Physical layer and its design issues

Chapter-3

3.1 Design issues

• The Physical Layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel.
• The design issue has to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is
received by the other side as a 1 bit and not as a 0 bit.
• Typical questions here are:
o How many volts should be used to represent a 1 bit and how many for a 0?
o How many nanoseconds a bit lasts?
o Whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions?
o Whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions?
o How many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used for?
• The design issues here largely deal with mechanical, electrical and timing interfaces, and
the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.
3.2 Transmission Medium
A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a
source to a destination. For example, the transmission medium for two people having a dinner
conversation is the air. The air can also be used to convey the message in a smoke signal or
semaphore. For a written message, the transmission medium might be a mail carrier, a truck, or an
airplane. In data communications the definition of the information and the transmission medium
is more specific. The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic
cable. The information is usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data from another
form.

A. Guided Media:
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair
cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and
contained by the physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper)
conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that
accepts and transports signals in the form of light.
i. Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation,
twisted together, as shown in Figure below. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver,
and the other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.
In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk
Compiled by: Er. Raju Dhakal
may affect both wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these
unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to
the noise or crosstalk sources (e.g., one is closer and the other is farther). This results in a difference
at the receiver. By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained. Twisted-pair cables are used in
telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The local loop—the line that connects
subscribers to the central telephone office— commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
Local-area networks, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also use twisted-pair cables.

Figure twisted pair cable

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-
pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use, called shielded
twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of
insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the
penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.

Figure STP and UTP

ii. Co-axial cable

Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair
cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently. Instead of having two
wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an
insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as
the second conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an
insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial network could
carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used in digital telephone networks where a single coaxial
cable could carry digital data up to 600 Mbps. However, coaxial cable in telephone networks has
largely been replaced today with fiber-optic cable. Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In
the traditional cable TV network, the entire network used coaxial cable. Later, however, cable TV
providers replaced most of the media with fiber-optic cable; hybrid networks use coaxial cable
only at the network boundaries, near the consumer premises. Because of its high bandwidth, and
consequently high data rate, coaxial cable was chosen for digital transmission in early Ethernet
LANs.

Compiled by: Er. Raju Dhakal

 Figure 1 co-axial cable

A baseband coaxial cable transmits a single signal at a time at very high speed. A broadband
coaxial cable can transmit many simultaneous signals using different frequencies. A baseband
cable is mainly used for LANs.
Baseband coaxial cable supports frequency range of a-4kHz and are used for digital
signaling. Broadband coaxial cable supports the frequency range above 4kHz and are used
for analog signals. So, it must be used with a modem. The digital signal inserted on these cables is
encoded using Manchester or Differential Manchester coding. The digital signal consumes the
entire frequency spectrum of the cable. So, it is not possible to transmit multiple channel using
FDM. The transmission of digital signal on the cable is bi-directional.
Baseband coaxial cables are 50 ohm cables used for 'digital transmission'. For 1Km cables the
bandwidth is 1-2 Gbps. Longer cables can be used with low data rates or periodic amplifiers.
Broadband coaxial cables are 75 ohm cables used for analog transmission. The baseband co-axial
cable was originally used for the Ethernet system that operates at 10 Mbps.

iii. Fiber-optics (Optical fiber )

Fiber-optic cabling uses either glass or plastic fibers to guide light impulses from source to
destination. The bits are encoded on the fiber as light impulses. Optical fiber cabling is capable of
very large raw data bandwidth rates. Most current transmission standards have yet to approach the
potential bandwidth of this media.
Principle of Fiber-optics: It is based on the principle of Total internal Reflection. Optical fibers
use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding
of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a
beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into
it as shown in fig below.

Compiled by: Er. Raju Dhakal

Multimode fiber and single-mode fiber are the two primary types of fiber optic cable. Single-mode
fiber is used for longer distances due to the smaller diameter of the glass fiber core, which lessens
the possibility for attenuation -- the reduction in signal strength. The smaller opening isolates the
light into a single beam, which offers a more direct route and allows the signal to travel a longer
distance. Single-mode fiber also has a considerably higher bandwidth than multimode fiber. The
light source used for single-mode fiber is typically a laser. Single-mode fiber is usually more
expensive since it requires precise calculations to produce the laser light in a smaller opening.

