Unit V: Social Institution

1
Social Institution
Meaning and Definition
• An institution is an • William Kornblum: “In Sociology, an institution is
enduring set of cultural a more or less stable structure of statuses & roles
patterns & social devoted to meeting the basic needs of people in
relationships organized
to accomplish basic a society “
social tasks
• Horton and Hunt defines institution as, “a system
• A social institution, for of norms to achieve some goal or activity that
example, religion, is not people feel is important”
a group of people; it is a
system of ideas, beliefs,
practices and • MacIver and Page: “Social institutions are
relationships
established forms or conditions of procedure,
characteristic of group activity”
  2
Features and Functions of Institutions
Functions
Features
• Universality
• An unit in the cultural system
• Institutions are standardized norms
• Relatively Permanent but Changeability
• Well defined objectives
• Institutions as means of satisfying needs
• Control mechanisms & Sanction ( :jLj[mlt )
(swikriti)
• Symbol ( k|lts ) (pratik) Traditions ( k/Dk/f )
(parampara)
• Structure ( ;+/rgf ) (sanrachana)
• All social institutions are interdependent
• Controls human behavior
• Vehicle of culture
• Factor of social change
• Provide role and status for individuals
• Fulfills human needs and directs his
functions
• Contributes to unity & uniformity
• Each of the other social institutions has a far-
reaching effects on our lives
• E.g. by weaving the fabric of society, institutions
establish the context in which we live
• Provides support for better chances for
human survival
• Develops personality of the members of the
society
3
 Functionalist theorists have traditionally identified these needs/functions as follows
(Parsons 1951; Aberle et al 1950; Levy 1949; quoted in Anderson & Taylor, 2008):

• The socialization of new members of the society. Family & education

• The production and distribution of goods and services. Economy & family

• Replacement of society’s members who migrate or leave. Family

• The maintenance of stability and existence. Government, police, military

• Providing the members with an ultimate sense of purpose. National

anthem promotes patriotism, religion, the family & education
4
 Conflict theorists

• Believe that social institutions do not provide these functions or all its
members equally

• Some members are provided for better than others

• Institutions affect people by granting more power to some social groups

than to others

• Racial and ethnic minorities and the poor in general have low access to
facilities of health, education, employment etc. than do those of higher
social class.
5
 Types of Institutions
Sociologists have identified 9 social institutions

• Family
• Religion • Each institution is built around a standardized
• Law solution to the primary problems encountered in a
particular sphere
• Politics
• Economics
• Institution in one society is different to the same
• Education
institution in another society
• Medicine
• Science • Since the parts of social systems are interrelated, a
• Military change in one institution has consequences for the
other institutions & for the society as a whole
6
Family
Concept and Definition
• Latin word 'Famulus' means servant
• In Roman law the word denotes a
group of producers & slaves & other
servants as well as members
connected by common descent or
marriage
• Family is a social unit consisting of a
married couple and their children
• In many societies it is a kin group, not
a married couple and their children
that is the basic family unit
• JWVZ: Family is a social group
whose members are related by
ancestry, marriage, or adoption
and who live together, cooperate
economically and care for the
young
• M. F. Nimkoff: 'Family is a more
or less durable association of
husband & wife with or without
child, or of a man or woman
alone, with children.'
7
Characteristics/Features of Family

• Universal
• Emotional basis
• Limited in size
• Breeding ground
• Responsibilities of members
• Social Regulation

