Highway Pesign Manual: Book 1 of Design of Roadways

The Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia
Ministry Of Communications
Highway pesign Manual
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Volume 2
Book 1 of 2
Design of Roadways
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This is the second of four volumes
comprising the Highway Design Manual
This manual is one of a series of manuals covering high "-.
way design and construction, construction materials,

highway and bridge maintenance, surveying and map
ping, and uniform traffic control devices, prepared in
cooperative effort by the Ministry of Communications of
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Federal Highway
Administration of the United States of America.
1-r--
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The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Ministry of Communications
Highway Design Manual
Volume 2, Book 1 Design of Roadways

Table of Contents
Part I-Design of Roadways Page
Glossary 1
Section 1.01 General 73
Section 1.02 Design Speed 75
A. Selection 75
1. Speed 75
2. Running Speed 75
3. Design Speed 75
B. Design Speed Standards 76
Section 1.03 Highway Capacity and Level of Service 79
'.-"." A. Design Elemen"ts ~,

79
~'-
R Multilane Rural Highways
80
C. Two-Lane Highways 84
D. Expressways 89
E. Expressway Ramps and Weaving Sections 100
F. Streets and Intersections 103
Section 1.04 Access Control 119
A. General 119
1. Full Control of Access 119
2. Partial Control of Access 119
3. Approach Road and Driveway Controls 119
D. Warrants for Access Control 119
C. Delineation on the Plans 119
D. Design Criteria 119
1. Expressways 119
2. Multilane Arterials, Multilane Collectors, and Two-Lane Two-Way

Collectors and Arterials with Design Year ADT Greater than 2,500 120
a. Access Opening, 120
b. Design Criteria to be Observed 120
c. Access Opening Width 120
3. Two-Lane, Two.J:!!ay· Collector Highways with Design Year ADT

Less than 2,500 and LocaJ Highways 120
4. Frontage Roads 121
E. Protection of Access Rights 122
Section 1.05 Geometric and Structure Standards 133
A. Sight Distance 133
1. General 133
2. Stopping Sight Distance 133
3. Passing Sight Distance 133
4. Sight Distance Standards 133
5. Measurement of Sight Distance 134
6. Sight Distance for Crest Vertical Curves 134
7. Stopping Sight Distance for Sag Vertical Curves 134
8. Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 135
9. Sight Distance Through Underpasses 135
B. Superelevation 138
1. Basic Criteria 138
2. Superelevation Rates 138
3. Axis of Rotation 139
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Page
4. Superelevation Development 139
5. Superelevation of Broken Back Curves 139
6. Superelevation of Reverse Curves 140
7. Superelevation Charts 140
8. Superelevation of Shoulders 140
C. Horizontal Alignment 146
1. General Controls 146
2. Standards for Curvature 146
3. Alignment Consistency 146
4. Alignment at Bridges 146
5. Alignment at Intersections and Interchanges 147
6. Passing 147
7. Transition Curves 147
8. Horizontal Curve Elements 147
D. Curve Widening 148
1. General 148
2. Application 148
E. Vertical Alignment 148
1. General Controls 148
2. Grade Standards 149
•
3. Position with Respect to Cross Section 149
4. Vertical Curves 149
5. Heavy Grades 149
6. Critical Length of Grade and Climbing Lanes 150
7. Separate Grade Lines 150
8. Grade Line at Structures 150
F. Combination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments .. 152
1. General 152
2. Design Controls 152
G. Frontage Roads 153
1. Function 153
a. Control of Access 153
b. Segregation of Traffic 153
c. Service to Local Traffic 153
d. Highway Maintenance and Operations 153
2. Location 153
3. Outer Separation 153
4. Tenninals 153
H. Traveled Way Transitions 154
1. General 154
2. Two-Lane to Four-Lane Transition

3. Median Width Transitions
154
154 (
4. Auxiliary Lane Transitions 154
5. Temporary Connections 154
I. Airway-Highway Clearances 157
1. General 157
2. Clearances 157
a. Civil Airports 157
b. Heliports 157
c. Military Airports 157
J. Bridges and Grade Separation Structures 161
1. Width 161
2. Cross Slope 161
K. Pedestrian Facilities 161
1. Sidewalks 161
2. Sidewalk Widths 161
3. Pedestrian Grade Separations 162
4. Pedestrian Overpasses 162
5. Pedestrian Underpasses 162
L. Curbs and Gutters 162
1. General 162 (
iv
Page
2. Types and Uses 162
(
3. Position of Curbs 163
4. Curb Transitions 163
5. Gutter Cross Slopes 163
Section 1.06 Geometric Cross Section 165
A.
Travel Lane Standards 165
1. Widths 165
2. Cross Slope 165
B.
Auxiliary Lane Standards 166
1. Parking Lanes 166
2. Climbing Lanes 166
3. Turning Lanes 166
4. Frontage Roads 166
C. Shoulder Standards 166
1. General 166
2. Widths 167
3. Cross Slopes 168
D. Side Ditches 168
E. Sideslopes 168
169
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F. Median Standards
..
1. General 169
2. Median Widths 170
G. Cross Sections 170
H. Structure Clearances 173
Section 1.07 Grade Intersections 175
A. General 175
B. Intersection Types 175
C. Establishing Intersection Traffic Control 176
D. Data for Intersection Design 177
E. Intersection Maneuvers and Conflicts 177
F. Design Vehicles 179
G. Intersection Design Elements 182
1. Crossing Sight Distance 182
2. Stopping Sight Distance 183
3. Vertical Alignment 183
4. Intersection Angles 185
5. Intersection Radii 186
6. Separate Right- and Left-Turning Lanes 188
't
7. Channelization
8. Superelevation
9. Bus Bays
191
193
193
10. Spacing of Intersections 193
H. Intersection Connections to Roadside Development 202
I. Railroad Grade Crossings 205
Section 1.08 Interchanges 207
A. Concepts and Warrants 207
1. Introduction 207
2. Warrants 207
B. Basic Design Features 207
1. General 207
2. Spacing 207
3. Design Principles 207
C. Interchange Types 207
I. General 207
2. Patterns or Types 207
D. Design Procedures 212
1. Basic Data for Design 213
C 2. Preliminary Design
3. Determination of Preferred Plan
213
213
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Page
E. Design Standards 213
1. General
2. Design Speed (Ramps)
213
213 (
3. Sight Distance 213
4. Ramp Grades and Profile 214
5. Ramp Terminals 216
6. Superelevation and Cross Slope 220
7. Ramp Width (Pavement, Shoulder, Lateral Clearance) 220
Section 1.09 Structural Design of Flexible Pavements 223
A. General 223
1. Policy and Scope 223
2. Minimum Structural Thickness 223
3. Design Responsibility 223
B. Pavement Thickness Determination 223
1. Traffic Analysis 223
2. Soil Considerations 227
3. Base Course Thickness Requirements 228
4. Use of Alternative Materials 232
5. Cost Comparison of Acceptable Alternatives 234
•
6. Pavement Structure Selection 234
Section 1.10 Hydraulic Design 237

A. General 237
B. Culvert Design 237
1. Introduction 237
2. Design Considerations 237
a. Design Discharge 237
b. Headwater 238
c. Tailwater 238
d. Outlet Velocity 238
3. Culvert Flow 238
a. Inlet Control 238
b. Outlet Control 239
4. Performance Curves 239
5. Procedure for Selection of Culvert Size 242
6. Protection 251
a. Debris Control 251
b. Buoyancy 251
7. Sedimentation 252
C. Open Channels
1. Introduction
2. Criteria
252
252
252
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a. Roadside and Median Ditches 252
b. Drainage Channels 252
c. Wadi Modification 253
3. Hydraulics of Open Channels 253
a. Types of Flow 253
b. Open Channel Equations 254
c. Analysis of Open Channel Flow 255
4. Channel Stabilization 257
D. Bridge Waterways 257
1. General 257
2. Design Criteria 257
3. Hydrologic Analysis 258
4. Bridge Versus Culvert 258
5. Hydraulic Analysis 258
6. Design Documentation 270
E. Low Water Crossings 270
1. General 270
2. Design Criteria
3. Irish Crossings
271
271
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vi
Page
4. Vented Irish Crossings 271
( F. Stable Channel Design