Figure Single mode fibre

Multimode fiber is used for shorter distances because the larger core opening allows light signals
to bounce and reflect more along the way. The larger diameter permits multiple light pulses to be
sent through the cable at one time, which results in more data transmission. This also means that
there is more possibility for signal loss, reduction or interference, however. Multimode fiber optics
typically use an LED to create the light pulse.
Fiber Compared to Copper Cabling: Given that the fibers used in fiber-optic media
are not electrical conductors, the media is immune to electromagnetic interference and
will not conduct unwanted electrical currents due to grounding issues. Because optical fibers are
thin and have relatively low signal loss, they can be operated at much greater lengths than copper
media, without the need for signal regeneration. Some optical fiber Physical layer specifications
allow lengths that can reach multiple kilometers. Optical fiber media implementation issues
include:
• More expensive (usually) than copper media over the same distance (but for a
higher capacity)
• Different skills and equipment required to terminate and splice the cable
infrastructure
• More careful handling than copper media.
At present, in most enterprise environments, optical fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling
for high-traffic point-to-point connections between data distribution facilities and for the
interconnection of buildings in multi-building campuses. Because optical fiber does not conduct
electricity and has low signal loss, it is well suited for these uses.
Advantages of fiber optics
Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted-pair or coaxial).
• Higher bandwidth: Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and
hence data rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Currently, data rates and
bandwidth utilization over fiber-optic cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal
generation and reception technology available.

Compiled by: Er. Raju Dhakal

 • Less signal attenuation: Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that
of other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need
repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference: Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-
optic cables.
• Resistance to corrosive materials: Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than
copper.
• Light weight: Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
• Greater immunity to tapping: Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than copper
cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.

Disadvantages of fiber optics

There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.
• Installation and maintenance. Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its
installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere.
• Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need
bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.
• Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other
guided media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber
cannot be justified.

B. UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This
type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally
broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them. Figure below shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3
kHz to 900 THz, used for wireless communication.

Figure frequency spectrum for unguided media

Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several ways: ground
propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation, as shown in figure below.

Compiled by: Er. Raju Dhakal

 Figure Propagation methods

In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging
the earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting antenna and
follow the curvature of the planet. Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The
greater the power, the greater the distance. In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves
radiate upward into the ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where
they are reflected back to earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower
output power. In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight
lines directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other, and either
tall enough or close enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth. Line-of-sight
propagation is tricky because radio transmissions cannot be completely focused.

Figure Frequency bands

Electromagnetic spectrum
EM radiation is classified into types according to the frequency of the wave: these types include,
in order of increasing frequency, radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light,
ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.

1. Radio Waves

Compiled by: Er. Raju Dhakal

Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio waves and microwaves, electromagnetic
waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves; waves
ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves. However, the behavior of
the waves, rather than the frequencies, is a better criterion for classification. Radio waves, for the
most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending
antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The omnidirectional property
has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference
by another antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band. Radio waves,
particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances. This makes
radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as AM radio. Radio waves,
particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls. This characteristic can be
both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage because, for example, an AM radio can
receive signals inside a building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication
to just inside or outside a building. The radio wave band is relatively narrow, just under 1 GHz,
compared to the microwave band. When this band is divided into sub-bands, the sub-bands are
also narrow, leading to a low data rate for digital communications.

2. Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly
focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional
property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas
can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas. The following describes
some characteristics of microwave propagation:
• Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas need
to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall. The curvature
of the earth as well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short towers to
communicate by using microwaves. Repeaters are often needed for long distance
communication.
• Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a
disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
• The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider sub-bands can
be assigned, and a high data rate is possible.
• Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.