8
Functions of a Family

• Kinsley Davis • MacIver

• Reproduction • Primary or Essential Functions are the basic functions
• Maintenance • Stable satisfaction of sex need
• Placement • Reproduction or procreation
• Production & rearing of child
• Socialization
• Provision of home
• Cultural transmission & agent of socialization
• Ogburn & Nimkoff • Ascribes status
• • Affection functions
Affectional
• Economic
• Recreational • Secondary or Non-essential Functions of family
• Economic functions
• Protective • Educational functions
• Religious • Religious functions
• Educational • Recreational functions
9
Family Types
On the basis of marriage, family has been
classified into 3 types:
•Polygamous Family
•Polyandrous Family
•Monogamous Family
On the basis of nature of residence, family has
been classified into 3 types:
•Family of Matrilocal Residence
•Family of Patrilocal Residence
•Family of Changing Residence
On the basis of ancestry or descent family can
be classified into 2 types:
•Matrilineal Family
•Patrilineal Family
On the basis of nature of authority,
family can be classified into 2 types:
•Matriarchal Family
•Patriarchal Family
On the basis of nature/structure, family
can be classified into 2 types:
•Nuclear or Single Unit Family
•Joint or Undivided Family
On the basis of nature of relations,
family can be classified into 2 types:
•Conjugal (marital) Family
•Consanguine Family 
10
Some Common Types of Families
• Matriarchal Family
• Also known as the mother-dominated family where she is the head of the family & exercises
authority, is also the owner of the property. Found amongst the Eskimos, Khasi, Nayars etc.

• Patriarchal Family
• Also known as father-dominated family where he is the head of the family & exercises authority.

• Characteristics of Matriarchal and Patriarchal Families

• Descent, inheritance & Succession
• Matri/patri local residence
• Exercise of power
• The structure of the family

• However, today matriarchal & patriarchal families are diminishing & egalitarian or
equalitarian families are emerging often called as 'modern' or 'nuclear' families. 11
Variations of Family in Nepal
Joint Family (Extended)
• Also known as undivided or extended family; normally consists of members of 3 generations: husband
& wife, their married & unmarried children & their married as well as unmarried grandchildren.
Types
• Patriarchal Joint Family
• Matriarchal Joint Family

Characteristics of Joint Family

• Depth of generations
• Common roof, kitchen
• Common worship
• Common property
• Exercise of authority
• Obligations toward the family
• Self-sufficiency 12
Merits of Joint Family Changes in the Joint Family
• Stable & durable System
• Ensures economic progress
• Advantage of division of labor • Influence of Education
• Provides social & economic security • Impact of Industrialization
• Provides recreation
• Influence of Urbanization
• Helps social control
• Promotes Cooperative virtue • Change in Marriage System
• Legislative Measures
Demerits of Joint Family
• Damages individual initiative & enterprise
• Influence of Western Values
• Promotes Idleness • Awareness among Women
• Centre of quarrels
• Denies privacy
• Undermines status of women
• Limits social mobility

13
Variations in Nepalese Family

Nuclear Family
•It is a small group composed of husband, wife & immature children, which
constitute a unit apart from the rest of the community

Types
•The Family of Orientation
•The Family of Procreation

•Every adult belongs to 2 nuclear families.