1. Introduction
271
271
2. Design Considerations 272
3. Flexible Lining Design 274
4. Rock Riprap 278
5. Concrete-Lined Channels 278
6. Energy Dissipation 279
a. Natural Scour Hole 280
b. Rigid Boundary Basin 282
c. S1. Anthony Falls Basin 290
d. Impact Basin 293
e. Riprap Basin 300
G. Storm Sewer Design 303
1. General 303
a. Rainfall Frequency and Time of Concentration 303
b. Runoff Curves 303
c. Runoff 303
d. Drainage Area Limitation 303
(. e. Pipe Roughness Coefficients

f. Maximum and Minimum Grades for Pipes
g. Minimum Pipe Sizes
303
303
303
h. Maximum Length of Pipe 303
i. Minimum Clearance 303
J. Location of Manholes 303
k. Location of Trunk Sewers 303
1. Inlet Types 303
m. Location of Inlets 303
n. Efficiency of Inlets 303
o. Width of Flow 303
3. Design Procedure 303
a. Inlet Type Design 303
b. Storm Sewer Design 304
Book 2
Section 1.11 Highway Lighting 307
A. General 307
B. Warrants 307
:( 1. Lighting
2. Applications
307
307
C. Design Values 307
1. Highways 307
2. Other Facilities 307
a. Urban Intersections 307
b. Rural Intersections 307
c. Overhead Signs 307
d. Rest Areas 309
e. Tunnels 309
f. Underpasses 310
g. Bridges 310
D. Lamps and Luminaires 310
1. Lamps 310
2. Luminaires 311
E. Location of Light Poles 311
1. Reduced Number of Poles 311
2. Increased Pole Offset 311
3. Location Relative to Clear Zone and Alignment 311
4. Frangible and Slip Bases 311
5. Conflicts with Traffic Control 312
vii
Page
Section 1.12 Traffic Control Plans 313
A. General
B. Development of TCP
313
313 (
C. Contents of the TCP 313
1. Layout Plan Sheets 313
2. Traffic Control Signals 314
3. Railroad Crossing Signals 314
Section 1.13 Control of Traffic Through Construction 315
A. General 315
B. Applications of Plans (CTCP's) 315
1. Projects Closed to Traffic 315
2. Projects where Traffic is to be Maintained 315
C. Preparation of Plans 315
1. General 315
2. Development 316
3. Content 316
a. Special Drawings 316
b. Detours 316
c. Sequence of Construction 316
•
d. Standard Drawings 316
e. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices 316
f. General and Special Specifications 317
4. Contract Payment 317
Section 1.14 Roadside Development 319
A. Roadside Enhancement 319
1. General 319
2. Route Selection 319
3. Roadway and Slope Design 319
4. Interchanges 319
5. Rest Areas, Overlooks, and Parking Areas 320
a. General 320
b. Spacing of Rest Areas 320
c. Lands Required for Rest Areas and Parking 320
d. Design Criteria for Rest Areas and Parking Areas 320
6. Soil Stabilization 324
a. General 324
b. Alternate Soil Stabilization Measures 324
7. Landscaping 325
325
a. General
b. Plant Selection
8. Landscape Plans and Working Drawings
325
325
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B. Noise Control 326
1. General 326
2. Definitions 326
3. Basic Noise Considerations 326
4. Design Noise Levels 327
5. Analysis of Traffic Noise Impacts and Abatement Measures 328
6. Traffic Volumes and Speeds for Predicting Noise Levels 329
7. Mathematical Calculation of Leq(h) 329
8. Addition of Decibels 331
9. Adjustment 331
C. Inspection and Weight Stations 331
D. Emergency Escape Ramps for Runaway Trucks 331
1. General 331
2. Types of Ramps 331
a. Gravity Ramp 331
b. Arrestor Bed 332
c. Combination Arrestor Bed and Gravity Ramp 332
d. Ramp Type Selection Criteria 332 (

3. Forces Acting on a Vehicle in Motion 332
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Page
a. Inertial Resistance 332
( b. Rolling Resistance 333
c. Gradient Resistance 333
d. Air Resistance 333
4. Computation of Ramp Length 333
5. Site Selection 333
a. Design Speed 334
b. Alignment 334
c. Width 334
d. Gradient 334
e. Entrance Geometries 335
f. Arrestor Bed 335
g. Service Road and Hold-Down Anchors 335
h. Safety Devices 335
7. Arrestor Bed Materials 335
8. Signing 336
9. Delineation 336
10. Lighting 336
•• Section 1.15 Traffic Barriers

A. General
B. Clear Roadside Zone
C. Hazards
1. Embankments
2. Ditches
337
337
337
338
338
339
3. Roadside Obstacles 339
4. Median Hazard 339
D. Evaluating a Need for Traffic Barriers 342
1. Eliminate Hazard 342
2. Needs for Traffic Barriers 342
a. Roadside 342
b. Median 343
c. Gore Areas 345
E. Types and Design of Barriers 345
1. Roadside Barriers 345
a. Types 345
b. Length Determination 347
c. Transition Section 350
d. Barrier Terminals 350
( e. Placement
2. Median Barrier
353
354
a. Median Barrier Types 354
b. Median Barrier Length 355
c. Median Barriers Terminals 357
3. Crash Cushions 359
JSection 1.16 Sand Dune Control 361
A. General 361
B. Sand Movement and Deposition 362
1. Suspension 362
2. Saltation 362
3. Creep 363
4. Gravitational Sliding 363
C. Location 363
1. Roadway Location 363
2. Interchanges and Intersections 363
D. Design Elements 363
1. Cross Section 364
2. Roadside Appurtences 364
( 3. Other Design Considerations 364
E. Dune Stabilization 365
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Page
Dune Destruction 367
•
F.
Section 1.17 Tunnel Design 369
A. Introduction 369
B. Preliminary Design 369
1. General Information 369
a. Land Survey 369
b. Geology 370
c. Tunnels Already in the Area 370
d. Climate 370
e. Land Use 370
2. Route Study 370
a. Horizontal Alignment 370
b. Vertical Alignment 370
3. Tunnel Usage 372
a. Highway Type 372
b. Traffic Type 372
4. Portals 372
a. Size 372
b. Approaches 372
•
c. Drainage/Support 372
5. En vironmen tal 372
a. Utilities 372
b. Effect on Propertit'~ 372
6. Objectives 372
C. Geotechnical Investigation 372
1. Investigation 373
2. Stability 374
3. Ground Treatment (Grt)uting) 374
4. Objectives 374
D. Final Tunnel Design 376
1. Alignments and Gra(k~ 376
a. Location 376
b. Geometry 376
c. Engineering 377
2. Factors Affecting Desi~n of Tunnel Cross Section 378
a. Geometry 378
b. Engineering 378
3. Portals 378
•
a. Portal Structures 378
b. Ventilation/Ligh ting 379
4. Tunnel Support Factors and Design 381
a. Geotechnical Considerations 381
b. Support 381
c. Loads 381
d. Reappraisal of Dl:sign During Construction 382
5. Drainage 382
6. Finishes 382
7. Safety Measures 383
a. Emergency Access Tunnels and Cross Passages 383
b. Warning Systems 383
c. Smoke Extraction' 383
d. Fire Fighting Equipment 383
e. Accident Breakdown Services 383
8. Ventilation 383
a. Types of Ventilation 383
b. Design Parameters 383
c. Environmental 383
9. Lighting 384
e:
x
Part 2-Right-Of-Way and Utilities 385
( Section 2.01 Right-of-Way Policy and Plans 385
A. General 385
B. Policy 385
C. Surveys 385
D. Plans 385
1. Right-of-Way Plans 385
2. Individual Parcel Plan 386
E. Descriptions 386
F. Monumentation 386
Section 2.02 Utility Adjustments 387
A. General 387
B. Utility Data and Plans 387
1. Pipe Lines 387
2. Sewer Lines 387
3. Communications Lines 387
4. Power Lines 387
C. Estimate of Cost 387
t
v
Part 3-Plans, Specifications, and Estimates

