rainfall
-
Effective rainfall means the total
rainfall minus that amount which can -
not be stored or used in the paddy
field. It is the portion of total rainfall
( usually expressed in %) utilized for
land soaking, land preparation and for
crop growth.
Several factors influence the effect -
ivity of rainfall, as ( Sen, 1977) :
1. Rainfall characteristics — greater
quantities of rainfall result in more
surface drainage and normally tend to
decrease the effective rainfall rate.
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT
Similarly, uneven rainfall distribu -
tion usually results in lower effectivi -
ty .
2. Seepage and percolation, water
table and soil type — they combine to
control the rate at which water infil-
trates into the soil. Greater rates of
seepage and percolation tend to reduce
surface drainage, provided the supply
of water is the same, and thus increase
effective rainfall.
3. The amount of irrigation water
used — it influences effective rainfall
by contributing to the total water sup-
plied to the field. Rainfall on a pre-
viously well -irrigated area will have less
effectivity than rainfall on relatively
dry fields.
4. Paddy spillway heights — contri-
bute to effective rainfall by controlling
the amount of rainfall which can be
stored on the paddy by levees. Low
spillway heights tend to result in more
surface drainage than high ones, and
thus reduce rainfall effectiveness.
5. Irrigation management practices
— also influence effective rainfall. Ro-
tational irrigation, for example, pro -
duce indirect effects on irrigation deli-
veries and water stored in the paddy.
6. Topography of the land — level
lands retain more rainfall than non- le-
vel lands. Steep lands for example tend
to lose more rainfall through surface
runoff.
The method of estimating effective
rainfall is relatively complicated. A
method to be reliable has to consider
very well all the factors mentioned
above. The ADB method ( Appendix 7 )
is one example but it has some weak -
nesses because it does not consider
other factors such as daily rainfall
intensity, irrigation rate and other
practices that may affect effective
rainfall.
33
 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

illustrating the concept of use of re- Drainage

In irrigated areas, effective use of fields are drained of water which leads
rainfall demands that some irrigation to greater chances of retaining more
water be saved so as to cover a far rain.
larger area. This means maximizing the
use of effective rainfall to be of eco -
Irrigation Efficiency
nomic benefit to the irrigation system.
Maximizing effective rainfall may be Irrigation efficiency is generally de-
done through:
fined as the ratio or percentage of
1. Improvement and proper main- the irrigation water consumed by
crops of an irrigated farm, field or
tenance of farm dikes to increase pon-
dage through adjusting the spillway project, to the water diverted from
heights ( Figure 16), as: the source of supply. When measured
at the farm headgates, it is called
Activity /Stage Height of
''farm irrigation efficiency " or "farm
of Crop Growth Spillway
Land soaking and
delivery efficiency;" when measured at
the field or plot, it is designated as
land preparation 15 cm
"field irrigation efficiency," and when
Transplanting to measured at the source of supply, it is
early tillering 2.5 cm called "overall efficiency ."
Acting tillering 5.10 cm Separation of the various compo -
Maximum tillering nents of irrigation efficiency is neces-
to dough stage 15 cm sary to evaluate the efficiency of the
various segments of the systems. The
Terminal drainage product of the component efficiency
( 10- 14 days before
terms ( expressed as ratios) gives the
harvest ) 0
overall efficiency for the system con-
sidered.
2. Adoption of irrigation suspen- Irrigation efficiency is affected by
turn flow.
"Lost " water through deep perco -
lation can also be available for re -use.
With substantial quantity, it causes the
groundwater to rise to a depth within
the root zone or within a reasonable
depth so that through capillary action,
water can reach the root zone of the
plants.
Water from the upper reaches of
the area being drained to the drainage
creek through farm ditches becomes
available for re-use downstream.
In some cases, run-off water and /or
spillage accumulated in ponds and /or
streams becomes available for re -use
by pumping.
t
1
The most widely used definition of
agricultural drainage is the removal
and disposal of excess water from
agricultural land. The two basic types
of drainage are: ( 1) surface drainage
which is the removal of excess surface
water from irrigation and precipita -
tion and ( 2) sub- surface drainage which
refers to the control of ground water
heights through the removal of excess
sub -surface water.
needed by the
Drainage is primarily
effects
adverse
soil to eliminate
( see section)
such as toxic conditions
on Cultural Practices) brought about
by prolonged submergence. Further -
more, the rice plant cannot tolerate

sion schedules; an example for clayey

all losses of water ( figure 17 ) that
soils is as follows: occur after the water in a natural
Range of previous Irrigation suspension stream is controlled for irrigation
day -rainfall ( number of days ) purposes. As such, efficiencies may RAINFALL /
5— 1 0 mm 1
be used to estimate irrigation losses \\
NEW WATER LEVEL WITH ^
provided sufficient data are available INCREASED PONDAGE
11 — 18 mm 2
for the area or similar areas. As with PADDY DIKE
ORIGINAL WATER
19 — 27 mm 3 LEVEL ADDED SPILLWAY HEIGHT
all efficiency terms, the theoretical
28 — 36 mm 4 f ORIGINAL SPILLWAY
maximum efficiency is 100 percent. HEIGHT
37 — 45 mm 5
*
above 45 mm 6
m

3. Application of shallow depths of

irrigation water — shallow submergence
of the paddy field provides more pon-
dage capacity for storing precipitation,
deep submergence gives way to spillage
of whatever rain that falls.
4. Practice of intermittent applica -
tion of irrigation water , in intermit -
tent irrigation, there are days when
34
Use of Return Flow
*
A paddy to paddy irrigation is com -
mon which permits the use of return
flow from higher irrigated areas. Fur -
thermore, much of the water "lost "
through seepage is available for re - use
because it is either collected in the
drainage canals and /or flows into ad - ri Fig. 16 — The height of spillway may be adjusted
to increase farm pondage .
jacent field. Figure 18 would help in 4
35
 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

Ways of Minimizing of canals with soil of heavy ( clayey

Drainage Water texture to minimize seepage losses;
( 3) properly planning and locating
Minimizing drainable water actually we 11-constructed drainage network to
means properly utilizing rain and ir - minimize serious drainage problems;
rigation water for a beneficial farm and ( 4) properly organizing water ma
production. Some of the more speci- -
nagement activities for efficient dis-
EVAPORATION & lic ways to do this are: ( 1) retaining tribution schemes of irrigation water
TRANSPIRATION
more rainfall in the paddy field thus in order to avoid excessive applica -
EVAPORATION a
Surface
Storage TRANSPIRATION decreasing run-off; ( 2) lining the dikes tion.
5 T T
!
Ground
water EVAPORATION a
* TRANSPIRATION <
>
DRAINAGE a I u V)
to
OL
Lois SALINITY 4 pf> co Q
L c4 o
PROBLEMS
DITCH
' » to
iu
o 5:
x
L<J

o
GROUND SEEPAGE iu
W\TER
RECHARGE
TAILWATER
DEEP
LOSS PERCOLATION PADDY
REUSE
SPILLWAY

J LEACHING
I DRAINAGE
CREEK
DRAINAGE 8 GROUND
SALINITY WATER (

PROBLEMS RECHARGE

xN\

LOSS / -
' 4

%
/t km m
m
K t
r
< rfi
Figure 17 . Venues of the major water losses occuring r
in an irrigation system ( UPRP Irrigation I
Agriculture study , 1975 ) .

Figure 18. The flow of water from higher irrigated

submergence for long periods and re -
quires no standing water at certain
stages of growth for optimum yields.
Sources of Drainable Water
The drainable water is the excess
water in the field. Just how much is
excessive may be estimated from the
water requirements of rice at different
growth stages ( Table 3) . Excess water
is contributed mainly by: ( 1) abundant
rainfall, a surplus to the farm pondage
36
areas may be re- used downstream.
and to the need of the plants; ( 2) flood -
ing or inundation of lowlands due to
overflowing rivers and other natural
drainage channels; ( 3) seepage losses
from reservoirs or canals or even from
higher and adjacent irrigated fields;
( 4) excessive application of irrigation
water ; ( 5 ) groundwater flow towards
the low areas; ( 6) unconfined or free
groundwater flowing under small
hydraulic gradient; and ( 7) flow from
T
artesian aquifer.
Q7

WATER QUALITY
CONSIDERATIONS
The physical, chemical and bio -
logical properties of water to be used
for irrigation must be assessed as they
dictate to a large extent the possible
soil- plant interactions in the field.
The characteristics of irrigation water
that appear to be most important in
determining its quality are: ( 1 ) total
concentration of soluble salts, ( 2) 're -
lative proportion of sodium to other
cations; ( 3) concentration of boron
or other elements that may be toxic
under some conditions, ( 4) bicar -
bonate concentration as related to the
concentration of calcium plus mag -
nesium. The concentration and com -
position of dissolved constituents in
water determine its quality for irriga -
tion use. The optimum quality of ir -
rigation water for rice is reflected as:
1. electrical conductivity,
(
EC x 10 > ( micromhos/cm.) 0- 1000
2. salt content, ppm 0- 700
3. sodium, % 60
4. boron, ppm 0 -0.5
5. chlorides, ppm 5
6. sulfates, ppm 350
.
Increasing water pollution partly
due to continuous use of pesticides and
decreasing quality of used irrigation
38
water and return flows contribute to
impaired uses of water . Furthermore,
biological life downstream such as
fish and phytoplanktons, may be ad -
versely affected.
Saline, alkaline or saline -alkaline
soils may be a direct result of the ap -
plication of irrigation water . This is
brought about by the transportation
of dissolved salts via water which are
eventually - deposited in the irrigated
.
lands. Where the applied irrigation
1
water is insufficient to meet the evapo -
transpiration requirements of the crop
and the leaching requirement of the
soil, a toxic condition will likely oc -
cur .
Irrigation water, therefore, must be
chemically analyzed at least once a year
in order to plan ahead for possible re-
medial measures in cases of undesirable
water quality . Irrigation water samples
may be analyzed at the various branch
laboratories of the National Institute
of Science and Technology and the
Bureau of Soils located in the dif -
ferent parts of the country .
In case of saline -alkaline irrigation
water, the following remedial measures
may be employed: ( 1) use of salt - tole -
rant varieties and ( 2) provisions for
drainage in order to leach excess salts.
CONTROL STRUCTURES AND
FLOW MEASUREMENTS
It should always be borne in mind
that the efficient use of water for ir -
ligation and for any other purpose de -
pends largely on the measurement of
water . All information concerning the
ralationship between water, soils and
#
plants will be of no use in irrigation
practice without the measurement and
regulation of water.
The distribution and application of
the right amount of water to the farms
can only be done with the use of the
various control and measuring devices
along the canals and farm ditches. It
is therefore necessary to have the de -
vices and know their operation in
order to regulate water distribution
and delivery.
Control and Regulatory
Devices / Structures
Engineers apply the word structure
to dams, headgates, sluices, flumes, in -
verted siphons, chutes and drops which
are built to divert water from natural
sources and convey it to the farms for
irrigation. The devices and pieces of
equipment to divert water from a
large canal into the farmer 's ditch and
convey it to several parts of his
farm are hereby designated as farm
irrigation structures.
Farm irrigation structures include
two general classes, namely; permanent
.
and temporary structures No structure
is truly permanent in the strict sense
.
of the word The term is applied to
those structures which remain in place
during more than one irrigation season.
Temporary structures are those that
are moved from place to place during
irrigation, or those that are built for
only one- season use: A further desirable
classification of structures is based on
IRRIGATION W A I I H MANAGIMENT
the function of the structure and in -
cludes: ( 1) diversion structures such as
diversion dams, and check gates;
( 2) conveyance structures such as open
or closed conduits flumes tunnels and
drainage crossings; and ( 3 ) distribution
structures such as head gates, turnout
gates, small check gates and division
boxes.
A description of some of the afore-
mentioned structures are as follows:
1. Diversion dam — this is a kind of
structure which raises the water flow -
ing through rivers, creeks or streams
to a desired height. The water is then
diverted to conveyance canals ( e.g.
main canals, laterals, sub -laterals and
farmditch) to supply the requirements
of the areas served. Excess river flows
spill over the dam and discharges to
the main waterways ( Figure 19) .
2. Headgates — these are the struc -
tures located at the head of conveyance
canals, main canals, laterals and main
farmditch to control the amount of
water to be distributed ( Figure 20) .
3. Checkgates — these are used to
raise water at a desired height to enable
water to flow to the headworks of the
different canals branching from the
main canal, laterals or sub-laterals;
they are usually found along the
stretch of irrigation canals downstream
of turnouts and headgates ( Figure 21 ) .
4. Turnout — it is an outlet of water
in irrigation canals whereby water
passes through and discharges into the
main farmdith or service area ( Figure
22) .
5 . Division box — it is used to di -
vide and distribute the flow of water
at desired directions usually placed or
built with the main farmditch to di-
vert water to supplementary farmditch
( Figure 23) .
39
 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

6. Off -takes these are construc - the above equation. Whereas, the ca -
inc.h depth hoperur
'

ted or placed along supplementary

farmditch at the head of the internal
libration of the measuring device gives
the flow directly. Measurement of Ha 10.19 0. 2 7 0. 273 15.7 359. 0.3598 0.4280 0. 416 10.27 1

farmditch to control and regulate wa- flow volume requires integration of

the flow rate Q over the time period

0.9 17 0. 2 1 0. 265 1.534 35.02 0. 3502 0. 417 0. 405 0.973

ter flows serving the farm or group of

depth hoperur
*

farms ( Figure 24). involved. mb

7. End check — it is usually found Units of volume and of volume per c/> Acre 1

at the end of a farmditch to check the unit time are basically required in water -
CD
4 »
CtJ
direct flow of water to the drainage measurement. The units of volume
$
m-. depth per day
24 .7 0.545 0.65 37.86 8.641 8.641 10.28 246.7 24
ditch ( Figure 25) . commonly used are cubic meters and O
liters. TJ Ha
1

Other appurtenant components of

The common units of rate of flow C
CO
an irrigation system are the following:
are cubic meters per second ( CMS) </)
0)

1. Flumes — these are structures and liters per second ( Ips. Table 7 E

23.802 0. 630 0. 637 36.83 840.5 0.8405 0. 9723 2.3 5

used to convey or carry water above gives conversion factors among the
J3
o inch depth day
depressions such as rivers or creeks various common units for agricultural "
>
Acre per 1
24
co
( Figure 26 ) . water volume and flow rates. -
h
D

2. Canal crossing — it is a structure Water Measuring Devices 3

28.32 0. 6308 0. 758 43.8 1.0 0

O
constructed across irrigation canals for
traffic crossing by man, animal, cart,
sleds or vehicles ( Figure 27) .
It is important to provide water
measuring devices to complement re-
H
b

-
O
.
O)
CO
Liters per second 1 0.1 57
1.19 28.6 2.78
gulating and controlling structures in
•
E
-
</>
J*
3. Inverted siphons these are

0.283 6.31 7.58 0.438 0. 01 0. 19 0 157 0. 286 0. 278

3 c s
implementing improved water manage - ” 10
'

Cubic met rs second

structures used to convey or carry ir - c per 10
ment. Water measuring devices should o x x
rigation water across depressions usual -
be installed at the place near the in - E .
ly below the bed of riversor creeks ( Fi- E 1

take, at the branching points of main o

o
gure 28 ) . </>
canals, lateral and sub -laterals and at

0.64 3 0. 14 0. 173 2 .82 0. 2 8 0. 2716 0. 2639 0.6517 0. 6340

3
O

Mil i galons US dayper

4. Drainage crossing — a kind of the farm turnouts where farmditches zco >

structure which crosses waterways to begin. In cases where the main canals > (

1
O)
discharge the excess water drained or and laterals are usually long, it would e
•
removed from the field ( Figure 29) . be necessary at times to select more CD
C

Imperial galons per minute 373.7 0.8327 578.3 13. 98 13.2 15.7 1.53 376.84 36. 6
than one suitable place to install o
Water Measurement measuring devices so as to determine ECO 1

>
<b.
/

Effective use of water requires that the conveyance losses. O

flow rate and volumes be measured and There are various kinds of measur - o
CO
expressed quantitatively. Water meas- ing devices available with built - in ad-
urements is based upon application of
the formula.
vantages and disadvantages depending
upon the locational situation. The va -
c
o
' </>
.
b
Qi
galons per minute 4 8. 3 1.201 695.4 15.8 0 15.8 0 18. 6 1.83 452. 6 4 .03
1

rious types of measuring devices ( the

>
c US
Q = av o
specific formulas for computing dis- O
where Q = flow rate, volume per unit time charges for each device is shown in
_ Fe t
second 0. 28 0. 267 1.5472 35.14 0.3514 0.420 0. 487 1.0 83 0.98 4
a = cross -sectional area of flow, and the accompanying figures) include the 0)

-Q per
v = mean velocity of flow
following:
1. Parshall flume — it is a device
H
CO

Cubic 1

Flow measurement involves the used to measure the flow of water by

determination of mean velocity and noting the loss of head caused by )

day
IMP se.c se.c day hr- hr
)

US
. ln m ln m
/
area of flow. Thus, some techniques forcing a stream of water through a /
/

MGPD
( (

GPM GPM M Lts Ac- Ha- Ac- Ha-

S
utilize each of these determinations se - throat or section of a flume with a F 3
/
/

parately and use them directly as in C

depressed bottom ( Figure 30) . Its ad -

40 I
 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

•>
FLUSHBOARDS
A J
*
%
A
*
..-
i i
M
V»"+
I
. "
*
I
*
ft
-
Road! ' Crossing
I I
)
LL ' _- - .
' I
J
*
^ V

^.
fi&Cg '
'

V
p 2

*. Can 1
i
a J -. - Main
I
4*1 t
1
VtL
‘

ti CHECKGATE
*• <•

«1;*
Figure 19 . A diversion dam raises water to a considerable
height . .
Figure 21 A checkgate raises water to enable it to flow to
different canals

m w
<
6/

•/ v

V
'
3 -

A 7*
w

4
5
W r
% /
- r i

V
kr' . fi

*: (T .
v “S
•
V
- il
HEADGATE
( il|V
Figure 20 . A headgate controls the amount
of water for distribution.
^ IT .
Figure 22 . A turnout is the outlet into the main farmditch
42 i i o
 II1RIG A riOIM WAIER MAIMAlii Ml l\l I

f »
'" ,, W.
HI
" -’ j

4
* >N
\ ^ %' L ,
\

hC
.
-
’
4,^
SP /
\
Ml
*
\V
Hr* ‘^ 4r y
/ J
/

H V, M
fo **< - UM

&J
* -
P
END CHEclf**,,
I

Figure 25 . An end -check directs water to the drainage ditch.