•The Family of Orientation in which the person was born & brought up which
includes his father, mother, brothers & sisters.
•The Family of Procreation is the one which the person establishes by his
marriage & which includes the husband or wife, the sons & daughters
14
Trends in the Modern Nuclear Family
• Industrialization
• Urbanization
• Democratic Ideals
• Spirit of Individualization
• Status of Women
• Decline of Birth Rate
• Divorce
• Parent Youth Conflict
Functions of Nuclear Family
• Decreased control of the marriage
contract
• Changes in the relationship of man &
woman
• Economic Independence
• Decline of Religious control
• Separation of non-essential functions
• Filocentric Family (domination of
children)
• Procreation & Upbringing of Children
15
 Marriage
Meaning
• One of the universal social
institutions
• Closely connected with the
institution of family
• Marriage, a socially approved sexual
union between two or more
individuals that is undertaken with • R. W. Lewis: Marriage is a relatively
some idea of permanence
Definition
• Gillin & Gillin: Marriage is a socially
approved way of establishing a family
of procreation
• Malinowski: Marriage is a contract for
the production and maintenance of
children
permanent bond between permissible
mates 16
 Marriage
Features
• Universality
• Relationship between men and
women
• Marriage bond is enduring (lasting)
• Marriage requires social approval
• Marriage is associated with some
civil or religious ceremony
• Marriage creates mutual
obligations
Importance and Functions
• Regulation of sexual life
• Leads to establishment of a
family
• Provides for economic
cooperation
• Contributes to intellectual and
emotional inter-stimulation of
the partners
• Marriage aims at social solidarity
17
 Types of Marriage
Endogamy
• The requirement that marriage occur
within a group
• The rule of marriage in which the life-
partners are to be selected within the
group that may be caste, class, tribe, race,
village, religious group, etc.
• Factors such as sense of superiority or
inferiority, cultural & racial differences,
geographical separation etc. causes
endogamy
Advantages
• Enhances group unity & solidarity
• Preserves property with the group
• Safeguards purity of the group
Disadvantages
• Hampers national unity
• Limits choice of life-partners
• Feelings of hatredness for other
groups
• Close-in-breeding affects the
biological potentiality of off springs
18
 Types of Marriage
Exogamy
•People must marry outside their kin group, be it their
immediate nuclear family, clan or tribe
•Regulations relating to exogamy are based primarily
on kinship
•Involve incest taboo (rules that prohibit sexual
intercourse with close blood relatives)
•Blood relatives are not supposed to marry but the
degree of nearness differs from community to
community
•But who constitutes a ‘close blood relative’ is a
matter of social definition
•E.g. Fufu – mama cleli amongst Gurung community,
Brother-sister marriage amongst ancient Egyptians
Forms of Exogamy
•Gotra Exogamy: is the hindu practice of
one marrying outside one's own 'gotra‘
•Pravara Exogamy: is the restriction on
marrying one from same 'pravara'
(uttering the name of a common saint
at religious functions)
•Village Exogamy: is the practice of
marrying outside their village
•Pinda Exogamy: is the restriction on
marrying into the same 'pinda'
(common parentage)
19
Marriage
Types
Monogamy: One husband, one wife
• Appears in all societies, most preferred, ideal

Advantages of Monogamy
• Economically better suited
• Promotes better understanding between husband & wife
• Contributes to stable family and sex life
• Helps for better socialization
• Provides better status for women

20
 Marriage
Types
Polygyny
Causes of Polygyny
• One husband and two or more wives at a given • More women less men
time
• The arrangement is closely tied with economic • Economic advantage
production and status considerations
• Favored where large families are advantages • Women as badges of
• Women make substantial contributions to
subsistence
distinction
• Childlessness of the
• Sororal Polygyny is the type of marriage in which
the wives are the sisters. It is often called first wife
'sororate'. The Latin word 'Soror' stands for sister
• Constancy of sex urge
• Non-Sororal Polygyny is the type of marriage in in man
which the wives are not related as sisters
21
 Marriage
Type
Causes of Polyandry
Polyandry
• Two or more husbands and one wife
• More men than women
• Where a family cannot afford wives or
marriages for each its sons, it may find a • Desire to keep the
wife for the eldest son
property intact
• Frateral or Adelphic Polyandry is the type
of marriage where several brothers share
• Heavy bride price
the same wife. This practice of being
mate, to one's husband's brothers is called • Poverty
'levirate'
• Sterility (infertility) of
• Non-Fraternal Polyandry is the type of
marriage where the husbands need not men
have any close relationship prior to the
marriage
22
 Marriage
Types
Group Marriage
•Two or more husbands and two or more wives
•Means the marriage of 2 or more than 2 women
with 2 or more men
• The husbands & wives are common & children
are regarded as the children of the entire group.
But this arrangement is practically rare
•Kaingang of the jungles of Brazil, Marquesans of
the South Pacific, Chukchee of Siberia, Todas of
India
Same sex marriage
•Cheyenne Indians permitted men to
take on berdaches, or male
transvestites, as second wives
•Azande of the African Sudan
allowed warriors who could not
afford wives to marry “boy-wives”
to satisfy their sexual needs who
also performed many chores
•Female-female marriages are also
found in some African societies
•It is legalized in my countries today
23
 Economic Institution
Definitions
Meaning
• For sociologists, economic system is a
• Economic System is the social institution sub-system of the wider society.
responsible for the production and
distribution of goods & services
• Regmi (2008) states economic systems as
• It provides answers to three basic problems the means by which scarce resources are
all societies confront: produced and allocated within and
• What goods & services should they produce, & (sometimes) between societies.
in what quantities?