Section 3.01 General
A. Purpose
389
389
389
B. Definitions 389
1. Plans 389
2. Standard Drawings 389
3. Specifications 389
4. General Specifications 389
5. Supplemental Specifications 389
6. Special Specifications 389
7. Estimate 389
8. Design Report 389
9. Form of Tender 389
10. Contract Time 389
11. Equipment List 389
12. Bill of Quantities 389
C. Background 389
Section 3.02 Plans 391
{ A. General
B. Standard Drawings
391
391
C. Project Plans 392
1. Title Sheet 392
2. List of Drawings 392
3. Location Maps and Design Data 392
4. Summary Sheets 392
5. Typical Cross Section 393
6. Plan and Profile 393
7. Special Drawings 394
8. Structure Drawings 394
Section 3.03 Specifications 395
A. General 395
B. General Specifications 395
C. Supplemental Specifications 395
D. Special Specifications 395
I. Description 395
2. Materials 395
3. Construction Requirements 395
4. Method of Measurement 395
5. Basis of Payment 395
Page
Section 3.04 Estimates 397
Section 3.05 Design Report 401 (

Section 3.06 Contract Equipment and Contract Time (Contract Period) 403
A. Introduction 403
B. Method 403
I. Earthwork 403
2. Subbase, Aggregate Base, and Aggregate Shoulders 405
3. Bituminous Pavement 406
4. Concrete and Concrete Structures 406
5. Crushing and Screening 407
6. Graphic Schedule of Contract Time 408
7. Example of Contract Time Calculations for a Specific Project 409
C. Laboratory Equipment 410
D. Resident Engineer's Office and Accommodation 410
Section 3.07 Final Printing 411
A. Introduction 411
B. Contract Book 411
C. Project Plans 411

D Design Report
Section 3.08 Instructions for Supplying Documents in Microfiche Form
A. Introduction
B. Format
C. Quality
D. Quality Assurance
411
415
415
415
415
415
•
E. Packaging 416
Appendix 3.02-1 417
Appendix 3.02-2 418
Appendix 3.06-1 425
Appendix 3.07-1 430
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XII
List of Figures Page
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.
1.03.1 Measurement of Available Passing Opportunity 88
1.03.2 Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service, Service Volumes, and Capacity
Average Highway Speed-l20 km/h 90
1.03.3 Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service, Service Volumes and Capacity
Average Highway Speed-II 0 km/h 92
Average Highway Speed-100 km/h 94
1.03.7 Examples of Typical Weaving Sections 101
1.03.8 Design Chart for Weaving Sections 102
1.03.9 Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections Two-Way Facilities-Average
Conditions 110
1.03.10 Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections of One-Way Street-Average
Conditions III
1.03.11 Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections Rural Two-Way Highway-
No Parking 112
•
1.03.12 Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections-Local Bus Factor for Use in
Conjunction with Figures 103.9 and 103.10 113
1.03.13 Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections-Separate Right- and Left-Turn
Lanes-No Separate Signal Indication for Turning Movement 114
1.03.14 Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections Separate Right- and Left-Turn
Lanes-With Separate Signal Indication for Turning Movements liS
1.03.15 Typical Intersection Capacity Form 116
1.03.16 Intersection with Widened Approaches-Length Requirements 117
1.04.1 Standard Symbols 122
1.04.2 Typical Examples of Access Openings 123
1.04.3 Access Control of Expressway on Location of Existing Road (Existing Highway
Converted to a One-Way Frontage Road and New Frontage Road Added) 124
1.04.4 Access Control of Expressway on Location of Existing Road (Existing Parallel
Highway Converted to a Two-Way Frontage Road) 125
1.04.5 Access Control of Expressway on New Location (Frontage Road Connection
to Land Remainder) 126
1.04.6 Access Control of Expressway on New Location (Frontage Road Connection
to Local Road) 127
1.04.7 Access Control of Expressway on New Location (Intermittent Frontage Roads
to Connect Intercepted Cross Streets) 128
( 1.04.8 Access of Control Expressway Passes (Expressway Severs Property Resulting in
Land Remainders on Each Side of Highway) 129
1.04.9 Typical Example of a Locked Gate in a Remote Area 130
1.04.10 Typical Examples of Access Control at Interchanges 131
1.04.11 Typical Examples of Access Control at Intersections 132
1.05.1 Horizontal Clearance for Stopping Sight Distance 136
1.05.2 Horizontal Clearance for Passing Sight Distance 137
1.05.3 Development of Superelevation 141
1.05.4 Design Superelevation Rates (eMax. = 0.06) 142
1.05.8 Superelevation of Paved Shoulders 146
1.05.9 Circular Curve Elements 147
1.05.10 Transition and Circular Curve Elements 147
1.05.11 Symmetrical Vertical Curves lSI
1.05.12 Truck Operation on Ascending and Descending Grades lSI
1.05.13 Design of Climbing Lanes 152
1.05.14 Typical Two- to Four-Lane Transition ISS
1.05.15 Typical Auxiliary Lane Transitions 156
\ 1.05.16 Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements, Civil Airports 158
Xlll
Page
1.05.17 Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements, Heliports 160
161
1.05.18
1.06.1
Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements, Military Airports
Rural Two-Lane Cross Section; Urban Two-Lane, Noncurbed Cross Section 171 (
1.06.2 Urban Two-Lane Curbed Cross Section 171
1.06.3 Rural Multilane Cross Section; Urban Multilane Noncurbed Cross Section
(Half Section) 172
1.06.4 Urban Multilane Curbed Cross Section; Urban Arterial and Collector
(Half Section) 172
1.06.5 Special Treatments 173
1.07.1 Basic Intersection Types 176
1.07.2 Types of Maneuvers 177
1.07.3 Types of Conflicts 178
1.07.4 Intersection Conflicts 178
1.07.5 Design Vehicles 179
1.07.6 Minimum Vehicle Turning Radius and Turning Path L80

1.07.7 Minimum Vehicle Turning Radius and Turning Path 181
1.07.8A Sight Distance Triangle 1&2

1.07.8B Acceleration Time (Level Conditions) 183
1.07.9 Cross Street Grade Adjustment 183
1.07.10 Combined Vertical and Horizontal Alignments at Intersections 184

1 07.11 Realignment of Intersections
J~12 Median Opening Length for Left Turns
1.07.13 Minimum Right-Turn Radii at Edge of Traveled Way
1.07.14 Turning Lanes on Multilane Divided Highway
1.07.15 Introduced Median and Turning Lanes on Multilane Undivided Highway
1.07.16 Introduced Median and Left-Turn Lane on Multilane Undivided Highway
185
186
187
189
189
190
•
1.07.17 Left-Turn Lane and Turning Lane on Two-Lane Highway 190
1.07.18 Left-Turn Lane and Turn Lane at Two-Lane "T" Intersection 191
1.07.19 Channelization to Improve Intersection Operations 194
1.07.20 Types of Island Channelization 195
1.07.21 Curbed Directional Islands with No Shoulder 196
1.07.22 Curbed Directional Islands with Outside Shoulder 197
1.07.23 Channelization to Improve Left-Turn Sight Distance 198
1.07.24 Superelevation for Channelized Right-Turn Roadways 198
1.07.25 Development of Superelevation 199
1.07.26 Bus Bays 200
1.07.27 Intersection Channelization at Interchanges and Spacing of Frontage Roads

from Interchange 201
1.07.28 Spacing of Frontage Road Terminus from Intersections 202
1 07.29 Public and Commercial Connections 203