Figure 23. A division box distribute flow at desired direc-
tions . \

7K
<
,w: ‘
^ *4 >

* *” 0

>
s .\ " v
v\v "' Y'0 jr
*
\ Wit
if
\x \

.
w
. -*\ V (/ «
''
s

\ u(
s
r
\ -.
"s
CC
-T.
s
-V
I

***v, :. /V >
A y
/
••

* ‘NsW / *
¥

o/ r,
<
* /

I
Figure 24. An off -take controls water flows serving the farm. Figure 26. A flume conveys water above depressions

44 AR
 -
$
iM
!•
( UfWrfrl
V
*m
ACCES I)

\
t

V \

\
4

1 . f*

sP
$
-
J
:> • vV- 55

V
* $

k
rtf '
^rr
ZS \ \f

^* >
7
.
< ?
'
»y
N

<0N
4 N\
V
v' N
\ -x
/ 0

Figure 27 . A canal crossing is constructed across irrigation

canals. C Figure 29 . A drainage crossing acrosses waterways to
discharge excess water . i
V‘

:t&r.
WMfit a*
m f

m
&
&m ¥ 7 . H 'i
i

^
M
V
WKS im
.
v'

'* k
>:
H
V
mK ¥
v
<
!
.
- - - *< f t

2*
t,

mm ,
»
;
>

s
<
* i

SIPHON Mr
>

*> i
%

Figure 28 . An inverted siphon usually goes below the bed of

rivers or creeks. Figure 30 . A parshall flume .
47
AG
 «1 . 1

I ormulal
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT
I
h I Q = C x ( L - 0 2 H ) H'
V2
* H
If L = 25 cm . and H = 12 cm
\ Then Q = 0.0 l 84 x ( 25 - 0.2 x 12 ) x ( I2) 3 /2
= 18.90 li./ sec .
2H

A A RECTANGULAR WEIR

% \
%

a s \ s

LH Q = CH
5/2 N X j
\ *
If H = 12 cm i <
V
s
Then Q = 0.0138 X ( 12 )s / 2
\ = 6.90 li / sec s s
V
*
[V
- \

.
O VA 1
'

.O
\V \
B. A 90° TRIANGULAR NOTCH WEIR
<

POINT TO MEASURE DEPTH

ELEVATION
OF WEIR
CREST
4H
WATER SURFACE
-
SHARP CRESTED WEIR

-H

2H --
NAPPE

<g Figure 32 . A current meter gaging station.

r' s \
^ ——— i
CHANNEL BOTTOM

C . PROFILE OF A WEIR INSTALLATION

\ v- r' \ CV \ Xs'
I

APPROACH
CHANNEL * 1

-US'
• ft

^
'
.

KI
\ \v
i v WEIR POND -"

" f ':
' ' CONTROL GATE
BULKHEAD
i
j§ lii
STILLING WELL
t'Ml r,
'
4*
^
vrt

2 HMIN -<^ :
ORIFICE GATE
Jn

/
DOWNSTREAM
CHANNEL

D. FRONT VIEW OF A WEIR INSTALLATION

Figure 31. The types of weirs and their corresponding

i Figure 33. A double -gated turnout .
formulas for the computation of discharge. !
/IQ I i
A\ )

vantages are: ( a) relatively accurate,
( b) small head loss, ( c) wide range of
measurement capability, ( d) non-silt
ing, and ( e) accuracy is affected only
very slightly by velocity of approach.
Its disadvantages include: ( a) high
construction cost, ( b) higher skill need-
ed in construction, ( c ) a straight canal
section is needed for its installation,
and ( d) it cannot be combined with a
turnout .
» curves are then used to determine the
2. Weir — a simple and a practical
device commonly used in measuring
water supplies. It is an accurate
measuring device when operated under
properly controlled conditions. It ob-
structs flow of water to create a pond
and the water passes over a crest
(square, rectangular, round and other
shapes ) for measurement. The type and
size of the weir to be used depends on
the size and conditions of the streams
to be measured. Its advantages are:
( a) a relatively high degree of accuracy
and ( b) easy construction. The disad-
vantages include: ( a) large head loss,
(b) removal of collected debris and
deposits is needed and ( c) accuracy is
affected by velocity of approach ( F i -
gure 31) .
3. Double -gated turnout — it is
a combination of control and measur -
ing structure installed at right angles
with the source canal. It consists of
two gates: the orifice gate and the
turnout gate. The quantity of water
flowing through this device is mea-
sured by maintaining the constant
differential head across the orifice
gate. This device is commonly used
when the conditions in the field do
not warrant economic use of a com -
bination of gated turnout and parshall
flume or other types of measuring de -
vice ( Figure 32 ) .
The double-gated turnout is com -
paratively accurate, convenient in
operation and observation and it can
50
mmiiAIIUN WAItlf n/IANAlil Ml Nl
be installed with few locational and and the date and time of observation . .
station The gage reading provides
directional constraints. It must always be remembered that data for the tables from which the cor -
the corresponding date and time should responding rate of discharge can be
- 4. Current meter gaging station pro - seen. In order to determine the total
be recorded when there is a change in
vided with staff gages — i t is a station reading. volume of water delivered to a canal
along irrigation canals, streams, rivers or lateral, the total time for a particular
or creeks where flow and topographical
The measuring devices are provided
with tables or a discharge -rating curve gage reading should be recorded when-
conditions permit the establishment
in the case of current -meter gaging ever the gage reading changes.
of a flow -rating curve based on current
meter flow measurement. Calibrated
water level gages show the height of
water flowing in the canal. Rating
equivalent flow of the height of water
i n the canal as read using the calibrated
gages ( Figure 33) .
Where the canal has sufficient
head available and the flow is not
very large, the measuring weir should
be considered because of the con -
venience in operation and economy in
construction. Where the available
head and required water are small
and floating materials are negligible,
mi
the submerged orifice would be con -
sidered. Since the parshall flume has
many advantages, it should be used in
place of a measuring weir anu sub-
merged orifice where the two latter
measuring devices would have limita-
tions if installed. If the discharge is
relatively large and the aforemen-
tioned measuring devices are not suit -
able, the establishment of lined
section current meter gaging station
would be desirable.
i
What is read and recorded from
measuring device is not the discharge
but rather the head ( H) when the
device is a weir; the heads ( Hg and H )
when the device is a parshall flume; ^
the differences in heads of staff gage
readings just upstream and downstream
from the headwall of the orifice when
the device is a submerged orifice; and
the staff gage reading when the device
i
is a calibrated turnout gate.
It is very important to read and re-
cord the actual reading from the gage
yl >
hi
i>
 mmr ATIUN. .
W A I I l i ivmmAi infirni i

WATER MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES J1 I

Water management practices which Each method of water distribution MAIN CANAL I
include water distribution and water has its particular advantages. The ad - <V
application schemes could be more at -
tuned to the needs of the farm through
vantages of rotational distribution in -
clude:
<V
c -
<V
p
<5-
' PV
<
SECTION l
collection of the needed data which V V o
1 . Reasonable regulation and even < SECTION 2
would serve as guide in planning the v <9
distribution of water over the upper,
operation. The schemes can be modi - middle and lower reaches of the canal
fied after gathering more reliable data system thus reducing and /or eliminat -
or upon observation of actual field ing droughts in spot areas when the A
operation during the implementation
water resource is scarce; main canal.
phase. Figure 34 . Rotation by section in the
2. Water savings are attained due to
Methods of Water lower conveyance losses thus saved kUl
Distribution water can be used for either expansion
of the irrigable area or for industrial MAIN CANAL
There are generally two methods of
water distribution. These methods are:
and municipal use; and TURNOUT
FEEDER DITCH /

3. Asssurance of timely delivery of

N
( 1) simultaneous and ( 2) rotational.
Simultaneous water distribution is a sufficient irrigation water to the far -
practice wherein supply of water is mers even during dry season or in time SECTION I
given at the same time to all the canals, of droughts.
laterals and farmditches. Simultaneous water distribution, on
Rotational water distribution is a
practice wherein supply of water is
given by turns to the different sections
the other hand, practiced when water
resource is abundant has the following
advantages:
( V
* SECTION 2

of the canals and laterals, and to the

1. lower investment in the irriga -
different supplementary farmditches
tion system because fewer control
or sections of the main farmditch.
Under this method are three practices,
structures and measuring devices are .. .
needed; and
namely:
the laterals or
. 2 . Less labor is used. Figure 35. Rotation by section or turnout in
1 Rotation by sections in the main
canal — water is conveyed by rotation
Methods of Water I sub- laterals

J
to different sections served by the
main canal ( Figure 34 ) . Application
Methods of applying water to the w LATERAL
2. Rotation by section or turnout
rice crop may be classified as: ( 1) con- TURNOUT
i n the laterals or sub - laterals — the main
tinuous submergence, wherein the fsiO.I SUPPLEMENTARY FARMDITCH
canal carries a continuous flow
paddy field is submerged from trans-
while water is rotated by the section planting up to about two weeks before SECTION I
of the lateral or sub - laterals ( Figure harvest , or ( 2) intermittent irrigation,
V
1
'
35) . wherein the paddy field is alternately <2*
A
o
3. Rotation by section in the farm - submerged and drained and the soil * NO. 2 SUPPLEMENTARY FARMDITCH
ditch ( Figure 36) — water is rotated surface is allowed to dry prior to the
only in rotational units served by the next application of water. SECTION 2

farmditch; conveyance of water in the Through intermittent irrigation, soil

main canal, laterals and sub-laterals are aeration is promoted thereby avoiding i )
continuous. formation of toxic substances detri - l Figure 36. Rotation by section in the farmditch.

53
52
 .
mmr AimN WATER MAI\IAI ;I MI NI

mental to the plant, savings in irriga - transplanting to two weeks before

tion water are made and drainage prob -
lems are minimized. On the other
hand, intermittent irrigation requires
harvest. Failure to maintain this sa-
turated condition is harmful to the re-
covery of the seedling and may cause
«* WATER MANAGEMENT AND
CULTURAL PRACTICES

closer supervision and makes weed
control more expensive .
The following guidelines are recom -
mended in employing a method of
water application :
1. In case of extreme water shortage
or porous soils and in the absence qf
conclusive results showing that ' yields
differ between paddy fields that are
irrigated by continuous submergence
or intermittent application when pro -
perly weeded, intermittent application
is recommended .
2. For the full water requirement
of the plants, it is sufficient that the
soil is kept in saturated condition with-
in five days after transplanting. The
rate of application should be just
adequate to saturate the soil from
higher mortality rate of the young
plants. Irrigation water should not The use of new varieties and im - 2. Hydrogen sulfide toxicity in soils
be used for weed and pest control IMoved practices require efficient water low in iron and manganese; and
management to achieve optimum pro -
except when there is abundant supply. 3. Toxicity due to organic reduc -
duction. The ability to control, save tion products.
3. Maximum tolerable depths of
submergence to be adopted during the
and conserve water resources is an im -
portant factor to consider in crop in-
periods of excess supply are :
tensification program since water is
Puddling
Stage of Growth Tolerable Depth one of the major limiting factors in crop
of Submergence Puddling the soil is unavoidable
production.
under our conditions. It facilitates
Transplanting to 2 - 5 cm Rice is almost universally grown on
leveling, weed control, seedbed prepa -
early tillering ( depending on submerged land. The surplus water
ration and transplanting of seedlings.
height of used causes marked changes in physical,
Other advantages are cutting down
seedling ) electrochemical and chemical proper -
of water losses by percolation and mi -
Active tillering 5- 10 cm ties of the soil . Thus soil and water ma -
nimizing of nutrient losses through
( depending on nagement are essential tools in success -
seepage and drainage .
height of ful rice culture.
The disadvantages of this practice
seedling) are retardation of nutrient transfer by
Flooding mass flow and promotion of water
Maximum tillering 15 cm
stress due to low hydraulic conduct -
Dough stage 15 cm
< Apart from elimination of water
stress and control of weeds, the bene -
fits brought about by flooding include
ivity . When water is in short supply ,
puddling causes shrinkage and cracking
of the soil and root pruning. Further -
the following chemical changes : more, drying the soil and restoration
1. Increase in pH of acid soils and of structure for the succeeding upland
decrease in pH of alkali and calcareous crop is made difficult .
soils which result in: Puddling is desirable on soils with
a. amelioration of iron deficien-
good internal drainage. It is not neces-
sary if nitrogen and water losses are
cy in neutral and alkaline soils;
negligible and should be avoided if
b. suppression of manganese the water supply is uncertain.
toxicity in acid soils;
c. elimination of aluminum tox - Use of Organic Manures
icity in strongly acid soils; and
d. increase in availability of Organic manuring refers to the ap -
phosphorous. plication of decomposed plant bodies
and animal excrements as nitrogen
2. Increase in availability of silica. sources and as catalysts to some soil
3. Increase in availability of nitro - reactions. Organic manuring is or -