• How should they employ their limited

• There is essential link between the
resources – land, water, minerals, fuel & labor economic system and the other social
– to produce the desired goods & services? institutions such as family, politics, and
religion. (Subberwal, 2009)
• For whom should they produce the goods &
services?
24
Economics: Types
Capitalism Meaning
• Capitalism is an economy in
which
• the means of producing are largely
in private hands and
• the main incentive for economic
activity is the accumulation of
profits
• rely heavily on free markets
• Capitalism is an economy in which
most of the means of producing are
largely in the hands and the main
incentive for economic activity is the
accumulation of profits.
Rosenberg
• It is an economic system where the
means of production are owned,
managed and controlled by private
persons, singly or in groups, who are
driven by profit motive in a free
market
25
Capitalism: Basic Features

• Private Property: Right to property

• Large Scale Production: Result of industrial revolution
• Profit Oriented
• Competition: Cut-throat competition; demand is artificially created & supply is
decreased
• Price Mechanism: Price of a commodity determined by law of demand & not by
cost of production
• Wage Institution: Pay less wages & take more work; exploitation of labor
• Money & Credit: Money on loan to develop business
• Business Organization: Vast business structure; numerous shareholders
• Market Economy: Capitalism controlled by market forces; liberalized
26
 Capitalism
Strengths
• High Standard of Living: Necessities of life
are easily available
• Economic Progress: Inventions in industry,
agriculture & business
• Specialization of Labor
• Exchange of Culture: International trade,
global village, exchange of ideas & culture
• Progress of Civilization: Invention of new
machines & production of material goods
• Lessening of Caste & Racial Differences:
Lessening of differences; inter-mixing of
castes
Limitations
• Greed for Wealth/overemphasizes profits: Wealth is the
be-all & end-all of human life; moral degeneration
• Destruction of Human Values: Sole criterion is wealth
• Materialism: Manifestation of materialism in its extreme
form
• Artificiality: Turned modern culture artificial; no human
touch
• Labor Exploitation / space for labor unions
• Class Consciousness leads to Social Disorganization
• Hampers Moral Development of the Weak & Poor
• Emphasis on Sex
• Imbalance in Social System: No welfare of society;
widened gap between haves & have-nots
• Customers often cannot develop contact and
communication with the owners if there are a large
number of shareholders
• Minute division of labour and specification lead to
unpleasant results, including isolation of workers, in
particular
27
Socialism: Concept
• Socialism is a type of economy in
which
• the means of production &
distribution in a society are
collectively owned rather than
privately owned
•  relies primarily on state planning and
publicly held property
• A socialist economic system consists of a system
of production and distribution organized to
directly satisfy economic demands and human
needs, so that goods and services are produced
directly for use instead of for private profit
driven by the accumulation of capital
(Kotz, 2011)
Features
• Common Ownership of the Means of
Production & Distribution
• Economic Activities are Planned by the
State
• No Scope for Private Property
• Less Economic Disparity
• Meets people's needs than maximizing
profits
• Legal System concerned with
Administration
• The market does not play a significant
role in the distribution of resources
because the economic activities are
planned and controlled by the state
28
 Socialism
Strengths
• Meet people’s needs rather than
to maximize profits. Less Scope
for Waste: E.g. unemployment,
over production, inflation etc.
• No Colonial (grand) Markets: Do
not require an outlet for capital or
commodities
• More Democratic than Capitalist
Societies: Decisions are taken
collectively
Limitations
• Not Proved Economically Efficient &
Dynamic than the Capitalist Societies
• Not Democratic: Decisions taken by
Communist Party
• Imperialist (royals): Exploit workers
• Social Stratification Exists: Income
inequality, inequalities in power,
differences in power etc.
• Bureaucracy Enjoys the Autocratic
Power
• Black Market Serves to Reinforce Society
• Inequalities: Operation of economic
markets cannot be completely removed
29
 Polity
Definition
Meaning
• Political Institution is the social
• Politics is essentially an ancient and universal
structure concerned with the use and
experience distribution of power within a
society: JWVZ
• No one is completely beyond the reach of some
kind of political system
• Political institutions are sets of norms
• Everyone is involved in some fashion at some time and statuses that specialize in the
in some kind of political system exercise of power and authority: WK
• E.g. we encounter politics in Government, school,
club, school and everywhere