.30 Private Connections
1.08.1 Simple Diamond
204
208
1.08.2 Cloverleaf 208
1.08.3 Cloverleaf with Collector Distributor Road 209
1.08.4A Parclo 209
1.08.4B Parclo 210
1.08.4C Parclo 210
1.08.4D Parclo 210
1.08.4£ Parclo 211
1.08.5 Trumpet 211
1.08.6 Directional Interchange with Right Hand Exits and Entrances 212
1.08.7 Directional Interchange with Right Hand Exits and Entrances 212
1.08.8 Rotary 212
1.08.9 Sight Distance at Ramp Terminals 214
1.08.10 Expressway Entrance Terminal-Taper Type 217
1.08.11 Expressway Entrance Terminal-Parallel Type 218
1.08.12 Expressway Exit Terminal-Taper Type 218
1.08.13 Expressway Exit Terminal-Parallel Type 219
1.08.14 Distance Between Successive One-Way Ramp Terminals 219
223
1.09.1 Typical Pavement Section and Pavement Terminology

1.09.2 Eight-Ton, Single-Axle Load Equivalency (EAL) Factors 225 (
XIV
Page
1.09.3 Eight-Ton, Single-Axle Load Equivalency (EAL) Factors 226
1.09.4 Asphalt Concrete Base Course Thickness Requirements for Expressways 229
( 1.09.5 Asphalt Concrete Base Course Thickness Requirements for Roads Other
Than Expressways 230
1.09.6 Crushed Aggregate Base Requirements for Expressways 231
1.09.7 Crushed Aggregate Base Requirements for Roads Other Than Expressways 231
1.09.8 Cover Requirements 232
1.09.9 Design and Pavement Structure Selection 235
1.10.1 Inlet Control 238
1.10.2 Outlet Control 239
1.10.3 Hydraulic Performance Curves (1.0 m x 1.0 m Box Culvert with 35 G
Wingwalls) 239
1.10.4A Headwater Computation Form 240
1.10.4B Headwater Computation Form-Example 241
1.10.5 Headwater Depth for Box Culverts with Inlet Control 243
1.10.6 Headwater Depth for Inlet Control (Rectangular Box Culverts WOG Headwall) 244
1.10.7 Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe Culverts with Inlet Control 245
1.10.8 Headwater Depth for Circular Pipe Culverts with Beveled Ring Inlet Control 246
1.10.9 Head for Concrete Box Culverts Flowing Full, "n"'= 0.012 247
1.10.10 Head for Concrete Pipe Culverts Flowing Full, "n" = 0.012 248
1.10.11 Critical Depth Rectangular Section 249
~ 1.10.12
1.10.13
Critical Depth Circular Pipe
Specific Energy Diagram
250
254
1.10.14 Hydraulic Subdivision of Flood Plain 255
1.10.15 Stage-Discharge Curve 256
1.10.16 Flow Distribution Diagram 257
1.10.17 Normal Crossings: Spill-Through Abutments 261
1.10.18 Backwater Coefficient Base Curves (Subcritical Flow) 262
1.10.19 Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Piers 263
1.10.20 Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Eccentricity 264
1.10.21 Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Skew 265
1.10.22 Aid for Estimating a: 1 266
1.10.23 Distance to Maximum Backwater 266
1.10.24 Common Pier Shapes 267
1.10.25 Spur Dike Length 268
1.10.26 Plan and Cross Section of Spur Dike 269
1.10.27 Irish Crossing 271
1.10.28 Vented Irish Crossing 271
1.10.29 Maximum Permissible Depth of Flow (d max) for Unlined Channels 273
1.10.30 Flow Velocity for Unlined Channels 274
f' 1.10.31
1.10.32
1.10.33
Maximum Permissible Depth of Flow for Channels Lined with Rock Riprap
Flow Velocity for Channels Lined with Rock Riprap
Drainage Channel Lining Design Form
275
276
277
1.10.34 Capacity of Trapezoidal Channel 279
1.10.35 Dimensionless Scour Hole Geometry for Minimum Tailwater 280
1.10.36 Dimensionless Scour Hole Geometry for Maximum Tailwater 281
1.10.37 Design Values for Roughness Element Dissipators 285
1.10.38 Average Velocity for Abrupt Expansion Below Rectangular Outlet 286
1.10.39 Average Velocity for Abrupt Expansion Below Circular Outlet 287
'1.10.40 Average Depth for Abrupt Expansion Below Rectangular Culvert Outlet 288
1.10.41 Average Depth for Abrupt Expansion Below Circular Culvert Outlet 289
1.10.42 Energy and Momentum Coefficients 290
1.10.43 Rigid Boundary Basin 290
1.10.44 SAF Stilling Basin 293
1.10.45 Definition Sketch Basin Transition 294
1.10.46 F r vs. Yo/r for Transition 294
1.10.47 Example Problem Sketch 295
1.10.48 Baffle Wall Energy Dissipator 297
1.10.49 Design Curve-Baffle Wall Dissipator 298
I 1.10.50 Energy Loss, Impact Basin, Hydraulic Jump 299
'"
Page
1.10.51 Relative Depth of Scour Hole Versus Froude Number at Brink of Culvert
with Relative Size of Riprap as a Third Variable 301
1.10.52 Details of Riprapped Culvert Energy Basin 302 (

1.10.53 Plan Layout of Storm Sewer Network Showing Branch Numbers 305
1.10.54 Storm Sewer Design Computations Form 306
1.14.1 Typical Rest Area Design 321
1.14.2 Typical Major Rest Area Design 321
1.14.3 Typical Rest Area Design at Remote Rural Interchange 322
1.14.4 Rest Area in Wide Median 323
1.14.5 Typical Scenic Overlook Design 323
1.14.6 Parking Area (Divided Highway) 324
1.14.7 Emergency Parking Area (Two-Way Road) 324
1.14.8 Highway Traffic Noise Prediction Nomograph 330
1.14.9 Basic Types of Emergency Escape Ramps 332
1.14.10 Forces Acting on Vehicle in Motion 332
1.14.11 Typical Emergency Escape Ramp 334
1.14.12 Wrecker Hold-Down Anchor 335
1.15.1 Clear Zone 338
1.15.2 Embankment Hazard Guide 340
1.15.3 Safe Ditch Cross Section 341
•
.. '5.4 Safe Ditch Cross Section 341
__ 5.5 Safe Ditch Cross Section 342
1.15.6 Safe Median Width 342
1.15.7 Bridge Approach Barrier Warrants 343
1.15.8 Location of Barriers in Median 344
1.15.9 Approach Barrier Layout Variables 346
l.t5.10A Barrier Lengths L, = 2.5m 348
1.15.tOB Barrier Lengths L, = 3.0m 348
1.15.10e Barrier Lengths L, = 3.5m 349
1.15.11 Additional Barrier for Opposing Traffic 349
1.15.12 Barrier Transition 350
1.15.13 Transition Section Metal Beam Guardrail at Fixed Objects 350
1.15.14 Metal-Beam Guardrail Terminals 351
1.15.15 Terminal Shoe Connections at Bridge Parapets 351
1.15.16 Bridge Parapet Flares 351
1.15.17 Terminating Barrier Into Cut Slope 352
1.15.18 Crashworthy Metal-Beam Guardrail Terminal 352
1.15.19 Embankment Widening for Guardrail Flare or Terminal Flare 352
1.15.20 Guardrail End Treatments at Side Road Connections 353
.. 15.21 Lateral Barrier Placement 353
~:5.22 Placement of Barriers on Side Slopes as an Alternative to Placement
Along Shoulders 354