Iif
gen ( flooded = 20% N, non- flooded
= 7%1 N )
On the other hand, flooding has
some adverse effects which are :
1. Iron toxicity in acid soils high
in iron and low in manganese.
54
dinarily practiced through the ad -
dition of green manures, composts
and cattle manures, or rice straws.
The maintenance of recommended
water depth of 2 -3 cm. is enough to
hasten their decomposition.
55
 IRRIGA TION WATER MANAG EMENT
I he application of organic
manures, tight place in the soil at
through green manures ( e.g. tapilan the time Table 8. Generalized recommended amount and timing of fertilizer application for
, crops need them most. The
soybeans, peanuts and other legumes) soil must lowland rice ( from the Philippines Recommends for Soil Fertility Manage-
, therefore be replenished with the
composts and cattle
manures and ele - ment , 1978 ) .
ments which is done through
straws, conserves and adds nitrogen
to
fertil -
the soil. In flooded soils, ization.
manuring In general , on fine-textured
hastens the change in pH and soils
shortens ( clayey ) , one pre -planting Soil Recommended Rate Method of Time of
the time at which the high ( basal ) ap
concentra-
tions of iron and carbon plication of fertilizer is
sufficient pro - Season Type of N -P- K in kg/ha. Application Application
dioxide oc - vided the variety used is
cur . It also prevents iron deficiency resistant to
in lodging. On coarse- textured (
alkali and calcareous soils. On the sandy )
other poorly irrigated soils, it is preferable
hand, manuring may cause zinc
de - to split the nitrogen applicatio Wet clayey 60 +30+0 One half of N and Immediately
ficiency and crop injury in sandy n and
soils the other half at panicle before the last
due to carbon dioxide, iron and or initiation coils all of P as basal
- stage to minimize losses through application harrowing
ganic substances. leach -
ing by percolation water
If rice straws are plowed into . All the phos-
the phorous and potassium should +
field, planting should wait until be ap -
4 plied before the last harrowing
weeks after flooding to minimiz
e the broadcasting fertilizers, water
. Before One half of N as I Apply 40 - 45
effects of the reduction products. level topdressing I days after
must be kept at 2 cm
. or below. transplanting
Otherwise, fertilizer materials would
Liming tend to float toward the sides loamy 60+30+30 One half of N Apply im -
of the
paddy fields during the process and all of P and mediately be -
Liming of acid rice soils depresses of in-
corporation. There will be no problem K as basal ap - fore last har -
the concentration of water - on this if recommendations
soluble are fol - plication rowing
aluminum, depresses the concentra lowed as exemplied in Table 8 ( show
- -
tion of water - soluble iron, lowers ing fertilizer application +
the at recom-
concentration of carbon dioxide and mended stages ) and Table 8 (
increases the availability of phospho show - One half of N as Apply 40-45
- ing recommended water depths
rous. The spontaneous increase at topdressing days after
of pH certain growth stages) . If there t
in acid soils upon flooding makes is transplanting
lim - more than 2 cm. standing water
, drain
ing of moderately acid soils
unneces- the field at a shallower depth.
Fertilizer Apply im -
sary . In acid sulfate soils, a Dry all soils 90+30+30 One half of
moderate application is done at such water
depth
» r

mediately be-
amount of lime benefits rice. Conti N and all of P
nuous submergence may be - in order to bring the fertilizer
materials and K as basal fore last har -
better closest to the soil particles to enhance
than liming for acid sulfate soils. application rowing
nutrient absorption and minimize
losses
through nitrification and +
denitrifica -
Fertilization tion. If transplanting is not done
im-
mediately, flood the paddy with One half of N Apply 40- 45
2
Fertilizers and irrigation water form cm . water . Never let the soil dry as topdressing days after
until
the primary inputs in irrigated it cracks as this causes loss of nitrogen transplanting
agri -
culture. Water in the form when the soil is reflooded.
of soil
moisture is a medium for chemical -
re
actions, a vehicle for nutrient
port, a turgor and cooling
trans - Weed Control increase the cost of labor and equip - control may be mechanical, cultural,
agent for
plant tissues and a medium ment and pose a problem in irrigation biological or chemical.
for leach - Weeds reduce rice yields as they
ing undersirable element
s in the soil . systems. It must be noted that water should
compete with the three most
For crops to give maximum essential Weed control practices prove to be not be used primarily to control
re - requirements: water,light and
weeds especially under situations where

*
turns, plant foods must be supplied nutrients. most helpful insituations where pre -
They act as alternate hosts to
in correct amounts, applied at destruc - vention and eradication of weeds are water is scarce. Other methods must be
the tive insects and fungi. As such
, weeds impractical. The system of weed used. For example, paddy fieldsshould
56
57
 imiu .numv wmrn nn «
*i
\

be weeded at least twice pet cropping

season to ensure through elimination .
Shallow water depth ( 2 cm ) should
be maintained so a not to induce
*
drying of the field . The first weeding
a period of 5 days. This treatment is
done 10 days and 40 days after tran-
splanting.

Management of Some
J 1
CROPPING PATTERNS FOR
INCREASED PRODUCTION
A piece of land may not
necessarily
throughout the
be planted to rice alone involving se-
In a study conducted by
ADB Project Team on
Management, two general
the NIA -
Irrigation Water
groups of
should be done 20- 25 days after
Problem Soils year. A cropping pattern classification were made ( according to
transplanting by using rotary weeders designed which patterns as in
or herbicides ( when using herbicides,
veral crops may be production . rainfall ' distribution

In the Philippines, large tracts of would allow for increased irriga - Table 9 ) .
spray at recommended dosage ) . Hand -
weed or use rotary weeders 14 days land are occupied by problem soils like
zinc -deficient soils, saline soils and
With this approach ,
tion water management
a suitable
also has to be
supply
For purposes of identification
mono-cul -
.
later while maintaining the depth of employed. Available water Group 1 is classified as a
water enough to wet the soil. iron - toxic soils. Proper water manage - also entails the evenly distributed
should be assured . This ture area. Rainfall is
ment could greatly improve them, as: adoption of irrigation.
$
judicious use of fertilizers, thus requiring only minimal the
Insect and Disease and throughout
improved agricultural techniques Rice can be planted
Control 1 . Zinc-deficient soils. These soils
planting of superior seed varieties. year. Coconut and abaca
are some of
occur in water logged areas. The patterns that the major crops besides rice
.
For the control of insect pests and The direct cropping
changes in concentrations of water
may be employed are as follows: in opera-
diseases, there are several chemical soluble zinc when the soil is flooded planting of When irrigation system is
brands available in the market . They provide an explanation for the occur - 1. crop rotation — the
tion, rice can be planted
between rows
after year, Rice cultiva-
are effective provided applied with the rence of zinc deficiency on poorly - crops in succession, year of coconut as intercrops.
recommended dosage ( see Philippines such as rice-soybean-rice
. the year is made pos-
drained soils. On flooding, the con- tion throughout
Recommends for Rice, 1977 ) . It must centration of water soluble zinc dec - multiple cropping
2. —
the growing sible with the use of high - yielding va-
be noted, however , that some chem - sequence one after riety and short- maturing
varieties of
reases. Poor drainage favors the ac - of four crops in
mungo -rice-pechay.

«<•
icals must not be used due to toxicity cumulations of soil organic matter. as rice - rice.
the other
to fish and lower aquatic organisms, , is a
persistence in the environment and the
Generally, high organic matter content
is associatted with zinc deficiency . If
—
3. intercropping the
growing of
crops between
Group 2, on the other
because it
hand
has distinct
short duration catch multicrop area
possibility for biological magnification. zinc deficiency is caused by prolonged crops , as: coco- dry seasons. During the dry
Such banned chemicals include BHC, rows of long-duration rainy and
ined in a
chlordane, dieldrin, heptachlor , toxa -
submergence, draining and drying the
nut- rice. i season, planting of rice is conf the ef -
field can avert its occurrence. limited area depending on irrigation
phens, DDT, perthane, endosulfan
( thiodan) and mercuric fungicides. 2. Saline soils. They are located 4. relay cropping — the planting of
schedule, as: ficiency and capability of
different crops in a tight water supply, rice
along coastal areas and low - lying areas. systems. With enough
Crop rotation, multiple cropping,
rice-soybean ( planted
before harvest of year.
2.5 times a
intercropping and relay cropping as To reclaim saline soils, keep the salt mungo . can be planted 2 to
water out and induce leaching of salts. rice) — sweet potato-
well as planting of resistant varieties
with proper water management may Alternate drainage and application of
help reduce insect and disease occur - fresh water is recommended to wash
out salt water.
rence. When fungal diseases strike rice M

plants, such as rice blast , which is pre -
valent under very humid conditions,
draining the field could help avert it.
For the control of stem borers
and leafhoppers, many insecticides are
available in the granular form . The
use of these granular ( systemic in-
secticides require that 3 - 10 cm. of
water be allowed to stand in the paddy
and be prevented from leaking out for
58
3. Iron- toxic soils. Poorly drained
iron- toxic paddy field soils abundant
in organic matter, in addition to hydro-
\
gen sulfide and toxic organic acids,
may arise due to the decomposition
of organic matter. The plant roots are
affected and root rot causes inhibition
of nutrient absorption by plant roots.
To prevent such occurrence, internal
and surface drainage must be improved.
V,
69
V
if
 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT
Table 9. An example of delineating mono- or multi-crop areas based on system irriga- EXTENSION WORK ON
tion capability and rainfall ( Source : National Irrigation Administration ) .
IRRIGATION WATER
MANAGEMENT

Water is a precious component of

.

poor water distribution among water

v
"
-
Period Daily Effective % Effective human life. Ways by which it sus - users. The urgent need for viable ir -
Classi- Irrigation Represen- of Rainy Rainfall Rainfall tains everyday activities dfre innumer - rigation associations is further dicta -
fication System tative Place Season able. In the field of agriculture, parti - ted by the heavy responsibilities these
Rainy Dry Rainy Dry
cularly irrigation systems and irrigated associations will shoulder once the ir -
Season Season Season Season farm units, essentiality of water has rigation systefns are completed. This
forced men to manage it . However, is especially true in terms of manag-
0

management in the systems level alone ing and maintaining the systems and
cannot generate an efficient utilization resolving conflicts among the mem-
Group 1 Libungan Midsayap, Ihsigni- 4.73 of irrigation water. On- going inter - bers jn relation to water distribution.
' 90
( mono - RIS cotabato ficant action and communication with the Another very serious responsibility of
culture farmers is a must for a two - way ex - *
associations is the repayment of cons -
area) change of information. Here is where
Binahaan
RIS
Inopascan,
Leyte
Insigni-
ficant
4.53 81
extension work comes in.
truction ' Opferation and maintenance

costs of irrigation systems.

\
While irrigated areas continue to ex - One of the questionable aspects
9
Cagaygay Naga City, Insigni- 4.41 70 pand in terms of hectarage, the prob - that had occurred in recent years re -
RIS Camarines ficant lems of setting up viable institutions garding irrigation development in the
,

Sur on the farm level continue to mount. country has been the elimination of
Over the years, various solutions have many native Qr indigeneous organiza -
Group 2 Angat Manila Mid- May 5.9 1.61 60 100 been devised to cope with this prob - tions existing in many areas in favor
( multi- RIS to mid- lem. Solutions usually vary from the of organizational arrangement mainly
crop area) October purely engineering approach like instal - based on foreign models ( Isles, 1978 ) .
lation of desired terminal4 facilities to Recent research results show that the
Sta. Cruz Sta. Cruz First 5.78 1.94
behavioral approach like training ir - utilization of existing indigenous or -
68 100 ganization of irrigation system guaran -
RIS Laguna week of rigation personnel and water users in
communication skills, team building, tees a more efficient management and
July to
first week techniques of group discussion and the maintenance of the system and resolu-
like. tion of conflicts among water users.
f
of December
An approach being introduced by The responsiveness of any indigenous
Magat
RIS
llagan
Isabela
. Last week 5.71 2.45 60 100 NIA shows great promise in tackling
the problem of weak irrigation as -
organization with regards to the triple
demands / of system management,
of June to
2nd week of sociations. It also seeks to enlist the system maintenance and resolution of
\

October active participation of irrigation as - conflicts is conditioned by the extent

sociations in all phases of irrigation and depth of the members' participa -
Penaranda Cabanatuan Third week 5.96 2.45 53 100 development. tion not only in the planning and
/ RIS City, Nueva of May to construction aspects of the project
Ecija second week but in all the farm level activities of
of October The Need for Viable S >

the association as well.

i

I
Irrigation Associations It has been shown that the strength
Jalaur Iloilo Last week 5.96 2.00 59 96 of irrigation associations lies on the
RIS City, of June to
Iloilo last week
It is widely accepted that a strong .
people's participation This could be
irrigators' association is the key to re - explained by the following reasons:
of November
'r solve many problems on the farm level
like better collection of irrigation fees
and resolution of conflicts arising from
( 1 ) better results are achieved if the
people have a part in the design as
well as prosecution of the project;

60 61

-
( ? ) people 's participation gives new in
sights to the engineers, architects and
planners regarding the thinking of the
grass- roots and ( 3) it builds people 's
confidence not only in themselves but
also in the collective ability to accom -
plish things.
Some NIA guidelines on extension
teaching and learning ( Appendix 13) ,
conduct of farmers meetings ( appen-
dix 15) and guidelines on the organiza -
tion of communal irrigation association
( Appendix 16) would be of help in up -
grading the efficiency of an irrigation
extension worker.
Continuing Education and
Training Program
Failures of previous farmer associa -
tions or cooperatives were attributable
partly to the absence of necessary con-
tinuing education /training program for
members and officers. The activities of
such associations were lightly ( some-
times never ) attended to by some of
our extension workers after comple-
tion of the usual organization proces-
ses. Hence, they died a natural death .
The major contributory factors to
such problems, however, include the
following: thin personnel deployment
with wide area of coverage ( in most
cases, one technician covers several
municipalities ) , meager logistic sup-
port to such extension activities and
other related problems.
The present irrigation development
program of NIA calls for the formation
and development of irrigation groups /
associations in national irrigation
systems ( as one component ) particular -
ly in those designated as water manage-
ment and maintenance of irrigation
systems.
This particular activity is handled
by irrigation association workers. As-
sistance is provided by NIA field per-
sonnel such as the irrigation superin -
62
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGI Nil NT
tendent, watermasters, gatekeepers I ho properoperalion, management and contribute greatly to the creation ol
and ditchtenders who coordinate with successful farmers' organizations. These
field personnel of other government % maintenance of irrigation facilities and
structures may now become a total organizations in turn will serve as
agencies. .
reality active vehicles for irrigation and agri -
Intensified on -going activities of As a whole, the implementation of cultural development.
NIA irrigation association workers in- an effective training program would
clude follow-up of organized irrigators'
groups, thorough implementation of
continuing education and training prog-
rams in the form of farmers' classes
or seminar - workshops for NIA mem-
bers and officers.
The educational training program
is multi -disciplinary in approach. It
involves various expertise such as
DAR, DLGCD, BAEx and NIA person-
nel acting as resource persons in various
training programs in different NIA re-
gions. Suggested subject matters for
presentation and discussion include :
water management, technical agricul -
ture, cropping patterns, irrigation laws,
systems operations and maintenance,
human resources development, co-
\
operative development , proper use of
corporate books, farm planning and im
budgeting and the like.
To check any deficiency in the
training sessions as well as the perform-
ance of the farmer -participants, formal
evaluation is a routinary activity .
Expected Impact
Through the activities mentioned
frequent interaction among the ir -
rigators' association officers and mem -
bers and the irrigation authorities will
be maintained at all times. Better co -
ordination and understanding will be
achieved among themselves on matters
relating to association affairs and ir -
rigation activities.
The ever - increasing accumulation of
farmers' knowledge about proper water
management tied up with approved
farming technologies would hopefully
lead to increased production. V
Likewise, the farmer /water user ' s
active participation and full support in
63
O)
G) APPENDIX 1

IRRIGATED AREAS IN THE PHILIPPINES

NATIONAL COMMUNAL PUMP BISA TOTAL

Region/Province No . Areas No . Area No . Area Area Area

Region 1

1. Abra 1 400 117 7,340 28 135 1,105 8,980

2. Benguet — — 228 6,095 2 10 — 6,105
3. I locos Norte 6 7,580 744 27,325 109 • 750 475 36,130
.
4 HocosSur 4 5,190 193 10,580 162 916 — 16,685 ^
5. La Union 2 4,885 126 5,555 91 470 1,155 12,065
6. Mountain Prov. — — 374 4,495 4 25 — 4,520 ^
7. Pangasinan 8 40,880 320 45,745 995 5,310 220 92,155
Sub - Total 21 58,935 2102 107,135 1391 7,615 2,955 176,640
Region 11

.
1 Batanes — — — — — — —
2. Cagayan 7 17,995 119 13,675 865 6,490 240 38,400
.
3 Ifugao — 191 6,360 94 715 — 7,075
4. Isabela 2 48,855 31 8,305 1758 15,645 2,100 74,905
5. Kalinga -Apayao V 2,830 117 8,855 268 2,150 — 13,835

6. Nueva Vizcaya — — 216 19,625 173 1,420 — 21,045

~
7. Quirino — — 29 2,920 112 1,705 — 4,625

Sub - total 9 69,680 703 59,740 3270 28,125 2,340 159,885

Region III

1. Bataan 5 975 67 5,200 263 1,555 355 8,085

~
2. Bulacan 3 24,840 25 2,890 1115 5730 180 33,640
~
3. Nueva Ecija 11 84,400 43 13,955 1985 10,380 - 108,735

4. Pampanga 1 14,680 11,770 2232 12,310 2,855 41,615

~
5. Tarlac 4 25,675 56 18,310 1016 6,755 - 50,740
~
6. Zambales 2 4,865 59 6,380 103 1,190 580 13,015
Sub - total 26 155,435 340 58,505 6714 37,920 3,970 255,830
Region IV- A

.
1 Batangas 1 1,215 30 1,290 820 5,980 8,485
T
I GATI
"
2. Cavite 1 15,010 550 346 2,150 295 18,005
"

3. Laguna 9 11,010 77 5,065 325 1,510 17,585

~
4. Marinduque 1 125 15 750 7T 105 980
0
N

WATER
"
5. Mindoro Occ. — — 46 10,015 420 3,125 13,140
" "
6. Mindoro Or. 2 9,045 48 5,835 359 2,905 17,785
" ”"

MANGE T
7. Palawan — 29 5 ,8 10
*
58 690 6,500
?
"

.
8 Quezon 4 4,410 ? 9 4,470 526 3,550 385 12 815
~ "~
9. Aurora - Sub -prov 1 680 75 2,240 25 2,945
o> "
26?
"