3. Infrared
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm),
can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot
penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and
another; a short-range communication system in one room cannot be affected by another system
in the next room. When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the
remote by our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless for
long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because
the sun’s rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.
Line of Sight (LOS)

Compiled by: Er. Raju Dhakal

Line of sight (LoS) is a type of propagation that can transmit and receive data only where transmit
and receive stations are in view of each other without any sort of an obstacle between them. FM
radio, microwave and satellite transmission are examples of line-of-sight communication. Long-
distance data communication is more effective through wireless networks, but geographical
obstacles and the curvature of the earth bring limitations to line-of-sight transmission. However,
these issues can generally be mitigated through planning, calculations and the use of additional
technologies. For example, mobile phones use a modified line-of-sight transmission, which is
made possible through a combination of effects like diffraction, multipath reflection, local
repeaters and rapid handoff.

Satellite Communications
A satellite is a body that moves around another body in a mathematically predictable path called
an Orbit. A communication satellite is nothing but a microwave repeater station in space that is
helpful in telecommunications, radio, and television along with internet applications.
A repeater is a circuit which increases the strength of the signal it receives and retransmits it.
But here this repeater works as a transponder, which changes the frequency band of the
transmitted signal, from the received one.
The frequency with which the signal is sent into the space is called Uplink frequency, while the
frequency with which it is sent by the transponder is Downlink frequency. The following figure
illustrates this concept clearly.

There are many Advantages of satellite communications such as −

• Distances are easily covered, and cost doesn’t matter
• Broadcasting possibilities
• Each corner of earth is covered

Compiled by: Er. Raju Dhakal

 • User can control the network
Disadvantages
• The initial costs such as segment and launch costs are too high.
• Congestion of frequencies
• Interference and propagation

Applications
• In Radio broadcasting.
• In TV broadcasting such as DTH.
• In Internet applications such as providing Internet connection for data transfer, GPS
applications, Internet surfing, etc.
• For voice communications.
• For research and development sector, in many areas.
• In military applications and navigations.
3.3 Repeater
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network
before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the signal
can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted about repeaters is that
they do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit
and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2 port device.

3.4. Hub
A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs
cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, collision
domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not have intelligence to
find out best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.

3.5. Wireless standards

802.11x refers to a family of specifications developed by the IEEE for wireless LAN (WLAN)
technology. 802.11 specifies an over-the-air interface between a wireless client and a base station
or between two wireless clients. The IEEE accepted the specification in 1997.

There are several specifications in the 802.11 family:

• 802.11 — applies to wireless LANs and provides 1 or 2 Mbps transmission in the
2.4 GHz band using either frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct
sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
• 802.11a — an extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless LANs and provides up to
54-Mbps in the 5GHz band. 802.11a uses an orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing encoding scheme rather than FHSS or DSSS.
• 802.11b (also referred to as 802.11 High Rate or Wi-Fi) — an extension to 802.11
that applies to wireless LANS and provides 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback
to 5.5, 2 and 1-Mbps) in the 2.4 GHz band. 802.11b uses only DSSS. 802.11b was a
1999 ratification to the original 802.11 standard, allowing wireless functionality
comparable to Ethernet.
• 802.11e — a wireless draft standard that defines the Quality of Service (QoS)
support for LANs, and is an enhancement to the 802.11a and 802.11b wireless LAN

Compiled by: Er. Raju Dhakal

 (WLAN) specifications. 802.11e adds QoS features and multimedia support to the
existing IEEE 802.11b and IEEE 802.11a wireless standards, while maintaining full
backward compatibility with these standards.
• 802.11g — applies to wireless LANs and is used for transmission over short
distances at up to 54-Mbps in the 2.4 GHz bands.
• 802.11n — 802.11n builds upon previous 802.11 standards by adding multiple-
input multiple-output (MIMO). The additional transmitter and receiver antennas
allow for increased data throughput through spatial multiplexing and increased range
by exploiting the spatial diversity through coding schemes like Alamouti coding.
The real speed would be 100 Mbit/s (even 250 Mbit/s in PHY level), and so up to 4-
5 times faster than 802.11g.

Circuit Switching and packet switching

Bit rate and baud rate Covered in class
Shannon’s capacity theorem

Compiled by: Er. Raju Dhakal