(
1.15.23 Barriers for Median Fixed Object Hazards 356
1.15.24 Shielding Fixed Objects in Median 357
1.15.25 Median Barrier Terminals 358
1.15.26 Changing from Roadside to Median Barriers 359
1.15.27 Crash Cushions 360
1.16.1 Sand Terrains in Arabian Peninsula 361
1.16.2 Path of Sand Grain in Saltation 362
1.16.3 Sand in Saltation 362
1.16.4 Sand Movement is a Function of Partical Size 362
1.16.5 Effect of Wind Speed on Sand Movement 363
1.16.6 Plating Embankments Constructed with Dune Sand 365
1.16.7 Stabilized Dune Acts as a Sand Trap 366
1.17.1 Geotechnical Investigation of Highways Tunnel 375
1.17.2 Typical Tunnel Cross Section 376
1.17.3 Sag Curve 377
1.17.4 Profile 378
1.17.5 Alternative Portal Schemes 379
1.17.6 Principles of Ventilation Systems 380
1.17.7 Typical Structures Required for Semi-Transverse of Fully Transverse

Ventilation 381
XVI
Page
3.04.1 Engineer's Estimate for Proposed Construction 398
( 3.04.2 Engineer's Estimate-Continuation Sheet 399
3.06.1 Graphic Schedule of Contract Time 408
3.06.2 Graphic Schedule of Contract Time 410
3.07.1 Form of Tender Special Specifications and Bill of Qualities 412
3.07.2 Design Report 413
3.08.1 Microfiche 416
3.08.2 Details of Titling 416
3.08.3 Microjacket 416
3.08.4 Typical Test Chart 416
List of Tables
1.02.1 Relation Between Design Speed and Average Running Speed 75
1.02.2 Design Speed for Rural Highways (km/hr) 77
1.02.3 Design Speed for Urban Highways (km/hr) 77
1.03.1 Level of Service Characteristics by Highway Type 79
1.03.2 Guide for Selection of Design Levels of Service 80
1.03.3 Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks and/or Buses on Multilane
Highways, on Specific Individual Subsections or Grades 81
~ 1.03.4 Levels of Service and Maximum Service Volumes for Multilane Highways,
Undivided and/or Without Access Control, Under Uninterrupted Flow
Conditions (Normally Representative of Rural Operation) 82
1.03.5 Adjustment Factors for Trucks and Buses on Individual Roadway
Subsections or Grades on Multilane Highways 82
1.03.6 Combined Effect of Lane Width and Restricted Lateral Clearance on
Capacity and Service Volumes of Undivided i Multilane Highways with
Uninterrupted Flow 83
Capacity and Service Volumes of Divided Multilane Highways with
Uninterrupted Flow 83
1.03.8 Levels of Service and Maximum Service Volumes for Two-Lane Highways,
Under Uninterrupted Flow Conditions (Normally Representative of Rural
Operation) 85
1.03.9 Average Generalized Adjustment Factors for Trucks i on Two-Lane
Highways, Over Extended Section Lengths 86
1.03.10 Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks on Two-Lane Highways, on Specific
Individual Subsections or Grades 86
1.03.11 Adjustment Factors i , ii for Trucks on Individual Roadway Subsections

f" or Grades on Two-Lane Highways Incorporating Passenger Car Equivalent
and Percentage of Trucks 87
Capacity and Service Volumes of Two-Lane Highways with Uninterrupted
Flow 88
1.03.13 Effective Passing Opportunity 88
1.03.14 Lane Service Volumes for Weaving Sections 100
1.03.15 Design Capacity of Single Lane Ramp 101
1.03.16 Adjustment Factors for Right Turns on Two-Way Streets i , Right Turns 106
on One-Way Streets;' and Left Turns on One-Way Streets i 106
1.03.17 Adjustment Factors for Left Turns on Two-Way Streets i 107
1.03.18 Truck and Through Bus Adjustment Factors 108
1.03.19 Adjustment Factor (f) for Level of Service 109
1.05.1 Sight Distance Standards 133
1.05.2 Effect of Grade on Stopping Sight Distance 134
1.05.3 Crest Vertical Curve "K" Values 134
1.05.4 Sag Vertical Curve "K" Values for Stopping Sight Distance 135
1.05.5 Maximum Safe Side Friction Factors 138
1.05.6 Minimum Radii for Superelevated Curves 138
1.05.7 Maximum Superelevation Rates 138
\ 1.05.8
1.05.9
Superelevation Runoff Slopes
Transition Curve Requirements
139
147
XVII
Page
1.05.10 Traveled Way Widening for Horizontal Curves 148
1.05.11
1.05.12
Maximum Percent of Gradients
Minimum Percent of Gradients for All Design Classes
149
149 ('"
1.06.1 Shoulder Widths (m) 167
1.06.2 Desirable and Maximum Slopes 169
1.07.1 Minimum Stopping Sight Distance for Channelized Right-Turn Roadway 183
1.07.2 Minimum Taper Length 188
1.07.3 Widths of Channelized Right-Turn Roadways 192
1.07.4 Design Values for Rate of Change of Cross Slope for Turning Roadways 193
1.07.5 Maximum Algebraic Difference in Pavement Cross Slope at Turning
Roadway Terminals 193
1.07.6 Required Sight Distance for Rural Unsignalized Railway Crossings 205
1.08.1 Values for Ramp Design Speed as Related to Highway Design Speed 213
1.08.2 Stopping Sight Distance for Turning Roadways 214
1.08.3 Minimum Acceleration Lengths for Entrance Terminals with Flat Grades
of 2 Percent or Less 215
1.08.4 Ratio of Length of Speed-Change Lanes on Grade to Length on Flat
Acceleration or Deceleration Lanes 216
1.08.5 Minimum Deceleration Lengths for Exit Terminals with Flat Grades of
2 Percent or Less 217
?8.6
1.08.7
1.08.8
1.09.1
1.09.2
Design Rate of Change in Pavement-Edge Elevation for Curves at
Intersections
Maximum Algebraic Difference in Pavement Cross Slope
Design Widths for Ramp Pavements
ADT (20) Growth Factors
Percentage of Total Truck Traffic in Design Lane
220
220
221
224
224
•
1.09.3 Typical· Truck Class and Weight Distributions 227
1.09.4 Pavement Material Equivalencies 233
1.10.1 Entrance Loss Coefficients, Outlet Control, Full or Partly Full 251
1.10.2 Reduction in Scour Depths for Equal Projected Widths of Pier 267
1.10.3 Multiplying Factors for Scour Depths with Skewed Flow Direction 267
1.10.4 Minimum DID for Rock Riprap Slope Protection (Side Slope 2: 1) in
Meters 270
1.10.5 Minimum DID for Rock Riprap Slope Protection (Side Slope 3:1) in
Meters 270
1.10.6 Natural Channel Scour Estimate 282
1.10.7 Baffle Wall Dissipator 300
1.11.1 Recommendations for Average Maintained Horizontal Illuminance and
Uniformities of Illuminance 308
14.1 Design Noise LevellActivity Relationships 328
....14.2
1.14.3
Noise Reduction Factors
Decibel Addition Table
328
331
(
1.14.4 Adjustment for Increased Noise Level of Heavy Trucks 331
1.14.5 Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials 333
1.14.6 Gradations 336
1.15.1 Nontraversible Hazards 339
1.15.2 Fixed Object Hazards 339
1.15.3 Roadside Barriers 345
1.15.4 Design Parameters for Roadside Barrier Layout 346
1.15.5 Types of Median Barriers for Median Widths Between 5 m and 9 m 354
1.17.1 Geotechnical 371
1.17.2 Geometry 372
1.17.3 Ventilation 384
2.01.1 Right-of-Way Widths (Meters) 385
List of Exhibits
1.12.1 Typical Plan of Traffic Control Devices for Collector and Local Roads 437
1.12.2 Typical Plan for Traffic Control Devices at an Intersection 438
1.12.3 Sheet 1/3: Typical Plan of Traffic Control Devices for Expressways
and Arterials 439
(
XV111
Page
Sheet 2/3: Summary of Quantities 440
(
Sheet 3/3: Typical Layout of Special Signs
1.12.4 Sheet 1/2: Traffic Signal Plan and Sequence of Operation
441
442
Sheet 2/2: Detail Summary Sheet of Miscellaneous Quantities