10. Rizal 54 2,930 2,395 5,325

s NATIONAL COMMUNAL PUMP BISA TOTAL
No . Areas No . Area No. Area Area Area
Region /Province

11. Romblon 1 355 24 1,910 27 350 2,615

Sub - total 20 41,850 445 40,865 3157 22,785 680 106,180

Region V
1. Albay 3 2,335 127 11,230 12 95

.
1 Albay 3 2,335 127 11,230 12 95 13,660

2. Camarines Norte 1 3,100 19 1,290 23 70 4,460

3. Camarines Sur 3 6,835 120 12,750 1,117 10,080 2,290 31,955

4. Catanduanes 1 405 15 975 1,380

5. Masbate 28 1,090 66 840 1,930

6. Sorsogon 3 1,275 142 5,945 68 450 80 7,750

Sub - total 11 13,950 451 33,280 1,286 11,535 2,370 61,135

Region VI
1. Aklan 4 4,800 30 2,690 49 420 400 8,310

2. Antique 2 5,865 63 6,585 178 1,030 825 14,305

3. Capiz 1 1,600 20 1,000 161 1,705 3,670 7,975

4. Iloilo 4 24,835 79 9,245 487 3,600 1,890 39,570

5. Negros Occ. 2 17,385 18 1,875 507 7,460 745 27,465

Sub - total 13 54,485 210 21,395 1,382 14,215 7,530 97,625

Region VII
1. Bohol 249 6,600 124 905 55 7,560
2. Cebu 49 1,395 14 160 1,555
3. Negros Or. 2 455 47 3,620 93 640 4,715
3 a. Siquijor Sub -prov.
Sub - total 2 455 339 11,615 231 1,705 55 13,830
Region VIII
1. Leyte Norte 9 16,770 124 14,595 98 915 530 32,810
2. Leyte Sur 2 450 56 2,760 16 145 3,355
3. Samar East 29 980 13 80 1,060
4. Samar North 22 1,625 30 385 2,010
5. Samar West 17 965 20 110 1,075
Sub - total 11 17,220 248 20,925 177 1,635 530 40,310
Region IX
1 . Basilan
2 . Sulu
IRGATON
3. Tawi-Tawi
4. Zamboanga del Norte 4 9,220 66 7,400 119 615 205 17,440
WATER
MANGET
3. Zamboanga del Sur — 28 3,780 36 220 4,000
Sub - total 4 9,220 94 11,180 155 835 205 21,440
 J
>

NATIONAL COMMUNAL PUMP BISA TOTAL

Region X
660
_ 4,505
1. Agusan Norte 72 3,845 97
2. Agusan Sur — — 61 2,540 42 290 — 2,830

3. Bukidnon 2 750 10 7,565 101 815 — 9,130

4. Camiguin — — — — — — — —
5. MisamisOcc. — — 30 4,130 23 100 %
— 4,230

6. MisamisOr. — — 17 1,770 2 10 — 1,780

7. Surigao Norte — — 52 5,610 22 120 — 5,730

Sub - total 2 750 242 25,460 287 1995 — 28,205

Region XI
1 Cotabato South 3 8 105 32 10.145 230 1,595 19,845

2. Davao Norte — 34 5.675 201 2,110 1,620 9,405

3 . Davao Oriental 1 1 565 8 2,295 13 130 180 4,170

4. Davao Sur 1 2 560 30 5,770 74 415 — 8,745

5 . Surigao Sur 1 1 585 19 2,790 10 65 — 4,440

Sub total 6 13,815 123 26,675 528 4,315 1,800 46,605

Region XII
1 Cotabato North 7 19,185 42 11,480 187 790 295 31,750
2 . Lanao Norte 1 1 655 29 2,685 145 980 — 5,320
3 Lanao Sur 1 720 15 2,400 26 165 885 4,170
4 Maguindanao 2 850 13 3,310 25 225 — 4,385
5 . Sultan Kudarat — 24 14,980 93 200 — 15,180
Sub - total 9 22,410 123 34,855 476 2,360 1,180 60,805
TOTAL 134 458,205 5,384 451,603 19,054 135,040 23,615 1,068,490

J_/ —

IR GAT ON
System in Cagayan

21- System in North Cotabato

Note: Not included irrigated areas served with pumps acquired from private sources and other privately owned systems not covered by
the inventory are estimated at 60,000 hectares plus approximately 25,000 hectares developed by various corporations engaged
in corporate farming. The total number of irrigated areas is 1,068,490 hectares as of December 1976.
WATER
MAN GI
VI
MINI
 ,
J
V'
IRRIGAT ION WATER MANAGE MENT
APPEND IX 2 The 20 - Centimeter funnel- shaped which bottom con-
MEASUREMENT OF Standard Non - recording ducts any rainfall caught in the re -
Rain Gage ceiver into the tall cylindrical measur -
RAINFALL ing tube. In order to measure rainfall
The type of rain gage in official depth easily to tenths of a millimeter ,
The necessary meteorological data an automatic and /or standard rain gage, use at local stations for the measure - the measuring tube has a cross-sectionai
in a locality may be collected from the and ordinary rain gages are installed in ment of the amount of rain that falls area that is one tenth the cross- sec
nearest PAGASA meteorological sta- a meteorological station. The auto - at the place of observation is the 20- tional area of the receiver; a functional
tion. A ten- year record or more is de - matic rain gage records rainfall auto - cm standard gage ( Appendix figure 2) . relationship which causes the actual
sirable. Appendix figure 1 shows a matically on a chart. With the stand - Its component parts are the following : depth of rainfall catch to be magnified
typical lay -out of meteorological sta- ard rain gage and ordinary rain gage, ( 1) a collector or funnel, ( 2) a mea- 10 times in the measuring tube. Ac -
tion existing in most areas. rainfall is measured by a calibrated suring table, ( 3 ) an overflow can, cordingly , the scale of the measuring
meter stick. Readings are taken daily ( 4) a tripod support, and ( 5) a mea- stick with the rain gage is expanded
Rainfall is usually expressed in mil -
limeter — or centimeter -depth. The in-
.
at 8:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m , and record - suring stick . 10 times. The correct depth of rain
ed in a. tabular form ( Appendix table 1) . The portion of the receiver has an water in the tube is ten, read easily
tensity of rainfall is expressed in depth One rain gage should be installed in inside diameter of exactly 20 centime- and directly to the tenth of a milli -
per unit time. To measure rainfall, .
each division in a system. ters The receiver is provided with a meter from the stick .

t 3.00
9.00
3.00
m- 3.00
-fr

© FT
8
-> JOINT a COLLECTOR - a

u
\
\
. 12 INTERLINK MEASURING
' NOWIRE OBSERVATION WELL'' ^

*'/
< j> STICK
_
< L20_>
FENCE
I 1 / FUNNEL
6
-SUNSHINE RECORDER
O
/

' INSTRUMENT SHELTER

DOOR TO NORTH
T 4.50

CONCRETE *
o
rd
XL 7
ENLARGED
^
6 8" NON RECORDING
1.80
x
FOOTING N<

O s J-
o 7 VIEW OF
SCALE
RAIN GAUOEN
\
\ *
MEASURING
7 —
EVAPORATION CYLINDER
PAN WITH O
w BAMBOO BASE o
RECORDING ^' o
ro OVERFLOW
RAIN GAUGE
<- 150
o *
cvi CAN
00
-WATER
'TANK

© > © *-* TRIPOD SUPPORT

40
( , 1

.
Appedix figure 1 A typical layout of a
meteorological station.
Appendix figure 2. A 20-cm standard non-recording rain gage.
72
i 7 ?

The measuring tube is 50.8 cm in
[ . eightand holds exactly 50.8 cm of
’
rainfall. Additional rainfall catch over -
flows into the outer cylinder . Since
rainfall depth is not magnified by any
appreciable number of times in the
outermost overflow can, the mea -
suring stick is never used to mea -
sure rainfall depth directly in the
overflow can. Instead, water from the
outer cylinder is poured into an
emptied measuring tube for direct
measurement with the stick .
The rain gage must be in an open
space, free from obstruction such as
large and high buildings or tall trees.
Low obstructions such as bushes,
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT
rainfall records of the tipping bucket
recording rain gage is invaluable in the
determination of rainfall intensity , COLLECTOR
duration, frequency and also the com-
mencement and cessation of rainfall
in different areas. These provide the
basic data which are of primary im -
portance in irrigation. NOZZLE
The tipping bucket recording rain
gage is designed to measure the rate
of fall as well as the depth of rainfall.
TIPPING
It consists principally of a tipping O
BUCKET
bucket rain gage and a rainfall recorder MERCURY
( Appendix figure 3 ) . Its component
parts inqlude : ( 1 ) a collector ( 20 cm.
SWITCH
RELAY i
in diameter ) with a funnel - shaped bot -
tom and ( 2 ) a rainfall - measuring O

shrubs, walls and fences, if not ap -
preciably higher than the top of the
gage and not closer to the gage than
the height of the obstructions, are
actually beneficial. They break the
force of the wind which is the prin -
cipal disturbing effect in collecting
rainfall. Three times the height of
the obstruction should be a safe dis-
tance between the gage and the ob -
struction.
bucket. The nozzle of the funnel leads
to the bucket of two compartments
mounted in unstable equilibrium such
O
that one of the two compartments is
always directly under the nozzle. DRAINS
In some models of the rain gage, A - A TIPPING BUCKET RAINGAGE
a filter tank is placed between the
nozzle and the bucket . To initiate the
operation of these models, the rain CLOCK CYLINDER
gage is first primed by pouring water
into the tank until the bucket tips
or an amount of 0.5 mm. is registered ARMATURE
N

Tipping Bucket Recording by the recorder. An appropriate no -

Rain Gage tation will be made on the chart when
it is removed from the recorder and
Information extracted from the replaced by another.

PEN
ADJUSTING
\ PENARM SCREW
CAM
\
PEN BAR
ELECTROMAGNETIC
\
_
i .
~ . - WHEEL
GEAR 17V me.
r s rk

\ GEAR CLAW
PENPCM »> ~ a COILS

II IN>
INK BOTTLE - -
RVOIR

> B- A RAINFALL RECORDER

Appendix figure 3. A
tipping bucket recording rain gage.

7C
 IM If 111 / \ IIUFM W M I I M ivi / viy / Mir ivir IM I

APPENDIX 3

.
Appendix table 1 Sample form for recording
daily rainfall.
K

EVAP ORAT ION MEAS UREM ENT

AND INST RUM ENTA TION
Height of receiver
Location Estimates of evaporation from free ported 2.5 to 5 cm. above the ground
above the ground level by an open framework of seven
water surfaces are of great importance
5 x 10- cm. timbers resting on four

f
Height of station in hydrological studies. For example,
estimates of evaporation may be cri - 5 x 1 0 cm. timbers. This permits air to
above sea level
tical in determining the feasibility of lines circulate under the pan. Two short
a proposed reservoir site and are useful painted on the inside of the pan, 5.1
in determining the current operating cm. and 7.6 cm. respectively, just be -
Day ( to 8 a .m 5 p.m . Total
system of a reservoir . Evaporation is low the rim, are used for determining
( mm.) in 24 hours Remarks the water level with the help of a
be added to ( mm. ) also an important element of any
beginning 8 am. water budget study. hook gage.
last month) In addition to the pan, the following
In paddy areas evaporation pans
instruments are often used at the pan-
are used as an indirect method to
evaporation stations:
1 measure evapotranspiration. Several
.2 studies have shown that evaporation 1. an integrating anemograph of an
3 pan readings are reliable estimators of anemometer at a height 1- 2 meters
4 evapotranspiration in flooded paddy above the pan to determine wind move -
5 conditions ( see Appendix 4 ) . ment over the pan ;
6 The U. S. W . B. Class A pan is the 2. a non- recording rain gage;
7 type used officially in the Philippines
8
9
n« for measuring evaporation from free
water surfaces ( Appendix figure 4 ) . It
3. a water - temperature thermo -
meter or thermograph to provide ma -
ximum and current temperature of the
10 is a cylindrical design, 25.4 cm. deep water in the pan; and
and 120.65 cm. in diameter. It is
4. maximum and minimum thermo -
j constructed of galvanized iron. The
meters or thermographs for air tem-
28
29
V seams of the pan are carefully fabri-
cated to prevent buckling of the bot -
tom. The bottom of the pan is sup -
perature recording, or a hydrothermo -
graph or a psychrometer .
30
31

( First of next 120 CM.

month)

TOTAL
. V.. .
_ - -

CM
* 1. The daily total is computed from 8 a.m. Therefore
, the daily total of the list 25
will be the amount of rain observe d at 5 p. m . of the first day plus the amount
so on.
observed at 8 a.m. of the second day and
2. Any informa tion on earthqua ^ s , squalls , thundershowers, the time at which \7 \ _7
under " Remarks."
the rain began and ended, etc. t indicate d

Observer
Submitted by : ( ! Appendix figure 4. A. Class A evaporation pan.
Computed by :
77

The fairly level site it ) which the
pan is installed should be, as lar as pos-
sible, free from obstruction. If an
obstruction is present, it should not be
closer to the instrument then twice the
height of the obstruction above the
pan.
Normally on clear days, the rate of
evaporation starts increasing at about
7 a.m. and attains a maximum rate at
about 2 p.m. The rate of evaporation
starts decreasing towards the evening
and continues to decrease till abodt 8
p.m. Evaporation remains small and
nearly constant from 8 p. m. to 2 a.m.
Based on evaporation pan readings,
a realiable estimate of evapotranspira -
tion can be derived. Kampen ( 1978 )
78
developed lineal i egressions fret ween
the daily evapotranspiration rates in
lowland rice and the daily evapora -
tion observed. The derived relation -
ship seemed to provide a sufficiently
reliable basis for the determination of
evapotranspiration. The following re -
lationships were obtained:
Wet Season
vegetative stage : Ef = .8 E + .3
reproductive stage E = .9 E + .2
^ H
Dry Season
vegetative stage : E = .8 E + .5
^
reproductive stage : E = .9 E + . 5
^ transpiration.
mmriAnoN WATER MANAGEMINI
APPENDIX 4
i
* MEASUREMENT OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
i
Evapotranspiration or consumptive
ii
tion is determined principally by
use is the sum of the water transpired
climatic conditions. Under ideal ir -
by a crop and the water evaporated rigated agriculture and cultural prac -
from adjacent soil and water surfaces tices, actual evapotranspiration ap
or evaporated from the surface of the
leaves under existing meteorological
and soil -moisture conditions. It is af -
proaches the value of potential evapo -
transpiration.
• V
fected by the same meteorologic and
Determination of Potential
site conditions as in pan evaporation
Evapotranspiration
plus the biological factors that affect
The measurement of actual evapo - An empirical formula may be used
transpiration is an extremely difficult to determine potential evapotranspira -
undertaking. The actual return flow of tion. Through this, information on
moisture to the atmosphere from a evapotranspiration can be obtained by
vegetation-covered area ( whose anybody through simple linear regres -
moisture content is continuously vary - sion or correlation as a result of es -
« «
i ing) is found to be dependent upon
so many difficult - to-determine factors
such as plant physiological, soil physical
tablished relationships. This method is
more advantageous instead of putting
up one complete set of evaporation
parameters and climatic meteorological installation which will cost not less
variables. It is for this yeason that the than P1 ,000 for one set of locally
concept of potential evapotranspiration manufactured equipment.
was developed. The modified Penman equation to
Potential evapotranspiration as dif - determine potential evapotranspiration
ferentiated from actual evapotranspira - for Philippine conditions is as follows:
AH + 7 Ea
PEt
A + 7
where :
PEt = potential evapotranspiration in mm /day,
A = slope of saturation vapor pressure curve for
water at mean air temperature ( mm Hg / °F )
H = energy balance component mathematically
expressed as :
- 5 Ta 4 ( . 56 - 0.09 ed ) ( . 10 + .9
^
Ra ( 1 -r )
7 = standard psychrometric constant ( mmHg )
c Ea
which is equal to 0.27
= aerodynamic component mathematically
expressed as :
. 27 ( 1 + .01 U 2 ) (
ea
— ed )
7Q
 IRRIGATION W A I I II IVIANAIil IVII NI