• Thus, politics is one of the unavoidable facts of

human existence
30
Politics
Nature of Politics and Political Institutions
• When we look at the ways in which conflicts over scarce resources like wealth, power and prestige occur,
we are looking at politics

• Creating new political institutions or changing old ones, requires years of effort

• Politics determines “who gets what, when and how”

• Different societies develop their own political institutions, but everywhere the basis of politics is
competition for power

• The complex set of political institutions – judicial, executive and legislative – that operate throughout a
society form the state

• In modern societies there are many institutions that are active in politics yet are not part of the state

• E.g. Labor unions lobby for govt-funded benefits for workers 31

Politics, power and authority
Power
•Power is the ability to control the behavior of others,
even against their will
•Power brings about change in people – in attitude,
behavior, motivation or direction – that would not have
occurred in its absence
•Those individuals & groups who control critical social
resources – rewards, punishments etc. are able to
influence, even dictate, the way social life is ordered
•Power affects the ability of people to make the world
work on their behalf
•State has the power to use physical coercion within a
given territory
Authority (legitimate power)
• Authority is institutionalized power
• Power whose exercise is governed by the norms
and statuses of organizations
• These norms & statuses
• specify who can have authority,
• how much authority is attached to different status &
• the conditions under which that authority can be
exercised
• When individuals possess authority, they have a
recognized & established right to determine
policies, settle controversies & to act as leaders
32
Types of Authority
Traditional authority
• Power is legitimated by the sanctity of age-old customs
• People obey their rules because “this is the way things have always been done”
• Given by birth right, royal blood

Legal-rational authority
• Power is legitimated by explicit rules and rational procedures that define the rights and
duties of the person
• E.g. Authority of a newly elected president

Charismatic authority
• Power is legitimated by the extraordinary superhuman attributes that people ascribe to a
leader
• E.g. Religious prophets, political heroes etc.
33
Types of Political Systems in Modern Societies
Democracy System
• Best & the most civilized form of political
system
• Derived from Greek word "demos" meaning
people & "kratia" meaning power
• Democracy is the government where the power
is vested in the people
• Abraham Lincoln: "Democracy is a government
of the people by the people and for the people."
Types of Democracy
• Direct/Pure/Simple Democracy : People
exercise power directly. Possible only in small
states
• Indirect/Representative Democracy: Govt. is run
by representatives elected by the people
Essential Conditions (features) of Democracy
• Requires political maturity & education of the people
• Everlasting alertness is a must
• Requires an efficient & elaborate system of self-governing
institutions
• People's desire for democracy must be strong
• Government by debate, discussion, criticism & consensus
• Strong, well organized, alert opposition
• Majority party forms the government
• Proper leadership is a must
• Free & independent press is the watchdog of democracy
• Requires non-corruptible citizens
• High political participation of citizens
• Requires economic equality for its success
• Requires a sound constitution & an independent judiciary
• Army should be subordinated to civil authority
34
Types of Political Systems in Modern Societies Basic Features of Totalitarianism
Totalitarianism System
• Known as dictatorship
• Comes into being when the
social order is broken
• Total power is vested in one
individual or party
• Suppresses leadership and is
based on force
• Maintains power by
unconstitutional means
• Totalitarian power (all within the state)
• One man/party rule
• No civil, political and economic liberty
• Based on fear and force
• Militant nationalism (stands for purity
of race, language, culture etc.)
• Absence of free & independent press
• No distinction between the State & the
Government
• Hostile to internationalism
35
  