443
1.12.5 Traffic Signal Operation (3 sheets)

444
1.12.6 Signalized Intersection (2 sheets)

447
1.12.7 Typical Traffic Signal Supports and Signal Head Attachments

449
1.12.8 Typical Traffic Signal Foundations and Mountings

450
1.12.9 Typical Signal Detector Loops

451
1.14.1 Roadside Development-Rural Environment Highway at Grade

452
1.14.2 Roadside Development-Planting Guide

453
1.14.3 Roadside Development-Soil Stabilization, Erosion Control

454
1.14.4 Saudi Arabian Plant Life (6 Sheets)

455
1.14.5 Roadside Development-Parking Space Design

461
1.16.1 General Sand Fence Layout

462
1.16.2 Sand Fence Details

463
1.16.3 Tamerisk Tree Plantings

464
1.16.4 Typical Fill Section in Sand Dune Areas

465
1.16.5 Typical Cut Sections in Sand Dune Areas

466
1.16.6 Surface Stabilization of Sand Dunes

467
2.01.1 Title Sheet

468
2.01.2 Summary of Ownership

469
2.01.3 Right-of-Way Plan

470
3.02.1 Title Sheet

471
3.02.2 List of Drawings

472
3.02.3 Location Maps and Design Data

473
3.02.4 Summary of Quantities

474
3.02.5 General Summary

475
3.02.6 Culvert Summary

476
3.02.7 Typical Cross Section

477
3.02.8 Plan & Profile 478
3.02.9 Plan & Profile 479
3.02.10 Photo Mosaic 480
3.02.11 Landscape Planting Plan 481
\\
GLOSSARY
( ..:..\ ... 16,,· II J.....,..~
l
-A
AADT (Average Annual Daily Traffic) .)-,..r..J 'S~ ~."..:.-J1 .h-.."..:....J I) AADT
- The total yearly traffic volume .)-,~I ' 'oS? f'!"> ~~I - ( .........,.,.....JI
di vided by the number of days in .·~I r'--:,.1 ...I~ ~ La.>--'-o ·o..,..~1
the year.
AASHTO - Abbreviation for American .~, ...,r-J I ('- ~ .) L.a..:.> I AASHTO

Association of State Highway and ~ J-i..:.J I-' ~..AJ \ ~-,j.-..,-J .~'...)-" ~I
....
Transportation Officials. ...:..1-". ~.>-"
Abney Level - A hand-held surveying ...I.".JI ~ J-.,..:....:. c-" ·ol...lf - c---JI 'I~
instrument or clinometer, having an j.!,La 'o..,..,j.) b -'~ .)1 ~I ..,...t...".....i..o -,f
adjustable inclined line of sight. •J-.....I...A:...lJ J..,. L.j
Abney Level Line or Flag Line - An t5~ - ...... I...,r-JI Ju. -,I r:L-....J1 .,~ Ju.
inclined line run in the field with ~ '01..>-" 4..,- c-i.".....,..J1 ~ j.!.La b
~
an Abney Level to explore the pos ~..,b c-i,.,.....J L.Jl...ri..".::. J . . ". '>, 0 11 ~ w-yl.::...J I
sible grades available for a high '6...:._(~.o .•.)~ ·o...lU .b.>.J1 ~-' • ru
way location. Usually, the line is ...I L..:. -,9 I ~ cl"...::.-Jl,.J I 0-" .b.!. I .b...,-...>-:' r
marked temporarily by tying plas .)~ L.:..Jt, 0-"-' ~ I ~ I -' .) ~ 9, -'
tic ribbons to stakes, trees, and • "·o..,..1...,r-J' ,b." r 16". 11
bushes, hence, the term "f lag
line."
Abscissa - The distance measure in ~ ·,uL....o...JI ..,...L.."....i..o - ~I ~I "b.~1

the "x" or horizontal direction on ('-.) ~ ~91 44-=-~l ~f "X" - 44-=-~1
a graph. .L......,
• I.,r' ...
Acceleration Lane - A speed change ·'.<:~I ~ 'O.)w- - c'...>-~' '.)l>

lane to enable a vehicle entering a 0-" ~..,b ~ 1 ·•...hl..w I '0..,..5,..,.......J , 0r::<;.....•.......·............"
roadway to increase its speed to .)-,..,.,........J' 'oS? ~ r:La..LJU L~.."...., '0...1'--:,.,)
merge with through traffic. 'J.""..AJ' ~
Access Control - The regulated lim Jy ...L1J ~I ...b-JI - Jy..wl ..h..,....;,

itation of access that is achieved Jy..wl ~y-i.> I .. l:.. • ", ~..:o-:...". l5..:l..J 1
through the regulation of public ·o...o.>L..:.:........JI ~I <; 1-, an \I rL......Jl r:-'.;.>.J'-,
( access rights to and from proper
ties abutting the highway facili
. rL......Jl ~..AJI ~I..,.,........J
ties.
Access Openings - Openings in the r? b ~ ~L>..:;..j - JY ..1...lI ..:..~

right-of-way line that serve abut '?""'.)~' ~L..."..s..-.L. r~ l5.:UI ~..AJI
ting land ownerships whose re ~JL.,'.".....,..JI '0.)1,)-, ~ ~, ·o.....>L.::...o.-Il
maining access rights have been .~, Jy..ul ~ ~ ~
acquired by the MOC.
Accuracy - The degree of agreement .~

~ ~'.."..::...JI '0.>.)...1 U..ul
between a measured value and a true .'O~~-' '0-,-..>->-"
value.
Active Pressure on Walls The .b...RAJ I - 01.)~1 ~ ~I .h..a.i:t.J1

horizontal pressure exerted on the ·0.6.-1.."...... ":p'-L.> .), ~ ~
.)"'I.l:..- ~~,
back of a retaining wall by earth .~~-' 0' 4L".....J' -,f ·~..J~I ~~~,
loads and water, if present.
Admixture (Additive) - A substance .b.."..J;.. u-J I J w..::, <i ...l L... - (U W;l') .bJ>..J I
added to a mixture to impart a spe I.?~l ..:...."...J-,..:r.--J 1 J,...::..... ~ ~L.;. ~
cific characteristic, such as poz
zolith in concrete, antistripping
J..ol..".......Jl-,
15 w.Jl ~,
~I
~
~;ll
·.".11
u-Jl JL..D..".
<i...l~1 (
agents in bituminous mixes, calcium ~.)~ -'~ r-'.: °'51\.) ..1..,,-.)~ ULD1-,
chloride or sodium chloride to • ..Jj..b.J I u-J , r -,"",...l..,...,.J 1
clay, etc.
ADT (XX) (Average Daily Traffic) .)-'~ I <is? .h-.."..::..-. - ( XX) ADT
The current or projected average -,' ~L>-J' .h-.."..::..-..JI - ( ~.."..,.,.JI
two-way daily traffic for the year JlS ~ ·~.."..,.,.JI .)-,~1 <iS~ ~.."..::..-..JI
14XX used to define the traffic for 'oS? ..1..,,-~ ( 'f XX) ii...:..-..lJ ~L~ ...~:81
that year in the Hegira Calendar. 'I.??~t i"'~L,- rw.J1 I ~~ .)-,~I
Adverse Grade - On a long, descend ..uL."...:....., ~ ~? - ~, .)'~;ll

ing grade, a short section of as • ~ '-' .h..,. u·· J-....".b ~? ~
cending road and vice versa.
Advertisement - The public an ~-,L.i.......J1 y..1..,,- r~ 0~1 - ~;l,
nouncement, inviting Tenders for • ~ j...u: 0-" ..::.-1 ~ lJ= i"'...l....i.::...