APPENDIX 5
Determination of Actual
II represents the energy balance
component where Ra is the short wave
4
Evapotranspiration # 1h MEASUREMENT OF CROP
solar radiation; 5Ta is a quantity sig -
nifying long wave losses from the earth Actual evapotranspiration may be WATER REQUIREMENT
and is equal to 2.01 x 109 mm /day measured by means of lysimeters.
multiplied to the 4th power of mean Lysimeters are tanks buried in the
Crop water requirement is defined where
air temperature in degrees absolute, r ground to measure percolation of
water through the soil to monitor as the sum of evapotranspiration and
is equal to . 25 to represent a normally - Evapotranspiration
growing green vegetative cover; / N
n
water that evapotranspired by sub-
percolation. Et =

represents sunshine duration. Ea
rep -
resents the aerodynamic component
where U 2 is wind run at 2 m. height
in mph; ea is the saturation vapor
pressure at mean air temperature and
ed is the actual vapor pressure .
To convert potential evapotranspi -
ration ( PET ) to actual evapotranspira-
tion ( Et ), multiply it by the crop
coefficient derived from established re -
pjt
lationships - - between actual and
potential evapotranspiration for a
specific crop or crops under specific
soil moisture conditions.
tracting the water that percolates from
rainfall or irrigation. They are the
most dependable means of measuring
evapotranspiration rate when properly
installed. The four requirements of
lysimeter installation are: ( 1 ) the size
of lysimeter should be enough to re -
duce boundery effect and avoid
restriction of root development, ( 2 ) the
physical conditions of the soil mass
inside the lysimeter must be compa -
rable to those in the outside, ( 3 ) the
plants inside the lysimeter must be
representative of the surrounding vege -
tation in terms of height and density,
and ( 4) the immediate area around it
must be maintained under the same
crop and moisture conditions.
Evapotranspiration can be measured
by : ( 1 ) tank or lysimeter method ;
( 2) field condition experiment ; ( 3 ) soil
moisture studies ; or ( 4) inflow /out -
flow measurement for large areas. The
tank observation is the cheapest and
easiest method. For practical pur -
poses, bottomless tanks, a schematic
diagram of which is shown in Figure
5 installed at different places which
represent the natural conditions of the
area taking into consideration the soil
and topography, will give reasonable
results.
The following formula is used for
this method :
- ( B - C)
Et = ( E' + T ) = A
E ' = Evaporation from tanks with -
out plants
T = Transpiration of plants
Observe the daily drop of water
level in the three tanks A, B and C. .
Using the equation A — ( B — C ) or
( + P ) ‘ — ( E ' + P ) — E') , the evapo-
Et
transpiration E can be determined
( P = Percolation ^ ). The evapotrans-
piration coefficient ( R ) in the pilot area
can then be determined using the
equation,
+ L
Et =
EoR
where,
= evapotranspiration ( mm /day )
Et

. vi
/
/
A / >\ i
'
' \ w /

[I , iV $
4V
ir
-

(A) (B) (C)

BOTTOMLESS TANK BOTTOMLESS TANK TANK WITH BOTTOM

! WITH PLANTS

Et + P
WITHOUT PLANTS

E ’+ P
WITHOUT PLANTS

Appendix figure 5 . Tank method for determining crop water requirement .

1 81
80
•> •
 I evaporation of class " A" pan 3. rho tank should be driven care
( mm /day ) fully so as not to disturb the soil
Appendix Table 2. Sample form for recording consumptive use observation using
R = evaporation coefficient
L = constant
structure.
4. The portion protruding over the
rn the tank method .

soil surface should measure 20 cm .

Results should be recorded in forms
such as those in Appendix tables 2 and
3.
From the pilot area, the evaporation
( Eq) is observed daiiy . Thedaily evapo-
transpiration rate is then obtained by
using the equation
Et = E + L.
Percolation is the quantity of water'
5. The tank should be 50 x 60 cm.
Name of System :
in size. However, gasoline drums may
be used for observation in each rep - Location of Tank : Division , Section Lot No.
resentative site. For the Month of , 197 ,
6. For accurate observations, the Tank with bottom and with plants.
water levels outside and inside the
tanks should be equal.

lost due to the downward flow of 7 . The placement of the observa-

water in the soil, the value of which is tion tanks must be on representative
primarily a function of the soil texture sites. Preferably there should be one
and depth of the water table. Value tank in each area with more or less
similar soil texture, depth, etc. Date
Reading
"A"
Reading
"A" after
Daily
consumptive - use
\
may vary from 1 mm /day for clayey Remarks
in mm. resetting ( evapotranspiration ) in mm.
soils to about 50 mm /day for sandy 8. Daily observation should cover
soils. It can be measured through the the entire cropping seasons . For
percolation rate observation tank me - porous soils, percolation can be
thod. The following considerations minimized by practicing intermittent
water application, using a rate of ap-
should be noted in installing the obser -
vation tanks : plication just sufficient to saturate the
soil without maintaining any submer-
I
1. Ideally , the observation tank
should reach the hard layer under the
gence. For clayey soils where percola- i <
soil. However , if the material is clayey
and the hard pan is deep, the tank
tion is about 1 mm /day, no further
attempt to reduce percolation is ne -
cessary.
I
should be driven to a depth of 25- 30 *
cm. 9. Observations and estimates of
evapotranspiration and percolation Total monthly consumptive - use mm.
2. For deep light soils, the depth may be accomplished in Appendix
should be 50 - 70 cm. tables 2 and 3.
Daily average consumptive - use mm.

( 1) • " A" is the reading from a reference point ( usually the rim of tank ) to the
water surface.
(2) Resetting the water surface is required when there is little water in the tank
or there is excessive water due to rainfall.
’ 1

4
82
11/
*
 IRRIGATION W A N K MANAC IMINI .
APPENDIX 6

MEASUREMENT OF STREAM STAGE

o AND DISCHARGE
CO
+-• JZ
o —
i
co
E
cc
CD
The operation of a stream-gaging trol structure ( particularly suitable
station entails the measurement of stage if
the downstream level variation do not
and discharge. Stage records are ob - affect the discharge over the structure ) ;
tained by systematic observations on a
c manual gage, or from an automatic 4. where the channel bed is stable
co
— 4 * ( if this is not possible, repeated de -
O
i
_
O
E
E I ^ -C—
CD
4 1
water level recorder . Measurements of
discharge are then made to define the terminations of the stage -discharge re-
CD
a. = Q _
E
o
4—
4-
1
c
relation between stage and discharge. lation are necessary ) ; and
£ § E CD
o 4CO-* 5. in a straight reach where the dis -
J

c co + o The relation thus obtained is used in

o P
. Q CO .. JO
£ computing a continuous record of charge may be measured accurately
-
4J
o
~ LU
a o CD .
streamflow.

method $ o -Q > Two types of gages are used for the

JZ
tf .£ 8 The river stage is the elevation of
£ £= X
T <D
o measurement of river stage . They are :
JZ
the water surface relative to a datum ( 1 ) manual gages and ( 2 ) record -
JZ CD
> c
tank LLI

E
‘

Q
co LJJ
CO

CD
C
CO >
4
-*
CD >
CD
while the river discharge is the volume
of water flowing through a cross-
ing gages.

the o-
4J

o— '
JZJ
4
c c— ' o
- 4 JZ section per unit time. Manual gages are of the following
4
-J- — CD A stream is chosen for gaging either types: ( 1) graduated staff gage on which
using
4 1

CD
-Q m CD

-C '
co
CD O
03
S £
co
because information is needed on that readings of stage are made directly ( Ap -
£^
4
t r > particular stream or it is representative pendix figure 6 ) , and ( 2 ) a wire -
rates CD JZ
C
CO CO
E
E
CO
i
—
CD
4—
1

CD 4-
co
CD
CD'
D
w'

4
CD
—
— 4
CO*
co

-* .CD
CD 52
CD
> of other streams in the area pnd can be
used | as part of a hydrological net -
weight gage installed on a structure
above the stream ( Appendix figure

percolatin
I- c E co
E £ £ i
CD — work. 7 ) . The wire is wound on a small
I E
E -4C*
CD

—
CD
sz
4 — c
JZ
4 -* drum and the distance from a re -
c o o’
to
> c CD ference bar to the water surface is
a c 4
-* 1
4 JZ
Stage Measurement measured by counting the revolutions
_ o c
i I ^£
recording
Q V* o
of the drum with a counter.
_co— *
_CO 4 O O a)
+ CL CL ,±
_ O
_ The site for stage measurement
LU
E
>
‘
co
Q
Q o
i

j>*
CD
CL
O
o
CD
CL
CD
O
C
CD
s
_ —
CD
O
C
CD
i
ZJ
cr
CD should be carefully chosen to ensure,
where possible, a stable relation bet -
The commonly used installation for
recording gages consists of a stilling
o
for 4
4
o——
1
1
Eu JZ
—
4 1
>
‘
co
CD
4
CD
— CDCD—_ M
v
CD
O ween stage and discharge and easy
well connected to a stream by pipes,
and a float in the stilling well connected
_Q c
form
CO
"
O co measurements with respect to the site
4—
o CO
tp a wheel on a recorder by a beaded
E E
1

o=5 <
CD
co
CD "
CD
cn
co _ § I! of the stations :
wire or perforated tape. The ratio of
Sam.ple
co co i
4—
C
1
JZ
4- ; o-
4J CD
> CD CD
CD
-
4J
CO 1. away from the confluence with the area of the stilling well ( Aw ) to
—CL £ h- < o O
c c £ tributary streams so as to avoid back - the area of the connecting pipe ( Ap )
4—*
JZ
C . E
£
CO
4— to— JZ
to
co1
4
CD
water effect from the tributaries at the should not be too large for a flashy
3
E o
D
O
co
< c -o -o o station; stream if the lag between the eleva -
Table
JC CD CD
CD
c £ •
JZ J
= CD
C tion of the water surface in the river
CO
o c £ 2. where the stages are not affected
£ S Eo co to to
and the well is to be held to a mini -

V
by the operation of hydroelectric sta -

Apendix
CD
*4— O C co
o o CD
JC
CO
-
4J
< CO CD
DC tions; mum. A good average value of Aw / Ap
t c ^ JZ CD
*
is 1000 but silt in the stream often
4-* —
co co O o CO'
4
3. immediately upstream from a sets a lower limit of 5 cm. -diameter
Z H U - CD Q co X) o natural ripple of falls or artificial con - for the size of the intake pipe.
84 i

IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT
Examples of recording gages in-
clude :
1 . Graphic recorder . It consists of 2
main elements: a clock mechanism
actuated by a spring, weight, or
electric motor; and a gage height
element actuated by a float, cable or
tape, and counterweight ( Appendix fi -
gure 8 ).
2. Digital recorder . An electrically -
operated paper - tape punch which re -
cords 4 -digit numbers on paper tape
at pre- selected time intervals ( Appendix
figure 9 ) .
Discharge Measurement
Stream discharge is usually ex -
pressed in cubic meters per second
( CMS). The measurement of stream dis-
charge generally involves the use of
( 1 ) current meter or ( 2) float -
velocity method.
Current — Meter Method
The current meter measures the
point velocity of water flowing in an
open channel. It is usually used in
streams when other methods of
measurement are not practicable.
Essentially , a current meter ( ap-
pendix figure 10) is a wheel with cups
or vanes which cause its rotation when
immersed in flowing water . Once set at
standard position, the number of
rotations per unit time recorded by
an attached battery - fed counter, can
be used to determine the flow velo-
city at the point of measurement . In
general, the velocity takes the form:
V = a + bN
where V is the point velocity in length
per unit time, N is the number of ro -
tations per unit time; a is starting ve -
or
locity or velocity required to overcome
mechanical friction; and b is a constant
for the meter.
Current meters are made different -
ly. The manufacturer 's operating ma-
nual should be read carefully before
the instrument is used. Since current
meters measure point velocities only,
series of measurements should be made
at different locations across the en -
tire stream cross -section. The stream
cross- section is usually divided into 10
parts.
For measurements in canal work,
current meters are employed using the
two - point method and the six - tenths-
depth method. The two-point method
consists of measuring the velocity at
0.2 and then at 0.8 of the depth from
the water surface, and using the average
of the two measurements. The six -
tenths-depth method consists of mea -
suring the velocity at 0.6 of the depth
from the water surface, and is general -
ly used for shallow flows where the
two-point method is not applicable.
The product of the mean velocity
at a vertical and the corresponding
cross- sectional area gives the discharge
for each division of the stream cross-
section. A summation of all the com-
ponent discharge gives the total dis-
charge.
Float- Velocity Method
This method may not be as accurate
as the other methods but it is simple
and practical to be used in the field
On ordinary on - the - spot approximation
of channel, one only needs an ordina-
ry meter stick , a wrist watch with
a second hand and a float. The float
may be an empty tin can, an empty
bottle or a small piece of dry - floating
object, preferably rounded .
r
To measure the flow,_ start by with the meter stick . Ity api 'l , mo • •
choosing an appropriate section of the appropriate formula lo nrtrh
channel about 10 to 25 meters long.
The section must be relatively straight
individual areas in squate m no
be determined. The sum n! ih » - *
m
' .".
and uniform in cross- section. Mark
both the upstream and downstream
areas would then give the •in
sectional area at one local inn
•• -
>
ends of the section with easily identifi - With the average ol tin
able stakes on one side opposite an surface velocity and stream
observer. Using a meter , determine the
length of the section. Then careful -
tional area, the average stie im • i .
charge may be calculated by no
i ly place the float at the center
of the flowing stream at a point up -
stream from the section. As the float
the discharge equation, as :
Q = 2 /3 ( A ) ( V )
moves with the current, record the ave max '
i time it takes to travel the entire length
of the test channel section. This is
done by taking note of the time inter -
Where Qallo
ave
represents the aveiogi
stream discharge in cubic meter, pm
second; is the average maximum
val it takes the float to pass through
'
velocity of flow ; and A is the average
imaginary lines across the stream at stream cross-sectional area in square
each upstream and down - stream ends
meters. The factor 2 /3 is applied to
of the channel section. Each imaginary
obtain the average velocity of flow in
line must be perpendicular to the flow.
the channel and hence the average
Since the float moves with the water
stream discharge.
surface at more or less the same speed,
the maximum velocity of the flowing
water can be determined. Observation
errors would be likely encountered
3 -=
and hence the procedure must be re - 9 -E
: :
peated at least three times. If the iV<"
2 T*
length of the channel section is now
divided by the average time to travel, 9 -=
the average maximum velocity (
would result :
Vmaxj r
J.
6
o
8 d=
x/ = Channel length in meters i
vmax
Average travel time in seconds o
!
- I
The average stream cross- section
. must likewise be determined at three
points or more along the channel sec -
tion. Measurement of the areas can be
achieved by separating the cross- sec-
tion into series of adjacent triangles,
trapezoids and rectangles across the o
I .i. .1.
entire breadth of the stream. The depth
of water at each division and width
!- - - * 111
V i
between divisions are then measured Appendix Figure 6. A graduated staff gage .
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

GRADUATED REEL

PEN
( {/ . it APPENDIX 7

CLOCK DRUM
MECHANISM DETERMINATION OF
EFFECTIVE RAINFALL

r
*:V
H
St
0:1

*efb
W
^=0 <D

WIRE 0
Determination of effective rainfall is
usually based on arbitrary set of as-
3. Assume a daily evapotranspiration
rate and a daily percolation rate for the
sumptions specially in the production of particular locality and soil condition .
lowland rice. Lenghty and complicated For instance, if the total of evapotrans -
calculations are involved as all factors piration and percolation is 10 mm /day ,
affecting effective rainfall must be then 100 mm of rainfall will be effective
considered. The ADB method of deter - in a 10- day period ( that is, 10 mm /day
mining effective rainfall is hereby ex - x 10 days = 100 mm effective rainfall ) .
-
I
f plained which does not consider daily Rainfall equal to or less * than 100 mm
rr-
rainfall intensity , irrigation rate and will be 100% effective ; when in excess
a
s
other practices. This may be used as an of 100 mm, the effectiveness decreases
v
example to give the reader an idea as directly with the magnitude of excess
ir
> •- to how effective rainfall may be deter - rainfall :
mined:

Appendix Figure 7. A wire- weight gage. Appendix Figure 8. A graphic recorder.

«5 1 . Compile representative daily rain -
fall data in or near an irrigation service
Percent
effective rainfall =
effective
rainfall
,*
tota | rainfa |
v inn

area. The longer the period of record

the better, but at least a tervyear record
should be available . Data can be obtained
from the nearest PAGASA station.
2. Make a graph showing the rain-
fall distribution as shown in Appendix
figure 12 .
PUNCHED TAPE DISK
In the given example, if the 10 -day
rainfall is less than 100 mm., the per -
centage of effective rainfall is 100%
The mean daily effective rainfall for a
particular period of growing season
can be determined by simple arithme -
tic computation.