Merits and Demerits of Democracy

Merits of Democracy De-merits of Democracy

Gives importance to human liberty & equality Ignores the natural & inborn inequalities
Protects fundamental rights of people
Responsible government; opposition parties are the No guarantee that a democratic govt. works efficiently
'watch dogs'
Imp. to opinions & valuable suggestions of people Disagreements between the ruling party & the
opposition's suggestions
Gives pol. education to the people through pol. parties Politicize even the non-political issues
Provides peaceful & organized change Costly govt.
Govt. by consent, criticism, debates & discussion Slow & time-consuming process

Not based on force, violence Inefficient & corrupt

People are supreme & rulers are the elected Politicians prosper
representatives
Active participation of people Rule by the majority; often ignores the interests of the
minority
Strengthens nationalism & fosters patriotism Parties mislead & confuse people
36
Merits & Demerits of Totalitarianism

Merits Demerits
Regimes of "strong men who get things done" No freedom & fundamental rights to the people
No divergent views, thus brings unity Based on force and fear
Decisions are taken promptly & immediately No sense of self-prestige & self-respect

Economical; avoids unnecessary expenses Govt. based on force can't last long

Suppresses opposition; so stable Suppresses the freedom of people

Better suited to meet emergencies Glorifies the state and sacrifices the interests of
the people
Achieves material progress in short period Ambitious groups will be preparing grounds to
seize the reins of administration
Builds up military strength to meet threat from Opposed to world peace
outside
Can effectively end corruption, tax evasion, and People are dependants on the state
evil practices
Brings strict discipline in the country Imposes unwanted discipline at gunpoint and
damages personality growth
37
 Types of Political Systems in Modern Societies
Meaning and Functions of Welfare State
• Commonly known as an agency of social service than as an instrument of power
• G. D. H. Cole: "The welfare state is a society in which an assured minimum standard of living & opportunity becomes the
possession of every citizen."
 
Functions of the Welfare State
• Maintenance of peace & order
• Protects people's rights & provides justice
• Conservation of natural resources
• Provision of education
• Arrangement of public utility services
• Encouragement of trade, industry, commerce & agriculture
• Organization of labor
• Protection of old, poor & the handicapped
• Maintenance of public health
• Arrangement of recreation
• Maintains social harmony
• Prevents socio-economic disorganization 38
 Education
Meaning
• Learning involves a more or less
permanent modification in behavior that
results from experience
• Many societies transmit certain attitudes,
knowledge, and skills to their members
through formal, systematic training – the
institution we call education
• The term is derived from Latin word
'educare' that means to 'bring up’
• Apart from imparting knowledge,
education transmits culture to the young
and makes them face the future
Definitions
• Durkheim: "Education is the
socialization of the younger
generation. It is the continuous effort
to impose on the child ways of seeing,
feeling & acting which he could not
have arrived at spontaneously."
• James Welton in Encyclopedia
Britannica: "Education is an attempt
on the part of the adult members of
human society to shape the
development of the coming
generation with its own ideals of life."
39
Features of Educational Role of Education in Society
Institutions • The members of the society establish educational
Institutions in a society themselves where the
• Particular name children are sent for their development of
knowledge so that they can build up their mind and
• Particular Goal learn to face future obstacles
• Division of Labor
• However, there is a choice in the membership
• Hierarchy of authority
• Impersonality • An individual is not compulsory to become a
member of a particular educational institution
• Employment based on
technical qualifications • One can choose any institution according to their
interests
• Universality
• Formal and Written • For e.g. a person to become an engineer should go
to engineering college which gives quality education.
40
 Functions
• Socialization (Personality Development)
• Transmission o f Cultural Heritage
• Reformation of Attitudes
• Occupational Placement (Screening and selecting individuals)
• Encourages the spirit of Competition
• Produces efficient individuals
• Social Integration(instills the dominant values of society & shape a
common national mind)
• Research and development
• Latent functions
41
Functionalist View on Education