the Work.
.eolian Deposits - Wind deposited

material such as dune sands and
loess deposits.
Aerial Photography - The pho

I . I . ....
---r----'
~~I
• ( <i
0-" ""':'.)~'
..::.-l-....--..
ch-
'" :.T'
c l ...
II)
"S 1\
...T"'!~ -
Y
- L L......r-
."
J,...::.....
cl-....--"
'" :.r'
LL".~I
u.b.Jl c L,-...".-,..,..::...JI-,
I.?~' ...T"'!,.,.....:..J'
•
tographing of the earth's surface ...T"'!~ c;ll rl...l.>...::...-L,- <i...lu ~ ~I
from the air, usually, with special • '~L.;.
cameras.
Aesthetics - A branch of philosophy <i; I; II t-'~ 0-" t~ - J~' ~

dealing with beauty and the beauti rLS.:..'-, ~ y L...-, J~I ~ ~
ful and judgments of taste con i-~~ ~L,--, • Y-'~ ~
cerning them. In highway engi Y L.>..J I r LS.:.. ~ I 0U i..o w.J I J?.J 1
neering, aesthetic judgments have ... t...'1

~...r-
J.5..z....-. ....
~
.) <i.)~ .b.-...::."
.:.r'
to do primarily with the highway as ~ L..b.\ \!.U~ ~ l.A..,. ~ I ..y"-'
J5S r w.J I
a whole and the roadsides, includ ." '.: ...... 1\ ~ y:.L......J1
ing screening out unpleasant views.
'\?;gregates - An aggregation of JL...~1 ..::.-1 ° 00 .........~

Jand, gravel, crushed stone, or
other material of mineral compo
<i...lL.. 15'
0-"
-,' ;;
~
-
;.1\ <i.)L.>->..J'-, ~1-,
c..t-S,.r--J'
.s..::...::.-I~
(
sition, used either alone or in
~
~Jl;:.
-' '··U...l.>-' r '..r:U
-j~..::...:.....-l· .< .. 1
. ...l.JL.o .
loT'.
I.;"" .
.)~ c--- U~ ~
combination with a binding medium • ...r'?--' .b)l....-' l5..) u -'
to form bituminous and portland
cement concrete, mortar, plaster,
etc.
Aggregrates (Coarse) - Aggregates o.)~ ~ ..::.-~ - (l...:..:.» c..t-SI~
predominantly retained on the 4.75 .....:;.»)

I .)··.•.. 11. f,Yo JL,-~
..,..r~
I.·~
.... .)
mm (No.4) sieve. •(f
Aggregrates (Fine) - Aggregates 0-" ~ ..::.-1 "00 ........ - (4....JoL:-) c..t-S,~
passing the 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) sieve ~-' ( 4...,,~ riA) -,-'''.: II. ~.)o JL,-~
and almost entirely passing the .) 00 .00 I I. f.)Yo JL,-~ 0-" r.....".",..ri=- y.s
4.75 mm. (No.4) sieve, and predom • .).yo JL,-~ ~ ~-' (f ,...:;.»)
inantly retained on the 0.075 mm .(T" ,...:;.») )··.•.:11.
(No. 200) sieve.
(
2
Air-Dry Material - Materials dried ",)1..>-" - ~1-,y-lL,. .. i i:- • II ",)I..,......JI
by a natural method such as expo ...,o~1 ~ .•~ 'o..:i.".~ .~
sure under ambient atmospheric con 'o..:i.".~ -,1 ~
( ditions or by an artificial method . yJJ ...,0~ 1
·.6 ....... II .......y>---l, "';-,.}UJ
~ G...::. .•~ L...:.b,..,1
that simulates exposure to the at
mosphere.
Air Entraining Agent - An admixture ~ t'~ ..b..".-l;.. - ~I-,~I ":"~ ~

used in portland cement concrete to "-,y-ll '-:-'~ ~, ~Jl,::...>.>-:' ~I
entrain air in the mixture. •.b.."...b....J I ~I
Air-Voids - The space in a com ~ '6.> l-.AJ I 6..."...!.1 ~I c.l.S 1..rAJ1

pacted mixture not filled with sol ~ j.!.l.".......,. -,t .• ..l...o w.. ",) 1~ .••,.,..J..o-o.J I
ids or liquids. '. .b......J.>.
..b..J-"A-" ..
Alkalinity - The degree of strength .~."..L J..,...b--o .•y .•-?'"..>",) - ~..,..J.-LJI

of an alkali. A liquid is said to ~ 4.."J ",)1,) I ~I ~."..L j.!.L-JI ~
be alkaline if it has a pH factor . 'U- <Y ~-,..>~y-ll rJ.."..J I
greater than seven.
All-Terrain Vehicle (ATV) - A - l~"~

c - - . .~l .L.$.......LJ
. ..> ..> ~ , - ATV
( vehicle with flotation tires, four

wheel drive, and sometimes artic-
ulated.
·W...)"'" - ...,o..>~1 t y 1 ~ ~ ~
Le L....::.
0.."..s..::.
'0..;.~
L...;,~1-, ,~-'
'
c::.-".J '~...r
(,,?""Le1
-'::"1..> Lb I ..::-1
~l",) ..::-1:.\
~
• ~ 10 " n
Alluvium - Soil, the constituents c.....ll..:, .• ~-! Alluvium ,~I

of which have been transported in ...l...st...,--, ..> L:- ~Le ~ ~L,. L..y-::.L...;,-,.s...
suspension by flowing water and .~~ ill~
subsequently deposited by sedimen
tation.
Angle of Internal Friction - The . ...".-",) - ~I...ul <!J~'11 ~-,I,)

angle whose tangent is the ratio ~ '~I Y L,-~ ~
between the resistance offered to -.s1 ~ \.:;'~~JlJ .• L.h..........J I .......-' u.....J I
sliding along any plane in the soil ~'. b. II .• ..,....u, 0-"'.s...-, '.-!r-JL. -.s~
and the component of the applied I.:u. ~ ....".",)W: .• ..>~ ~ ~I
force acting normal to that plane. ...::-w....>",) J.s..z. ~ ~I ~ • -.s~1
Values are given in degrees.
Angle of Repose - The angle between ~ ~-'I,)

{ the horizontal and the maximum
slope that a soil assumes through
~,
.;~
..
·....".-",j-ll
~~I ..>~I-, ~~,
-
J)l;.
...,.....L..:...:.....II
......."
v-" . ..,r--'I
..>~,
L.lb~L:.
natural processes. 'For dry granu L. ..,r---
·"'I t I'~
y .•...........:..JL..
. . .'.~
.....
lar soils the effect of the height . .~r-J I t u::...> 1 ..."...:.1 ~ 'u L:---J I
of slope is negligible; for cohe ·•.5.-~1 ·.-!r-JI c.1-,..:..~ ~L,.
sive soils, the effect of height of ~ ..>~I tLi.::...>' ..."...:.1 0~
slope is so great that the angle of ~ L....::..JI ....".-' l,j-l 0~ 'li ~ ....". LiJ.J
repose is meaningless. .~ ~t
Anhydrous - Free from water. • • L....J I 0-" J L>. - ~ LeJlJ I
Approach - All lanes by which ve ~ ~1 ..::-'..>L>-Jl ~ - ,,:,,',..t-:...i'11

hicles may lawfully proceed toward • • . ...0......
..>~ -~
I. 1~
...,..."...... ~
".1
u .. L....S ... I I
'-'.:..r--
an intersection. .",~ ~U:; ~ ·.~yU
Approach Delay - That delay exper ,-:-,I,..t-:...i'lil ~ ?UI - ,,:-,1,..t-:...i'11 ..".>L.