Z 0

* © '
s»

>
.
S

3
\\I \ Toll yont

\
Hongtr
Wlr« to ob «rv«r
*
Fifth contoct post
/ SlogIt contoct pott

Contoct chombtr

Cups

A
1

&
* Sounding vvtlght

© Bolonct yftight

Appendix Fig. 9 A DIGITAL RECORDER

(
t
Appendix Figure 9. A digital recorder. Appendix Figure 10. A current meter
II QQ
 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT

cl APPENDIX 8

MEASUREME NT OF
WATER LOSSES

200 Measurement of Conveyance Ponding Method

and Distribution Losses
180
In this method, a canal section
500- 1000 meters long, is closed at
The initial procedure for measure - both ends to preclude lateral seepage
160 ing these types of water losses include of water from the adjoining sections.
if ) the following : ( 1 ) closing all gaps,
a: A pond is thus created. ( Existing struc -
UJ SURFACE ( 2 ) gating of all turnouts and ( 3 ) rais-
WASTE tures with tight flash boards may be
ing of all embarkments to satisfactory used). Water seeping into the pond
•
i heights to prevent spillage. Then, any should be isolated and measured. Rain-
d 120 of these two methods — ( 1 ) ponding fall should also be recorded. A staff
2 ARBITRARY VALUE
BELOW WHICH method or ( 2 ) inflow- outflow method gage is installed and water surface
z RAINFALL IS — may be employed for the actual
_J 100
EFFECTIVE
<1 measurement. The result of any of
these methods gives the total seepage
readings is taken preferably at 12 -hour
intervals. Observation for 24 to 48-
hour duration is made. From the
and leakage losses. In order to deter -
i 80
mine these losses separately, a second
average cross- section of the pond and
a : the change in water surface, the value
observation should be rrtade when all of water loss is determined. From the
<
Q
60 crab holes and gates are plugged to wetted area, the rate of loss per unit
< eliminate any leakage loss. The result surface area per unit time can be de -
O EFFECTIVE RAINFALL 100%
UJ of this observation gives the seep - termined.
a 40
age loss. Deducting the seepage loss
Observation using the ponding me -
from the total finally gives the leakage thod should not be made if there is
20 loss. groundwater from the adjoining area
ur After determining the rates of see - ( when the canal is in deep cut ) . Under
page / leakage in cubic meter (cu. m.) such conditions, it will be difficult to
0
JIFIMIAIMIJIJ lAlSIOINlD per square meter of canal per day for measure seepage. Observation should
the different sizes of canals and soil be made when adjoining areas are not
M O N T H S textures through which losses occur, saturated.
determine the total loss by multiply -
ing the observed rate of loss by the
length of canals in meters represented Inflow- Outflow Method
by each observation. The total loss in
cu.m per day divided by the total
, This method makes use of simul -
number of hectares ( area ) served by taneous discharge measurement at two
these canals gives the seepage /leakage points along the canal. The difference
loss in mm /day. between the upstream point discharge
Calculation of losses should be made and the downstream point discharge is
. separately for the diversion canal and considered a loss. The flow is kept
Appendix Figure 11. A sample diagram showing rainfall distribution
laterals. constant during the test.
nn
 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENI
Measurement of Farm
Losses
Select 2 farms of similar topogra -
phical conditions and soil texture;
one with a very cooperative farmer
( with well maintained paddy dikes and
minimum water losses ) and the other,
with an average farmer. Supervise
closely the farm of the cooperative
farmer taking into account the factors
affectilng farm losses. Install measur -
ing devices for each farm to observe
92
the water used by each farm ( portable
parshall flume if submerged or weir if
free flow condition is attainable ). Make
a close observation of the water used.
The difference in the total amount
of water used in cu. m. per hectare di-
vided by the number of days or dura-
tion of observation ( preferably one
cropping season but for the initial
figure, an observation period of 20
days may be taken) divided further by
10 will give the loss in mm /day.
i
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS
IN LAND CLASSIFICATION
FOR IRRIGATION SUITABILITY
Factors of Land
Classification
The basic factors of land classifica-
tion may fall into one of two catego -
ries : ( 1) economic and ( 2 ) physical.
Economic Factors
The primary factors to be con-
sidered in establishing the specifica -
tions for land classification are:
( 1 ) productive capacity, ( 2 ) cost of
production and ( 3) cost of land de-
velopment. Consideration of these
basic factors, including their accom -
panying agronomic aspects, is very es-
sential for determining he suitability
^
of land for irrigation. These are fun-
damental considerations regardless of
whether new development, supplemen -
tal water, or rehabilitation programs
are involved. Although productive ca -
pacity and cost of production are seg -
regated for purposes of discussion, they
are interrelated. The interaction of
these factors requires joint considera -
tion as "productivity " in field apprai-
sals.
Productive capacity refers to crop
adaptability and crop yields. The value
of any land depends largely on its sus-
tained ability to produce crops of
economic value to man and therefore,
this ability must be reflected directly
in the land classes. The major factors
influencing productive capacity ex -
cluding management are: ( 1) climatic
conditions, temperature and air move-
ment, ( 2) soil characteristics such as
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT
APPENDIX 9
texture, depth, acidity, alkalinity , sali-
nity, permeability and fertility ; ( 3 )
topographic and relief ; ( 4) water sup-
ply including quantity and quality and
( 5) drainage. An evaluation of their
physical influence upon productive ca -
pacity is a responsibility of the scientist .
Cost of production equally as im -
portant as productive capacity, has
direct effects on the classification
specifications. Production costs such
as those for labor, equipment, soil
amendments and water are related not
only to the type of crop, but also to
such physical factors as: soils, topo-
graphy and drainage. It has been de -
monstrated that the size, shape and
position of paddy fields influence the
length of canals, irrigation pattern,
work -ability and other related factors
which in turn determine the cost of
labor, equipment and water.
Land development costs are im -
mediate capital investments required
for irrigating lands and must be eva -
luated in terms of their economic ef -
fect upon net farm income. In ad -
dition to productive capacity and costs
of production, land classes also reflect
the costs assumed by the farmer to
prepare his lands initially for irriga -
tion. They include costs for clearing,
leveling, grading, construction of per -
manent farm ditches and drains, land
conditioning and certain irrigation
equipment such as those used for
private farm pumping or sprinkler
.
operations The extent and cost of
land development are governed large-
ly by topographic characteristics toget -

her with soil and subliata characteris -
tics and soil cover.
Physical Factors
The physical factors considered in
the distinction among various classes
of land and delineation of specific
characteristics in the field are: ( 1 ) wa -
ter quality, ( 2) soil, ( 3) topography,
and ( 4) drainage. Each of these factors
is related to the economic factors dis-
cussed above.
Water quality factor. The principal
characteristics of water that are eva -
luated to determine influences on the
plant - soil- water relationship are : ( 1) to -
tal concentration of soluble salts;
( 2 ) sodium concentration and its pro-
portion to calcium plus magnesium
( sodium -absorption ratio ) ; ( 3) con -
centration of boron lithium or other
toxic substances ; ( 4 ) chloride and
( 5 ) nitrates. Water quality evalua -
tions should be approached by an
analysis of the environmental set -
ting of the area site in the context
of predicted future water use. Water
quality values or standards, in gen-
eral, are not applied in appraising the
usability of water for irrigation. Its
usability depends on what can be
done with the water if applied to a
given soil under a particular set of
conditions. The successful long- term
use of any irrigation water depends
more on rainfall, leaching, irrigation
water quality itself . The determination
of the suitability of water involves the
integration of land and water factors.
In this process, land classification
surveys are utilized to delineate land
areas that would favorably respond
to a water supply of a given quality .
This selection of land as a potential
part of an irrigation development is
then tested as to feasibility by the ap-
plication of the plan formulation cri -
teria.
94
Soil factor . I he soil factor with its
many tangible physical, chemical and
biological characteristics is one of the
primary criteria for evaluating lands
for irrigation. Certain characteristics
such as soil texture are relatively
stable and not usually subject to
change . Others, such as soil structure,
may be readily modified by various
cultural treatments. The characteris-
tics are often interrelated, available
moisture capacity with texture and
composition. Experience has demons -
trated, however , that the soil charac -
teristics are related directly to pro -
ductive capacity , crop adaptability and
the costs of crop production. The re-
lative agronomic and economic impor -
tance of an individual characteristic
may vary from place to place depend-
ing upon such factors as climate, to-
pography, quality and quantity of ir -
rigation water and land use. Certain
conditions are necessary , however , for
profitable sustained farming. Ranges
in the soil characteristics are estab -
lished to fit the required conditions
in specific areas. They are used as part
of the basis for the field appraisal of
the degree of suitability of lands for
irrigation.
Soil characteristics. The observable
and measurable soil characteristics
which are useful in classifying lands
for irrigation are outlined below:
1. Physical characteristics such as
effective depth, texture, structure,
consistence, color, permeability to air
and water, drainability, infiltration
rate and erodibility, available moisture
capacity and stoninees;
2. Chemical characteristics such as
inherent fertility or supply and avail -
ability of essential and trace elements,
soil reaction, salinity, acidity, cation
i practices.
exchange capacity, types of clay mi-
T
nerals, total carbonates, gypsum, bo-
ron, selenium and the reduction pro-
ducts; and
II
3. Biological characteristics such as
type and amount of organic matter,
nitrogen- fixing and other beneficial
organisms, nematodes and pathological
organisms.
The general soil conditions
required for profitable and sustained
irrigation of diversified crop agricul -
ture include the following:
.
1 It must have a reasonably high
waterholding capacity;
2. It must be readily penetrable by
water to permit aeration, replenish-
ment of the soil water reservoir, ready
escape of excess water and leaching
of soluble salts;
3. It must have, on the other hand,
infiltration rate slow enough to pre-
vent excessive percolation and
droughtiness;
4. It must be of sufficient depth to •
allow necessary root development,
provide adequate storage for moisture
and permit drainage;
i
5. It must be readily susceptible to
cultural operations;
6. It must be free from injuries
amounts of exchangeable aluminum
or " active acidity,"
7. It must be free or readily sus-
ceptible to leaching of harmful ac-
cumulations of salts.
8. It must have an adequate supply
of plant nutrients, a favorable cation-
exchange capacity and be free from
toxic elements; and
9. It must be able to resist excessive
erosion under economical irrigation
The types of soil suitable for wet -
land rice production depend more on
the conditions under which the plant
is grown than upon the nature of the
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMEN T
soil. The general conditions required
for profitable wetland rice culture in-
clude the following:
.
Topography factor The factor of
topography in land classification re-
flects the ease or difficulty of con-
veyance of water over the farm and
application to the cropped land, and
to some extent, the crop adaptability
and drainage. The efficient use of ir -
rigation water on the farm is adversely
affected where excessive topography
variations occur . Correlation of this
factor with the degree of suitability
requires that consideration be given
to the three major topography feat -
ures: degree of slope, relief and po-
sition. Consideration must also be
given to the effects of these features
on the different soil and drainage con-
ditions keeping in mind the methods
of irrigation to be used. This correla-
tion fixes the topographic specifications
for the various classes of land which
are applicable to the field appraisal.
Size and shape of areas and cover
( trees, rocks, etc. ) are considered a
part of the topographic factor because
of their common relationship of land
development.
1. Slope — the degree of slope is
considered in a number of ways. Lands
with no general gradient or only slight-
ly sloping tend to be affected adverse-
ly by drainage unless some favorable
sub-surface drainage conditions exist.
Under certain cropping and soil con-
ditions, however, such lands may be
highly suitable for sub- irrigation.
Where this method is used or con-
templated, special consideration must
be given to the land classification.
Slopes that are satisfactory for ir -
rigation will be determined by a con-
sideration of :
a. Susceptibility of
the soils to
erosion;
9S

I). types of crops anticipated;
c. Infiltration rate and available
moisture capacity of the soil so that
irrigation may be accomplished with-
out excessive surface or deep percola-
tion wastes;
d. Areas lying in the same plane or
areas with a change in degree of slope
resulting in narrow strips that require
extremely short runs or change in
head of water; and
e. The methods of irrigation.
2. Relief — lands of uneven sur -
face are considered in terms of lower
yields, crop adaptability and size of
field. Land development is considered
from the standpoint of type of ir -
rigation and the effects of leveling on
crop production through removal of
the surface soil. The soils are evaluated
on the basis of their characteristics
after, rather than before, leveling. In
general, deep soils of recent alluvial
deposition can be graded heavily with
only a temporary curtailment of pro -
ductive capacity . Older and more fully
developed soils which have strongly
developed B horizons, or soils of li -
mited depth to relatively impervious
material or gravel, cannot be graded
heavily without seriously decreasing
crop production, increasing water re -
quirements and production costs.
3. Position — the position factor is
considered when the lands are
isolated depending on increased opera -
tion costs. The degree of suitability
of a tract may be related to its acces-
sibility with respect to irrigation and
the operation of the farm machinery .
4. Size and shape — size and shape
of areas are considered in that the
extent, configuration, and location of
a tract permit the operator to farm
the area as a field, and allow him to
irrigate efficiently and obtain returns
commensurate with the indicated class
96
of land. Furthermore, the size and
shape of areas are considered in the
type of irrigation contemplated. Where
small scattered tracts of land, other -
wise suitable for irrigation, occur with -
in large bodies not suited to irrigation,
it may be desirable to delineate them
as arable in order to establish an inven -
tory and make the arability evaluation
from a size- and - shape viewpoint a part
of the irrigability analysis.
5. Cover —rock
surface cover, either ve -
, that must be re -
getation or
moved cultivation can be satisfactorily
accomplished, or that which reduces
the productivity of the land or in -
crease in the classification. Any re -
duction in productive capacity or in -
crease in production costs affects the
classification.
Drainage factor. Drainage is the
discharge of water from an area by
sheet or streamflow ( surface drainage )
and the removal from within the soil
by downward or lateral flow through
the soil, subsoil, and substrate ( inter -
nal or subsurface drainage ) . The term
drainage is also used to refer to the
means of effecting the removal of water
from land surfaces and within the soil ,
i.e. open channels, underground tile
lines or pumped walls. Drainage is an
important factor in land classification
because of its effect on productive ca -
pacity and costs of production. Re -
moval of excess water from the root
zone is essential in preventing salt ac -
cumulations ( where climate and other
conditions favor the occurrence of sa -
linity problems that intoxicate crops
and impair the physical characteristics
of the soil by deflocculation ) . It is also
helpful in preventing waterlogging of
soils. Satisfactory drainage, either na-
tural or artificial , involves the rapid
removal of excess surface water from
lands thus eliminating restrictions to
diversified crop yield, quality and
* adaptability . It maintains the ground
water level below the root zone and
induces leaching thus maintaining the
concentration of soluble salts in the
soil within a range favorable to diversi -
fied plant growth. Measures to control
excess water, such as flood protection
and canal lining, are related to drainage
and therefore, jointly considered with
it.
The most useful criteria for ap -
praising existing and potential drainage
needs are : soil, subsoil and substrata
hydraulic conductivity, depth to im -
pervious layer, topography including
relief and slope of surface and sub -
surface formations, land position,
depth, fluctuation and direction of
movement of groundwater , quality of
water , soil salinity , vegetation and
type and location of existing outlets.
Hydraulic conductivity is the rate of
movement of water through soils. It
(\ is related primarily to porosity, a
function of the soil structure, texture
and composition. Variations in these
factors throughout the profile mark -
edly affect water movement. For ex -
ample, any cementation, hard pan or
slowly permeable layer checks the free
movement of water . Slowly permeable
or impervious substrata are considered
1
with respect to :
1. their depth below the surface
soil ;
2. their thickness and gradient;
3. their existence as dikes or reefs
that may cause perched water tables ;
4 . the possibility of these strata
being shaped to form an underground
lake of percolation waters creating a
high water table; and
5. their chemical compostion.
Surface and internal drainage are af -
fected by slope, relief and position of
topography . Increasing gradient tends
IRRIGATION WATLR MANAGI M I N I
to increase the rate of movement of
water . An uneven surface interferes
with uniform drainage and the efficient
use of water . With respect to position,
lands located in depressions of valley
floors may have no drainage outlets
for either surface or internal water.
Those lying just below the toe of the
slope or a downslope tract of less
permeable materials may become
waterlogged because of a marked
changed in rate of lateral movement
of groundwater . Those lands im -
mediately adjacent to a canal may be
affected by seepage from unlined
sections traversing porous materials.
Depth to groundwater in irrigated
areas is generally variable during the
year. In order to determine the va -
riations which may occur , it must
observed over a period of time (at
least through one complete irrigation
and non - irrigation season ) .
Some drainage construction has to
be anticipated on all new irrigation
projects but it is difficult to deter -
mine the exact needs. It is the joint
responsibility of the land classifier
and the drainage engineer to deter -
mine drainage requirements.
A project drainage refers to all
drainage necessary to establish and
maintain productivity of all project
lands and provide protection for
non -project lands. It consists of the
facilities necessary to control excess
water such as; relief, interception
and outlet drains and pumps. Land
classification surveys and drainage are
conducted on an integrated basis, par -
ticularly in the establishment of map -
ping criteria for land surveys. The ef -
ficient conduct of investigations must
utilize the particular skills, equipment
and survey coverage of land classifiers
to obtain a part of the data essential
to project drainage planning ( such as
profile logs ) and delineate lands having
97