• Functionalists like Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons viewed education as a system that brought
homogeneity and social solidarity

• Aim of education is to maintain social stability & to resolve conflicts

• Meritocracy (Davis and Moore): Success or failure - the system of stratification - individual merit -
equality of opportunities

• Subsystem (Parsons): Subsystem within the social system - school is the 'focal socializing agency' -
influence of 'socio-economic status' on achievement
• 
• Selection: Teacher sorts out best to achieve - 'allocation of adult roles'

• Teacher and pupil roles (Parsons): Child must accept the role of the teacher - Same value of family &
school for child to succeed
42
Functionalists’ View on Education
Manifest Functions:
• Technical Training
• Selection and Allocation
• Education to Democracy
• Kendall (2004), education serves the
following five major functions in society:
• Socialization.
• Transmission of Culture
• Social Control
• Social Placement
• Change and Innovation
Latent Functions:
According to Kendall (2004), education
server at least three latent functions.
• Restricting some Activities
• Matchmaking and Production of Social
Networks
• Creating a Generation Gap
Criticisms of Functional Perspective of Education
• 'Fairness' of the school system is by no
means proven by Parsons
• Education system - ensures some groups
monopolize success and others are left
to fail which follows through career
structure 43
Conflict View on Education

• Sees the institution of education as a system of inequality / benefit the rich at the expense of
everyone else

• Schools act to reinforce existing social class inequalities / discourage more democratic visions
of society

• Louis Althusser: transmits ruling class philosophy from one generation to another

• Educational system encourages learning and advancement in children from certain

backgrounds and discourages it in them from other back grounds like:
• Unequal funding of schools by social class;
• Process of symbolic-interaction in the schools, that encourage achievement in some children and
discourage it in others;
• The hidden curriculum is also a part of the problem, which varies according to the students’ social
backgrouds.
44
Conflict View on Education

Bourgeois ideology and the reproduction of capitalism:

• Reproduces capitalist system by presenting children with a view of society,
and their place within it

• Schools provide the new society with leaders, managers and great mass of
workers

• Those who accept the ideology passed on in school become the 'successes'
of the system, and go on to higher education

