Magic, Witchcraft & Religion

Theoretical Perspectives
 What is Religion?
To some, religion is spirituality, to others it is
nature, and still to others it is doctrine.
● It is social and psychological.
Societies have differing criteria as to what is
natural and supernatural, what is religious and
what isn't.
Historically
Archaeological evidence suggests that people
have believed in an afterlife for as long as
300,000 years.
● Neanderthals buried their dead with tools,
weapons and other funerary objects, which led
anthropologists to believe these were the first
humans to believe in an afterlife.
Ways to look at religion
● Analytic
● Functional
● Essential
Analytic

Analytic definitions focus on the way

religion manifests itself or is expressed in
a culture.
○ Example: Religious practices
generally include rituals.
Smart’s 6 Dimensions
● Institutional - organization and leadership
● Narrative - myth, creation stories
● Ritual - rites of passage
● Social - group activity, binds people
● Ethics - customs, morals
● Experiential - sacred experiences
Tylor & Spiro - Animism / Institution
Analytic - Tylor - Animism
● Belief in spirit beings - gods, ghosts, souls,
demons
Analytic - Spiro - Institution
● Consisting of culturally patterned interactions with
culturally postulated superhuman beings.
Functional
Functional definitions are concerned with the role
religion plays in society and on the individual.
● Examples: Social cohesion bringing members
together for rituals/providing shared beliefs.
Individual relief of anxiety by providing
explanations and meaning.
Cognitive, Emotional & Social
Functional definitions include cognitive, emotional and
social needs that religion is thought to fulfill.
● Religion provides explanations and comfort,
meaning and hope. Religion brings people
together. Provides a moral code, including
supernatural punishments for rule breakers.
Essentialist
Essentialist definition looks at what is the essential nature
of religion.

● Emphasizes the fact that religion is the domain of the

extraordinary, beyond the natural, sacred and
supernatural.
● Religion is a system of beliefs and behaviors that deals
with the relationship between humans and the sacred
supernatural.
Supernatural Defined
Supernatural refers to things above the natural.
● Supernatural entities and actions transcend the normal
world of cause and effect.
● Supernatural beings defy the basic laws of nature.
Objects move faster than light, heavy objects fly, and
creatures become invisible.
● Sacred must be used with supernatural because it
denotes an attitude of reverence and respect.
Stein and Stein’s Definition of Religion
Stein and Stein consider religion to be the
domain of human interaction with the sacred
supernatural and recognize the important
functional role of religion in society.
Theories
The reasons for the existence of religious
behavior. Why do people behave religiously?
● Evolutionary
● Functional
● Psychosocial
Evolutionary Theory (1 of 5)
● Focuses on how religion began.
● Developed in the late 1800’s
● Concepts of science, logic and monotheism
pinnacles of human achievement.
● It was thought that religion evolved from the
simple to the complex, a natural consequence of
human nature.
Evolutionary Theory (2 of 5)
● Edward Tylor (Animism)
● Concluded all religions have belief in spiritual beings.
● Religions of civilized peoples included beliefs in gods
and souls.
● ‘Primitive’ peoples beliefs focus on the beliefs in
spirits and ghosts. The early belief system of
‘primitive’ peoples is called animism.
Evolutionary Theory (3 of 5)
Tylor failed to discover the variability among the
world’s religious systems.
● He did not go into the field. Instead he relied on
reports of explorers, missionaries, and colonial
administrators who described cultures in biased
ways.
Evolutionary Theory (4 of 5)
Robert Marett (Animatism)
● Ancient supernatural force
● Marett thought animatism grew out of human
emotional reaction to the power of nature.
● This belief in an impersonal supernatural power is
well articulated in Polynesia and Melanesia where
it is referred to as Mana.
Evolutionary Theory (5 of 5)
Frazer saw a natural progression from
magic, to religion to science.
● Problem with Evolutionary Theory is that
it may be considered ethnocentric.
Evolutionary Theory Contribution (1 of 2)
Background to framework
*Animism *Animatism *Science
Evolutionary Theory Contribution (2 of 2)
Animism Animatism Science
Tylor Marett Frazer
Magic Religion Science
Spirit in all things Force that permeates all Change through time -
things natural progression