similar characteristics which affect
drainage. The land classification is not
completed, however, until drainage
plans are well formulated.
Precipitation and runoff , seepage
losses from reservoirs or canals and
percolation and runoff losses from ir -
rigation contribute to drainage prob -
lems. Various land management prac -
tices are effective in reducing or di -
verting surface runoff and deep per -
colation losses. Canal lining and ef -
ficient water application on higher
irrigated lands may reduce seepage .
The need for drainage channels
constitutes an important source of
excess water . Flood control measures
for protection of lands from overflows
are a consideration related to drainage.
These factors affect land classification
in view of their influence on drainage
requirements and the suitability of
lands for irrigation. Improvements
which can be anticipated such as canal
lining , flood protection and soil and
moisture conservation practices must
be recognized by land classifiers. Pro -
per engineering or other assistance
should be obtained during the evalu -
ation.
Project Development
Considerations
Land classification is integrated
with all pertinent engineering and
economic investigations. As the com -
ponents of a project plan are developed
and combined, readjustments in one or
more of the components may be neces -
sary . The project development consi -
derations which particularly affect
land classification are :
( 1 ) water rights, including quantity
and quality and the availability of pool -
ing and of transfer ; ( 2 ) type, location
and extent of the supply and distribu -
tion of drainage systems; and ( 3) re -
payment and benefit -cost ratio con -
98
sideration of the various alternative.
Land classification requires examina -
tion and appraisal of the physical and
chemical characteristics of lands. Spe -
J'
(v• i j
cifically, these include soil characte -
tistics and qualities of the topographic
and drainage features. A large amount
of additional basic data relative to
agronomy , economics and engineering
are obtained and correlated with the
physical and chemical characteristics
of lands in the designation of land
classes . Informative appraisals of land
use , class level of ultimate productivi -
ty ranges in land development costs
are accomplished in all surveys to sup -
plement the land class and subclass
designations. Whenever necessary , ad -
ditional informative appraisals or spe -
cific physical and chemical features
and economic consideration such as
land drainability and other appraisals
r
are also provided. Additional data
concerning soils, topography, drainage,
present land use, cover , and other
factors are collected and presented in
the profile notes which appear on each
land classification field sheet.
Major Land Classes
There are six ( 6 ) major land classes
recognized in the land classification
work . The arable classes consist of
three groups: diversified crop land
classes, ricelands and dual land classes .
The non -arable classes include lands
with serious physical or economic de -
ficiencies and lands in municipal or
residential use or in an active stage of
subdividing. Land classes are discussed
briefly as :
A . Arable classes
1. Diversified crop classes
a. Class 1 — the most produc -
tive of the diversified crop land clas -
ses. They have medium - textured, deep
fertile soils and a relatively level sur -
face which require only smoothing or
n 99
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGLMENI
minor leveling prior to irrigation.
They are not subject to annual flooding
although infrequently inundated for a
short period during unusually severe
They can be flooded without high
deep percolation losses . Without sub
drainage, diversified crops will not do
well under irrigation. With full irriga -
floods. They are now used mostly for tion, these lands can produce 2 good
non - irrigated diversified crops. Under rice crops each year .
irrigation, they could produce excel -
a. Class 1 R — the most productive
lent yield of all climatically adapted
of the rice class lands. It is located on
diversified crops almost continuously
smooth fairly level areas above the
the year round.
plains. Its soils are medium -to fine -
b. Class 2 — lands that are of
textured, dark -colored and fertile.
good quality but have a moderate de -
Practically, all the Classes 1 R lands
ficiency which will require land de -
have been developed into paddies for
velopment cost or will reduce their
either rainfed or irrigated rice and
productivity below the Class 1 level.
require very little additional land de -
The deficiency in most cases is either
velopment prior to project irrigation.
in flooding or topography or both. They are capable of producing two ex -
Nearly every year , backwaters from the
cellent rice crops each year with a
flooding river inundates the land for a
full irrigation supply.
short period. Crops are sometimes da -
b. Class 2 R— good rice land but it
maged or planting is delayed and
has a moderate deficiency which will
average crop yields are affected .
either affect productivity or require
Flood damage can be minimized by
land development costs. The deficien -
growing tolerant crops and by good
cy is either in soil, drainage or topo -
management practices. The topography
graphy or their combination.
deficiency is a gently undulating sur -
c. Class 3 R — land which has re -
face which can be corrected by leveling
latively serious deficiencies . It will
except where soil depth is limited.
either require large capital investments
c. Class 3 — lands that have de -
to prepare the land for irrigation or
ficiences similar to Class 2 except
result in low average yields or high
that they are more serious . The main
production costs. This class consists
difference is that Class 3 lands are
mostly of rolling lands with slope up
rougher or more rolling. It would be
to 8 %. Some of them have been de -
more difficult to apply irrigation
veloped into rice paddies, most of
water uniformly and yields are expect-
which are still covered by native
ed to be reduced. Leveling is not re -
cogon or talahib grasses . The soils
commended on most of the Class 3
are generally deep and suitable for
lands because of the danger of expos -
terracing and developing into rice pad -
ing sand or gravel at or near the sur -
dies. Once developed, these lands ex -
face. Inspite of the relatively serious
.
deficiencies Class 3 lands could be
successfully irrigated.
hibit productivity comparable to Class
1 R or 2 R lands. The lands thus de -
veloped consist of small irregularly
shaped paddies.
2. Rice classes — Classes 1 R , 2 R
and 3 R are best suited for rice because 3. Dual classes — Two dual classes
of poor subsurface drainage character - are recognized and mapped , 1 R ( 2 ) and
istics that could be corrected only for 2 R ( 3 ) . These classes are best suited
diversified crops at high economic for lowland rice because of restricted
costs. They are located mostly on the subsurface drainage. However , they
intermediate and old alluvial terraces. have good potential for diversified

crop production because they could
be drained at very feasible costs. De -
tailed drainage studies show that a
subsurface drain system could be
constructed at an average cost of
P'1,250.00 * per hectare which can
control the groundwater depth so that
rice can be grown in the wet season
and diversified crops in the dry season
provided there is enough irrigation
water supply .
»
a. Class 1 R ( 2 ) - these symbols
show that the land is Class 1 for rice
production and Class 2 ( 2do ) for di -
versified crop production. The di -
versified crop class reflects land de -
velopment cost for drainage. It is si -
milar in all respects to Class 1 R ex -
cept that soils are medium -textured
and are underlain by sand or gravel at
a depth usually between 2 and 3 me -
ters. As shown by experience, it com -
prises about 90 % of the dual land
class. A large portion of it has been
developed into rice paddies and is
producing two good rice crops each
year .
b. Class 2 R ( 3) — it is similar to
the 1 R ( 2 ) land except that it has
moderate topography deficiency, and
a gently rolling or gently sloping sur -
face . Soils and subsurface drainage
characteristics are similar . Thus it has
a Class 2 rating for rice production
because of the topography and a Class
3 rating for diversified crops because
of topography and cost of drain
construction.
B . Non-arable classes — lands that
are not suited for irrigation develop -
ment. They include Class 6, M lands
and public rights -of - way .
* 1972 June Price Index
100
Land Specifications
Guidelines are needed by land
classifiers in making their land delinea-
tions to ensure consistent work .
Based on experience gained in NIA ir -
rigation suitability investigations, a set
of land classification specification is
available. It lists the minimum observ -
able soil, topography and drainage
characteristics permissible for each
arable land class.
Mepping Symbols
The land classification mapping
symbols of the U.S. Bureau of Rec-
lamation are used and adapted to Phil -
ippine conditions. A typical example
used to describe a rice area is :
_ 2 Rd (f)
Pr 21 AZ
The numerator of the above symbol
( 2 Rd ) shows that it is best suited for
rice with a class 2 rating because of a
drainage deficiency . The first digit of
the denominator ( Pr ) shows that the
present land use is paddy rice; the
second digit shows that the land has
class 2 productivity ; the third digit
shows that it has class 1 land develop -
ment costs ( not over P6000 per hec-
tare to prepare for irrigation ) ; the last
two digits ( A and Z ) show that it has
a low irrigation water requirement ( A )
and poor drainability ( Z ) . The "f " at
the right of the symbol defines the
drainage deficiency as occasional
flooding from stream overflows which
are not corrected by the project drain
system .
Below is a listing of the mapping
symbols used in the Magat River Pro -
ject land classification and the cor -
responding meanings :
I .
1 Land Class Symbols
The land class symbol appearing in
I the numerator indicates the level of ir -
rigation suitability in terms of net
farm income determined by the inter -
action of productivity and estimated
land development cost to prepare the
land for irrigation.
1 R — highest level of suitability for
4 irrigated rice
2 R — intermediate suitability for ir -
rigated rice
I 3R — lowest suitability for irrigated
rice
1 —highest suitability for ir -
rigated diversified crops
2 — lowest suitability for ir -
rigated diversified crops
3 — lowest suitability for ir -
H rigated diversified crops
Dual class — with subsurface drain -
age , suitable for both rice and diversi -
fied crops
6 — not suited for irrigation de -
velopment
2. Deficiency symbols
s — soil deficiency
t — topography deficiency
d — drainage deficiency
td — combined soil -topgraphy
deficiency
std — combined soil -topography -
drainage deficiency
3. Present land use symbols
Pr — paddy rice, non -irrigated
Prl — paddy rice, irrigated
L — diversified crops, non - ir -
rigated
C — diversified crops, non - ir -
rigated
O — orchard
G — grassland
B — trees or brush
M — municipalities, industrial
development, barrios, re -
sidential areas, or areas in
active stage of subdividing
IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMINI
4. Farm water requirement symbols
A — low irrigation water require
ment
B - - medium irrigation water re -
quirement
C — high irrigation water require
ment
5. Drainability symbols
X — good subsurface drainage
characteristics including na
tural outlets
Y — restricted subsurface drain
age but drainable at moderate
cost
Z — poor or restricted subsurface
drainage and not drainable
at economic costs
6. Specific deficiency symbols
v — coarse soil texture in top 30
cm.
k — limited depth of soil over
sand or gravel
h — clays in top 30 cm . affecting
tillability and root develop -
ment
y — soil fertility problem
g — general slope exceeding 2%
j —
irregular topography
c — land clearing requirement
o — subsurface drainage construe
tion required
f — subject to flooding
Land Classification
Methodology
The land classification method as
presently practiced by NIA is pat -
terned after the U.S. Bureau of Recla -
mation field and laboratory procedures
with modifications to suit local con -
ditions.
The major steps involved are:
1. A study of land resources, as -
sociated productivity, drainability and
related characteristics of a fully de -
veloped similar irrigated areas. Where

such studies are lacking, development
farms can be operated within the
.
project setting Project experiments
also can provide the initial date need
- speci
ed for sound planning which
he otherwise obtained.
cannot
2. Analysis of the probable
fluence of specific land and cost
in -
of
land development in the area. In
this
step, the economic value as
influenced
by the productive capacity of
the land
and the cost of production together
with land development is related
to
the physical factors of soil topograph
y,
drainage and water quality .
3. Separation and identification of
the lands on the basis of physical
and
chemical factors into land classes having
a defined range in payment capacity
or net farm income. Each land class
also defined in terms of chemical
is
and
physical land class - determining
factors.
These are relevant characteristics of
land that determined suitability for
rigation. They are expressed in a
ir -
set of
T
HtHIGAI ION W A I I I I M AN A M M l N I
nomic value are placed in the same
APPENDIX 10
category . i. i
4. Development of appraisal
fications for water and drainage -
quirements. These specifications
re - DETE RMINA TION OF SATU RATI ON
create
an orderly basis for obtaining and ( LAND SOAK ING ) REQU IREM ENT
placing physical land data into
cate -
BASE D ON RESID UAL SOIL MOIST URE
gories useful for hydrologists
and
drainage engineers.
Residual moisture is the moisture Metho dology
5. Application of land classifica left in the soil before the initial ir -
tion
and its appraisal specification in rigation water delivery. It describes the Soil samples are collected at a depth
arable
land classes. This involves field
traver - extent of water depletion from the of 0 - 30 cm. both for 1 R and dual land
ses, soil and substrate analysis, soil when the water supply has been classes from 0.2 days after harvest and
delinea-
tion of land classes and cut -off which is a function of the at 10 days-interval thereafter. Thirty
subclasses
with information appraisals and related varying soil types and climatic con - ( 30 ) samples are made to represent
procedures necessary to ditions. Information on its magnitude each district. A soil auger is used to fa -
accomplish
the field survey. which is principally associated with cilitate the collection of soils. The
6. Modification of the arable land
classification as additional data are ob -
tained. The arable classifica
justed as the investigations
tion is ad -
* the soil saturation should be available
to irrigation plannersand implementors
for efficient operation of the irrigation
systems.
moisture content of the samples are
determined on dry -weight basis using
the formula :
plan and the costs of water
nage become more clearly
, project
and drai-
defined.
7. Application of final tests
gineering feasibility and project
of en -
bene -
! In the Upper Pampanga River In-
tegrated Irrigation Systems (UPRIIS) ,
delivery of water is suspended and
rescheduled for the next cropping
% MC =
Fresh wt. of soil
oven -dry wt
Oven -dry wt .
-
x 100

specifications, are tested and

analyzed by means of farm budget
are
studies before or during the field sur
- the optimum economic and
vey to insure that lands of equal
eco -
fits and costs to select irrigable land season. In this concept it is important
and to develop a plan which provides to monitor the depletion of soil mois -
social ture from harvesting up to the next
gains. irrigation delivery in order to ap -
proximate the volume of water re -
quired in bringing the soil to saturated
condition.
In the computation of land soaking
requirement, the magnitude of the re -
sidual or carry -over moisture should
not be disregarded.
Core sampling method is employed
to determine the bulk density of each
soil tyPe - Samples are taken from the
,
field more or less at field capacity con -
dition - t: is computed using the for -
mula :
Oven-dry wt. of soil ( gm)
bd - Volume of Sampler ( cc )
Where:

There is a strong relationship bet - Volume of sampler = 7r c j 2

ween moisture content and other
physical characteristics of the soil.
The porosity which is a measure of
the soil structure, could be calculated
if the bulk density and the density of
the solid phase ( partice density ) are
known .
Moreover, the total amount of water
4
^
The total porosity of the soil is
composed of the gas -filled porosity
(micropores ) and the liquid-filled po -
rosity (macropores ) . If the soil is at sa-
turated condition, all the pore spaces
are filled with water. The volume of
water in the soil is equal to the vo -

102
t
("

/
>1 i
f that a soil can hold are dependent upon
the total amount of pore spaces and
the proportion of large and small pore
spaces.
lumetric capacity , Sc of the soil is
therefore equal to the percent pore
spaces. Hence, it is calculated as:
i
 J IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENI

1
tion ( 60 DAH ) . Riceland class shows
/o
Bulk density a higher moisture content compared volume of water needed for saturation. Me = Ave. moisture content, %
pore = 100 — X 100
Particle density
w ^
to the dual land class. This is attribu - Appendix Table 5 presents the equiva - ( Appendix Table 4 )
Space

Soil particle density can be mea -

sured directly with the use of a pycno -
meter. However , with the absence of
such instrument , direct measurement
cannot be done due to the irregular
ted mainly to the fine textural charac -
teristics of riceland which is directly
I lent amount of moisture to be added
from the carry - over moisture as af -
fected by different rainfall depths.
Bd = 1.34 gm / cc ( 1 R )
1.50 gm / cc ( dual )
related to its waterholding capacity . Drz = 300 mm
The bulk densities obtained from
the laboratory analysis are 1.34 and
1.5 gm /cc for 1 R class and dual land
II Definition of Relevant
Terms
1R

Sn
— Riceland

48.4 - 31.94
shapes and small sizes of soil particles.
class, respectively . On the other hand, “
Y 1 34 x 300
As an alternative, particle density va -
lues may be taken from standard
saturation capacity, Sc computed for
1 R is 48.4% and 43.4% for dual land
class.
M Porosity — refers for the pore spaces of
a soil occupied by air and water and
expressed in percentage, as :
( 10 DAH ) 100
= 56.17 mm
particle density data of soils having
A graph of the moisture content Sn
specific textural classification and
parent materials wherein most soils in
the project area belong. As described
versus days after harvest for 1 R and
dual land class is then drawn. It is U %
Porosity = 100
Bulk density
Particle density
X 100
( 60 DAH )
= 48.4 - 17.76
777
100
= 123.17 mm
X 1.34 X 300

derived by plotting the moisture

in the USBR manual for laboratory
techniques and procedures, the specific
particle density for clay is 2.6 and
2.65 gm /cc for sandy and silty soils.
content for each soil type against the
time of sampling and directly connect -
ing the various points. The curve de -
veloped approximates the extent of
n Bulk density — defined as the mass or
weight of soil solids per unit
volume of soil and expressed in
gm /cc or kg/ nr , as :
Sn
( 20 DAH )
= 48.4 - 2643
100
X 1.34 X 300
These values were assumed for 1 R = 88.32 mm
moisture depletion at any specified
class and dual class, respectively .
time within a duration of sixty ( 60) weight of soil solids Sn
The computation of saturation re - Bulk density = = 48.4 - 17.76
days. volume of soil ( 30 DAH ) X 1.34 X 300
quirement, Sn both for 1 R and dual 100
The vertical scale is computed using
land classes at specific soil moisture
the formula for determining Soil satu - = 102.27 mm
conditions is based on the formula : Particle density — defined as the weight