45
 Religion
• It is one of the earliest & deepest
interests of human beings
• Its beginning is unknown
• Is the most influential forces of
social control & also the most
effective guides of human behavior
•  Religion revolves round man's
faith in the supernatural forces
• Religion refers to those socially
shared ways of thinking, feeling
and acting that have to do with the
supernatural or “beyond”
Definitions
• MacIver & Page: "Religion implies
a relationship not merely between
man & man but also between
man & some higher power."
• Durkheim in his book The
Elementary Forms of the Religious
Life: "Religion is a unified system
of beliefs & practices relative to
sacred things, that is to say, things
set apart & forbidden."
46
 Sacred and Profane (Durkheim's theory of religion)
Sacred
• Extra-ordinary, supernatural, fear-
inducing, potentially dangerous
• Approached through ritual, prayer,
ceremonies etc.
• Almost everything can be sacred: god,
rock, cross, moon, tree, king etc.
• Some group of people mark them as
sacred
• Are symbols of religious beliefs,
sentiments & practices
• God, ghost, totem (animal or plant),
supernatural forces can be sacred
Profane
• Anything ordinary, 'unholy‘
• Ideas, persons, practices, things
regarded with an everyday attitude of
commonness, utility & unfamiliarity
• Something becomes sacred or profane
only when it is socially defined
• E.g. A rock, moon, king, tree may
become profane
• However, the distinction between
sacred and profane is not clear
47
 Functions and Dysfunctions of Religion
Functions of Religion
• Provides Religious Experience
• Religion provides Peace of Mind
• Religion promotes Social Solidarity, Unity &
Identity
• Religion conserves the Value of Life
• Religion acts as an Agent of Social Control
• Religion promotes Welfare
• Religion provides Recreation
• Religion helps to Integrate Personality
• Enhances Self-importance
Dysfunctions of Religion
• Religion hampers social changes
• Religion increases conflict
• Encourages dependence &
irresponsibility
• Conservative & retards progress
• Promotes evil practices & superstitious
beliefs
• Contributes to inequalities & exploitation
• Religion promotes fanaticism
(extremism)
48
Functional Approach to Religion

• Religion serves a vital social functions for the individual and for the group

• Durkheim, in his book The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912) states
that religion plays an important function in society and that all religions
have social rather than supernatural origins

• He pointed out that religion contribute to the harmony and stability of

society

• In religion, the people are held together in the rituals observed, and
religion provides a standard belief system and a common morality which
help to unite them
49
• The set of symbols that a religion has, like the Christian cross or the Holy
Quran fir the Muslims, reminds the members of their common faith and
unity

• Religion serves certain functions such as cohesion, social control and

provision of a purpose or goal

• Religion functions to promote group unity and solidarity though shared set
of guidelines gives emotional bonds to believers

• Religion offers proper rituals for daily living and helps establish, reinforce
and renew social relationships

50
Functionalists Functions (Emile Durkheim: The Elementary Forms of Religious Life)

• Religion is an organ in the organism, a sub-system within the system

• Plays a role in the creation & maintenance of the value consensus
• Religion has a role to play in maintaining 'mechanical solidarity' (Durkheim)
• Religion is a disguised way for people to worship society itself
• Religion reaffirms the social bonds that people have with each other, creating social
cohesion & integration
• Societies with a unified belief system would be highly cohesive
• Religious rituals are symbolic activities that express a group's spiritual belief
• Groups performing a ritual are expressing their identity as a group
• Religion binds individuals to the society in which they live through collective consciousness
• Religion has a strong emotional component
• Religion determines what is seen as legitimate within a given society and is a form of social
control
51
Max Weber (The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism)

• Material success was taken as a clue to being favored by God

• Hard work & self-denial lead to salvation and accumulation of capital

• Hard work will lead to success are manifestations of the Protestant

ethic

52
Conflict Approach of Religion

• Religion is placed as the ideological & legal superstructure of society

• Religion assists ruling-class ideology by helping to keep the workers in a state of

false consciousness, preventing them from realizing that they are being
exploited

• Religious ethnocentrism (excessive belief in the superiority of one's own group)

leads to the subordination of other groups

• Religion also leads to social inequality

• Religion prevents people from rising up against oppression –opium of people

53
Conflict Approach of Religion: Karl Marx

• Karl Marx believed that religion was the most humane feature of an inhumane world and that it arose
from the tragedies and injustices of human experience

• He described religion as the ‘sigh of the oppressed creature, the sentiment of a heartless world, and the
soul of soulless conditions’

• According to Marx, people need the comfort of religion to make the world bearable and to justify their
existence

• Religion is used to rationalize existing inequalities

• Marx said, “religion serves as source of false consciousness. That is religious teachings encouraged the
oppressed to accept the economic, political and social arrangements that limit their chances in their life
because they are promised compensation for their suffering in the next world

• Religion is unnecessary in a truly classless society

54