● Spirits ● Gods ● Energy

● Ghosts ● Souls
Functionalist Theory (1 of 6)
How does religion meet basic human needs?
Malinowski- Individual focus
● Magic is a logical system people turn to in times
of uncertainty or emotional stress.
● Magic functions to provide control and certainty
in a uncertain world.
Functionalist Theory (2 of 6)
What does religion do?
Durkheim - Social Focus
● Durkheim believed in a collective consciousness, a
system of beliefs that act to contain natural
selfishness of individuals and promote social
cooperation.
● Collective representations or symbols are a reflection
of the collective consciousness.
Functionalist Theory (3 of 6)
What does religion do?
Radcliffe-Brown - Social Focus
● Rituals function to express the basic sentiments of
society and pass these ideas down from generation
to generation.
● Religion is an integrative force in society.
Functionalist Theory (4 of 6)
What does religion do?
● Durkheim and Radcliffe-Brown saw society as an
organism in which the parts act to maintain the
whole.
● Radcliffe-Brown- for society to survive, certain
feelings need to be encouraged in people’s minds.
Functionalist Theory (5 of 6)
● Problem- analyzing religion in terms of
functionality implies that religion is purely
illusory, existing only to fulfill social or individual
needs.
● Some functionalists see religion as a crutch for
the masses or a power play by the ruling class.
Functionalist Theory (6 of 6)
● Spiro states that when arguing that a certain
function is the cause of a religious behavior, it is
necessary for individuals to both recognize and
seek to satisfy that functional requirement.
● Unintended functional consequence (seen by
outsiders) could not possibly be its cause
Functionalist Theory Contribution
Animism Animatism Science
Malinowski Durkheim/Radcliffe-Brown *

Magic Religion Science

Individual Functionalism Social Functionalism Change

Magic - alleviates anxiety, Religion - collective -

provides control and consciousness, system of
certainty in an uncertain beliefs that contain individual
world. selfishness and promote social
cooperation

- Symbols = reflection of -
collective consciousness

- Rituals = tangible, pass down -

traditions to next generations
Psychosocial Theory (1 of 2)
Freud
● This approach is concerned with the relationship
between culture and personality and the
connection between the society and the
individual.
Psychosocial Theory (2 of 2)
Freud agreed with Malinowski
● Religion and ritual function to reduce anxiety.
● Religion is a neurotic need that humans will
outgrow.
Psychosocial Theory Contribution
Animism Animatism Science
Freud
Magic Religion Science

Magic - functions to reduce Religion - functions to reduce Connects society &

anxiety through rituals anxiety through rituals individual behaviors

Religion is a neurotic
need humans will
outgrow because they
will replace religion with
science
Combining Psychosocial and Functional Theory
Spiro
● Religion satisfies both psychological and
sociological functions.
● Psychological- 3 desires are satisfied
○ cognitive
○ substantive
○ expressive
Theoretical Framework Combined
Animism Animatism Science

Tylor / Malinowski Marett / Durkheim / Frazer / Freud

Radcliffe-Brown

Spirit in all things Force that permeates and connects all things Change through time
‘Natural’ progression Animism to Science

Spirits & Ghosts (Tylor’s categories) Gods & Souls (Tylor’s categories) Energy?

Magic - compelling the supernatural to work for you Religion - sacred supernatural, appealing to & Science
appeasing deity(deities) to work on your behalf

Individual Functionalism Social Functionalism Change

Magic - alleviates anxiety, provides control & Religion - collective consciousness, system of
certainty in an uncertain world beliefs that contain individual selfishness to
promote social cooperation

Rituals are done to alleviate anxiety Rituals -tangible acts, to pass down traditions Connects society & individual behaviors
Expressive needs met to next generations Cognitive, Substantive & Expressive
Expressive needs met needs met

Cognitive & Substantive needs met Symbols = reflection of collective Religion is a neurotic need humans will
consciousness outgrow because we will replace religion
Cognitive & Substantive needs met with science
Summary
● There is a natural tendency for people to see their own religion as the
best, (the one and only correct set of beliefs) while viewing all others
as inferior.
● This ideology is usually incorporated within religious doctrine to
promote unity and solidarity within the religion and maximize
recruitment and retention.
● Unfortunately, this same ideology promotes religious intolerance and
breeds ignorance and fear.
Points to consider when developing your definition...

● Religion is learned behavior.

● Beliefs, practices and attitudes are a part of religion.
● Myths, Symbols, Taboos and Rituals maintain religion and
provide us with the meaning of our existence.