Sc — Me
ration ( Sn ) requirement considering
the numerical properties of each land .
of soil solids per unit volume of soil
solids and expressed in gm /cc, as :
Dual Land Class
Sn = x Bd x Drz
100
where Sn = volume of water needed
class and its residual moisture content.
The scale also indicates the duration
required to satisfy the saturation re -
ii weight of soil solids
Particle density = 0|ume of soiiTolids"
v
Sn
( 10 DAH )
= 43.4
100
27.40
X 1.5 X 300

to saturate the soil , mm . quirement based on the average per - = 72.00 mm

Sc = soil saturation capacity , %
Me = antecedent /residual moisture,
%
Bd = bulk density, gm ./ cc.
colation rates for each land class, at Moisture content — refers to the total Sn
= 43.4
one hundred percent ( 100 %) applica-
tion efficiency, at an average potential
amount of water present in the soil
under certain solids and expressed
( 20 DAH ) —10024.07 X 1.5 X 300
evapotranspiration and with a fixed
discharge of 1.5 Ips /ha at the farm
in percentage, as : - = 86.99 mm

Drz = root zone depth, ( for rice = turnout . Fresh weight - Oven -dry weight
300 mm .) of soil of soil X 100
The resulting graph is further de - % Moisture content =
rived without the incidence of rain - Fresh weight of soil
fall from the day of observation up to
Interpretation of Results the last trial. It could not be denied, Sample Computation of Saturation Re - Sn = 43.4 - 20.35
quirement ( Sn ) by Land Class . ( 30 DAH ) 717 X 1.5 X 300
however , that rainfall is imminent at 100
The resulting or carry -over mois - any specified day during the cut -off
From Sn = Sc — Me Bd Drs = 103.22 mm
ture shows a decreasing trend both period, especially between the dry ^ ^
r
and the wet season. Considerably, the 100
for 1 R and dual land classes , which Sn
may be presented in a table. It is
reckoned from the initial investiga -
effect of rainfall would result to an in -
crease in soil moisture content which
i
(,
/
Where : ( 60 DAH )
= 43.4 - 14.95
100
X 1.5 X 300
tion ( 2 DAH ) up to the last observa - correspondingly reduces to required Sc = 48.4% ( 1 R )
43 - 4% ( dual ) = 128.02 mm
*
i n /i
 IHHIGAM 0 N WAII R MANAGI Ml NI
Sample computation on the amount Me = 100 X 10 Appendix Table 4. Sample average residual moisture of soils samples at UPRIIS NIA
of moisture as influenced by rainfall . ( dual ) 2.22%
1.5 X 300
From the formula : .
i
Land Average Moisture Content ( %)
DISTRICT Class 1st Trial 2nd Trial 3rd Trial 4th Trial Final
Dw = Sc — Me
10o X Bd X Drz 0 -2 DAH 10 DAH 20 DAH 30 DAH 60 DAH

Where : 2. The actual soil moisture content 1R 31.16 27.90 24.19 20.60 16.16
after rainfall will then be:
Dw = Depth of water ( rainfall ) , mm DUAL 30.05 26.40 22.95 17.80 13.30
Sc = Saturation capacity, %
Me = 32.8 + 2.5 = 35.3% 1R 35.98 29.45 24.45 20.12 13.97
Me = Moisture content, % ( 1R ) 11 DUAL 30.34 26.76 21.59 18.11 10.29
Bd = Bulk density, gm /cc
Drz = Depth of root zone, mm
1R 43.36 38.47 30.67 28.17 22.71
The extent of moisture level when 111
Me = 100 Dw DUAL 34.03 29.06 27.69 25.55 21.28
a given depth of water is applied into ( Actual )
Bd x Drz
the soil could be computed by sim-
plifying the above formula, so that;
fi NOTE : DAFI = Days after harvest

Me = Sc - . 1 QQ-£ ....
Bd X Drz^ Note that Dw is dependent on the
amount of rainfall and Bd varies by
Appendix Table 5. Sample of amount of moisture as influenced by rainfall.

soil types. Basically , throughout

From this equation, the actual soil the irrigation cut-off period, rainfall
<
Ilf
moisture content is governed by the
amount and its occurrence should be Rainfall Moisture Content ( % )
relationship;
monitored such that its immediate (mm ) Added in the soil
A. GIVEN: effect can be plotted defined in the
> 1R DUAL
graph in order to trace the prevailing
Rainfall ( Dw ) = 10 mm
Days after harvest
( DAH )
= 10 days
moisture level of the soil. The result-
ing soil moisture content serves as re -
ference in the estimates of the volume
M 5
10
15
1.24
2.50
1.11
2.22
of water needed for saturation for the 3.73 3.33
Bulk density = 1.34 gm /cc 20
(1 R )
= 1.50 gm / cc
next cropping season.
U 25
30
4.97
6.22
7.46
4.44
5.56
6.67
( dual) 35 8.71 7.78

*m
I
Depth of root zone = 300 mm 40 9.95 8.89
Me = 27.6 + 2.22 = 29.82% 45 11.19 10.00
From the derived figure: 50
(dual ) 12.68 11.11
Me at 10 DAH = 32.8% ( 1 R ) 55 13.68 12.12
= 27.6% ( dual ) 60 , 14.92 13.13
65 ^ 14.92 14.14
B. COMPUTATION : 3. The foregoing process is to be 70 16.17 15.56
carried on whenever rainfall occurs I* 75 18.66
up to the start of irrigation delivery . 80 19.90 17.78
1. The level of moisture content
Note that the soil is subject to deple - 85 21.14 18.89
as affected by rainfall will be;
tion after the rain, however, the ex - 90 22.39 20.00
tent of depletion is governed by the 95 23.63 21.11
Me = 100 X 10
trend of the curve which is a function i
100 24.88 22.22
( 1 R ) 1.34 X 300 = 2.50%
of days without rain.
106
 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGI Ml NI
APPENDIX 11 Area served In order to compule foi tlm w iim .
Length loss of each farm ditch, multiply the
Area seepage rate by the area ( A wetted pe
of farm
EXAMPLES OF ESTIMATING Turnout no. ( ha.) ditch ( m.) rimeter x length of farm ditch ) Mul .
IRRIGATION DIVERSION REQUIREMENT 1 10 y\ h ~ \0 400 ..
tiply the product by 1 ,000 to conveil
to liters and divide by 86,400 to con
15 V ?> - 5 £00
In Estimating irrigation diversion re -
2
^3. vert to liters per second.
quirement of a certain area , data on Estimation for the
3
4 * - 4 V 400
10 3
16 ' ? 700
'
t?
The farm turnout requirement is
lit*- ? - *, 500
'
( 1 ) evapotranspiration, ( 2 ) Wet Season the sum of the irrigation requiremenl
15 . , / <*{ ( 600
rainfall for 5
the month, ( 3) conveyance and farm 6
and farm ditch loss.
The data available are the following ;
ditch and seepage losses, ( 4 ) dimen -
sions of the lateral and farm ditch, as 1. evapotranpiration = 5 mm./day ;
** Conveyance losses
percolation = 2 mm . / day Average size of farm ditch
well as the ( 5) total area to be irrigat -
ed, must be secured. A general pro 2. rainfall for the month of June 1. Seepage :
cedure for this kind of estimation is
- = 2.90 mm.
Width = 0.30 m .
hereby outlined: that for the wet sea - Depth - 0.12 m. seepage rate = 0.080 m. /m. /day
3. conveyance and farm ditch /see - wetted perimeter = 1.92 m.
son and for the dry season. It must be
page loss ( sandy clay loam ) = 0.08 1.92 m. x 2000 m.
noted that the data presented in here The following assumptions are made wetted area =
may vary depending upon local con - *
m /m.2 /day
*

1. effective rainfall for June ( see = 3,840 m.

2

ditions. Appendix figure J_3 gives the 4. dimensions of the lateral :

Appendix 7 ) = 65 per cent = seepage loss = 3,840 x 0.080
assumed layout of the section to be length ^ 2 km. 188 mm. or 6.2 mm. /day .
supplied with water. width = -QP m . Lfy -
<
— fl 2. farm waste = 25 per cent of the
= 307.20 m. day
’

f
> depth = .32 m. 2. leakage through gates and left -
water requirement over water in canal = 5 percent of
3. leakages through gates = 5 per cent the total farm turnout requirement =
of the farm delivery requirement 0.05 x 24.70 li. /sec. = 1.24 li./sec.
4. leakage through canal = 100 3. leakage through canal dikes =
per cent of seepage loss through canals 100 percent of seepage loss = 3.55
FD END CHECK
li Based on the assumed date above, the
following computation can then be
li . /sec.
Therefore the total conveyance los-
TO. TO. 6
made : ses amount to :
FD

T.0.2 T.0.5
FD 111 1. water requirement
5 + 2 = 7 mm./day
=
Et + P Total conveyance losses = 3.55 + 1.24
+ 3.55 = 8.34 li / sec.

FD
LATERAL

T.0.4 FD
n 2. irrigation requirement = water
requirement + farm waste — effective
rainfall
S
The total conveyance loss is about
33.8 per cent of the total farm deli -
very requirement or about 1 /3.

n
T. O.

= 7 mm. + (.oo 25 x 7mm.) . Total diversion requirement

FD — 6.2 mm./day
DIVERSION POINT Total diversion requirement = farm
= 7 mm. /day + 1.75 mm. /day
turnout requirement + conveyance
— 6.2 mm./day losses

Appendix figure 12. A sample

layout of a field
computation of irrigation
.
illustrate
to
diversion re -
«
•
.
hr
/

\
— 2.55 or .30 I i / sec./ha.
\

= 24.70 li ./ sec .
i

+ 8.34 li./sec.
. .
To convert 2.55 mm. /day to li./
the following formula is
sec./ ha.,
= 33.04 li/ sec. or .43 li./ sec./ha
quirement
used :
108
li \ 109
I ERRATA

Qt = Ad 2. farm waste = 25 per cent of

water requirement p.34, 2nd paragraph,
where
3. same assumptions for leakages as
Q = the size of discharge in CMS No. 1 Height of spillway for transplanting to early
in the wet season . •
t = time in seconds required to tillering should be 2- 5 cm : for active tillering,
irrigate the area Based on the assumed data, the fol - should be 5- 10 cm.
9 following can then be computed :
A = area to be irrigated in m.
d = depth of irrigation water
needed in the field in m.
1. water requirement =
7 + 2 = 9 mm . /day
+ P = D B. p. 108, right column

The width of the lateral should be . 80 m.

The value obtained in CMS ( cu.m. /
sec.) is converted to li. /sec. by multi -
plying it by 1,000.
2. irrigation requirement = water
requirement + farm waste — effective
rainfall = 9 + ( 0.25 x 9) — .28 =
n C. p. 109, left column

t Estimation for the Dry 10.97 mm./day or 1.2 li. /sec./ha. (see
conversion to li. /sec. / ha . in the pre -
li ( 1) The length of farm ditch for turnout no. 2
Season vious example. should be 600 m.
Assume that the data available tor (2) The formula for water requirement should be :
the dry season are the following :

1. evapotranspiration = 7 mm /day
3. Total irrigation requirement :

Requirement
H (3 )
water requirement = Et 7 P = 5 7 2 = 7 mm/day
The formula and computation for irrigation
requirement should be: irrigation requirement s
percolation . = 2 mm /day Area in
Area no . hectares in li . /sec. water requirement 7 farm waste - effective rainfall
2. rainfall for the month of Februa -
= 7 mm/chly / "(0.28 x 7) - 6.2 mm /day
ry = 8 mm.

3. conveyance
<and) farm ditch
/, %

loss
1
2
10
15
12.0 <
18.0 f
= 7 mm 7,1.75 mm - 6.2 mm
= 2.5 mm/day or .30 L/sec. /ha.
( seepage ) = .080 m. 7m.2 /d ay 3 10 12.0 (4) The subsequent explanations should follow the
4 16 19.2 *
4. area served is the same as the computation of irrigation requirement:
5 11 13.2
t previous example. 6 15 18.0
* #
To convert 2.55 mm/day to L/sec. /ha.,
. the following formula is used:
The following additional data are
4. Farm ditch loss
also assumed : Qt .- Ad
1 . effective rainfall for February =
Wetted perimeter = 0.54 m. where Q = the size of discharge in CMS
100 per cent = 8 mm. or .28 mm /day See page rate = 0.080 m .‘

Farm ditch loss ( equal

Vm.2 /day
W t = time in seconds required to irrigate
the area which is equal to 86 ,400
seconds /day

Area no.
Length of
farm ditch
Total wetted
Area
to wetted perimeter x length
of farm ditch x seepage rate -
3
m. /day li./sec.
K A r area to be irrigated in m ^
d = depth of irrigation water needed in
the field in m ,

1
100 2
3
400
600
400
216
324
216
* 17.28
25.92
17.28
- .02
.30
.20
>
n ^
The value obtained in CMS (m /sec) is converted to
L/sec by multiplying it by 1 ,000.

4
5
6.
700
500
600
378
270
324
30.24
21.60
25.92
.35
.25
.30
II *

5. Farm delivery requirement ( equal to the sum of irrigation requirement and farm
ditch loss )
110 i
 IRRIGATION W A I I M MANAGI Ml NI
Ir

Total irrigation requirement: Farm ditch I atm tutnout

Irrigation requiiemenl (Ih/ltQ,
reouiremenl ( Ii ./sc;c.) loss (li./sec.)
Area No. Area in hectares Requirement Area no.
in J /sec. ( 12.20
^ 12.0 . 20
l 1 18.30
2
10
15
X .. ^3
"
3.0
4.5
2 18.0
12.0
.30
.20 12.20
3 10 * 3 .35 19.55
< 3.0 4 19.2 13.45
4 16 -h 13.2 .25
It 5
• 4.8 5
.30 18.30
11 18.0
. 6
3 3.3 6„ Total 94.00 li / see .
15 4.5

c . leakages through canal

dikes
Fann ditch loss:
23. \ 6. Conveyance loss of seepage loss ) 36
Ii > ( 100 per cent
Wetted perimeter 0.54 m a . Seepage li./sec .
•• Seepage rate 0.0 m
= 0.08 Vm /day
* 2
a. seepage rate = 0.080 m. 7m /
‘ .2 day Therefore, the total conveyance losses
If i ;
Farm delivery requirement: •* b. wetted perimeter of canal -
= 1.92 m. = seepage loss + leakage loss
through gates + leakage loss
x 1.92 m.
Irrigation Total wetted area = 2000 m. through canal dikes, as :
Farm Farm turnout = 3,840 m.
2
Area No. requirement (L/sec.) Conveyance losses
* ditch loss (L/sec.)
= 3.6 li./sec. + 4.7 li./ sec.
requirement(L/sec.)
1 Seepage loss = 3,840 x .080
S * • 3.0
.^20 = 307 x .080 + 3.6 li./sec.
2 3.20
4.5 .30 = 11.9 li./sec.
3 3.0 • » 4.80 Seepage loss = 3,840 x .080
.20 3.20 7 . Total diversion requirement
:
= 307.2 m. / 3.6 li./ sec .
4
.
3
4.8 .35 • *
5 5.15 Total diversion requirement
3.3
i

.25 3.55 +
6 4.5 .
b leakages through gates
= 5 per = farm turnout requirement
f.
.30 . 4.80
0
conveyance losses
cent of farm turnout *
= 94.0 + 1 1 . 9
' TOTAL
IUIAL 24.70 L/sec . requirement = .05 x 94.0
= 105.90 li./sec .
= 4.70 li./ sec .
(The explanation on p.
109, right column, should then
follow)
D. p. 109, right column
4 .
0

The formula and computation for

total < *
diversion requirement should be:

''
t( P
l
*- Total diversion requirement
= Farm
turnout requirement 7 conveyance losses
= 24.70 L/sec. 7 8.34 L/sec. .*
33.04 L/sec. or 43 L/sec. /ha.
>
l

111
/ 2 ill I