ienced on the approach to an inter . ",.,;hJ I ~ U::. 0-"
section.
I Approach Lights - Low beam head ..::-1 ~6...i.:.L..5 "."...1 ,,:,,1,..t-:...i'11 -I."...'
\.
lights. '~c.~
3
Approach Nose - An end of an is <i...ih...:.....)' (,~y. o..".Ly-;- - '";-'1~~1 r..l..i...
land~ or neutral area between road r..l LU1 ...).)..,.,.....JI ~,."..::- "'? ~ ·o-l..,,-L>....
ways~ which faces approaching traf ~ ~4- ~ ~ '?~I
fic that passes either on one or
.), .1>1.)
.~4-..J'
(
both sides.
Arbitrary COordinates - A system of r~ - 6..."...!.1.,.,..:.....J1 ..:.~I.1>~'

coordinates based upon an arbi ...) L.:.:.>...o ...)...l...<>-o ~ y5.::.~ c. L..,? I .1»U
trarily chosen origin and not based r-...) ~ ,).$.::,~ "1.) '~'r (,...)~
upon a cartographic projection. • (LSo··.
~
II c.L.......:.I..l>I
0
. r ~ I) L~_
e::::-...)~
(See Plane Coordinate System.)
Architectural Features - As used in ~ ~ .Y" Lo.S - .........) t-.-....II ..::. L..-J 1

roadside enhancement ~ these may ..::.L.--JI ~ ..I-U -
~..r---
.L II ~l.>.
.. ~
I ._ ..
include stepped retaining walls to t?-J o.."...IL...:....::....\ MI» ~ O""'...)~1

minimize the visual impact of mas ~~I ~~I ~..I~1 ~I ~I JJ~
sive walls~ rock sculpturing to J G..I"1 ...)~ I ~.) ,(,..r.:--:-5..J I M I yoo--l-J
blend disturbed areas into the nat ~...)~' ~ o..".~1 ~ .jbL...:....o..JI
ural terrain~ and special treatment c. '-.. w:.u 4..a L>..J' "O-.L. L.,....._11 .) ,(, ... R.. .. b II
of bridge abutments and culvert ~ l.t-JG..I"1 ":;"'...)~'.) LS...) L...,.5..J \
headwalls to blend them into the .~.Jl ~I
lndscape.
Arrestor Bed Escape Ramp - A road

that runs either uphill or downhill
from the main traveled way and
whose surface is a deep bed of
~ ~?
0-"
~...),
~
,)~ ~ ~I .),
..r
-
J_i.J
A......:.~ 4.."...;...)' .)~ ~.)~
'0...) L..,.s
~l .),
4.>-h-.) ~~ I
JL.~I
~, ~,
0-"
Lh-.AJ I
~
...r
'-..1 •
loose sand or gravel~ in which the ~ ~..r- lbL..,...::....:..) c.I...)L.".........J1 ~
vehicle becomes mired and slowed to • ("O......--~l.>..J,
"'. ,~..IL.L:.
'? ~
~,
.. e::::-...)
') ~
a stop. (See also Gravity Escape
Ramp) •
Arterial Highway or Street - A rw: Lh-? - ~L,..r C...)L;.)' r~ ~?

highway primarily for the movement 0.)5.". .i.O • ~1 .."hJ I ...).)~ L., L., \ ~
of through traffic. It may have t-" L"
.. ~ ..::.L"b~ '-..1 · · L 11
""""..r-- \ ~-v-l
either grade intersections with L"
.. ~
..::.L..stb~
-'
, ,~.,
,-"y
6..oW:
".r-
··L
other highways or grade separated t\~~1 o~ r.:H'-' I ~ .Y".) • (,~

intersections. A design classifi ."'.AJ 1 0-"
cation used to define these types
of roads.
A-Scale Sound Level - Sound weight

ed according to the American Na
..::..,...,....u
oJ"'G.JI
..,..~
S1.4-1971
- ..::.,.,..,.J' LS~ (,) IJ"L"..:L.
~...) ...)1 ... Ro II LU.)
(
tional Standards Institute (ANSI) ~ G.....J.J L:r",.,...u I
..I~ L...,. c..J'yj" ~ I
Standard S1.4-1971~ and designated ..,..L."...i.o.) ..,..~.) (ANSI)
• ..I..b:....J\ (,) .
A-scale. A-scale sound levels em '?~ c.,.,..,.J I ~ c.,.,..,.J I LS~ (,)
phasize the high frequencey sound ..::.,.,..,.JI 0-" 'y. UI,)L...,. Ww...J1 o..,.~~l
by eliminating some of the low fre Q':"" • II ·o...".i..,.~1. 4"
LS~
quency sound.
Asphalt - A dark brown to black ~ (, .. -.'.0 I ~ '0..1'-.. - .:...l.i-~ I

cementitious material; solid~ semi ~ .), '";-'.J..:. r'.,..:g c.1 ~ "..1.>-.)' L.5\..I
solid~ or liquid in consistency; in 0-" "0...".- L.,, 4...)~ 0.)5...::..::. J!, L., .), '";-'.J..:.
which the predominating constitu I~ ~ 4R .. ,bll ~ 0.1>::. o.."....)W ..II.,Y'
ents are bitumens that occur in ..l>~ I . . 1, J--.'lI~
.. ..:r---' ~.)
, .... 1\
.."......---
nature as such or which are ob .J.)~I ~~ ~ 0-" ..:;..1':"""'0 II
tained as residue in refining pe
troleum.
\.
4
Asphalt Cement - A fluxed or un ~ ..J 1 .J..J-t-"'-" ..::.....L..... \ - ~ 1 e.-:....o..-I
fluxed asphalt especially prepared ('I y-iJ1..J ~I ..:;....o..J ~ .~ .J..J-Y-O-O
as to quality and consistency for ~ L··.
, c...i.:>J-'' 1 _~
0 J·L.......Jl .J l...1>...::..-)lJ
,( direct use in bituminous pavements t
~..J
~ Lo '6..".~
-,
'o..:,..J"') r0 ~ o....,...r.::- •.>.J...)
and having a penetration at 25 0 C ..,......> .• ..l..a.....l ('I"p'- , •• ~ ~ i" ..J 0
of between 5 and 300 under a load '01~
of 100 g applied for 5 s.
Asphalt Concrete - See Bituminous • ..:.r.t-"~I ~I.J - ... ft Ii f t....:.'-?

Concrete.
Asphalt Emulsion - See Emulsified c....1.i-'J 1 ~I.J , •• 1... - 0 It -::....l.i..'JI

Asphalt • .,. l,. ft. • 1\
Asphalt Overlay - A bituminous "y .J L..i.J L.." c...i.:>.J - .. ft I; 'J I

ft 6...i..,.h.J I
paving course placed over an ex ." Y...r-..J
"'<f L-.L.1 _~~~J
c~~
0L..j _h_
c
isting surface to provide smooth
ness and increase strength.
Asphalt Material - See Bituminous .• ...) L...o..J, ~l.J .. ft' ft. I i I '0...) Lo
Material. • b.."..J LiJI
,f, ASTM - Abbreviation for American

Society for Testing and Materials.
.•~, .. r-~ .JLc.;.>.\
... ...)I~'..J .JL....,...::..;.V
- ASTM
·~..r9
t=-f
ATV (All Terrain Vehicle) - A ve .Jr~

.. --,--,II ~ ~, '~~f) - ATV
hicle with flotation tires t four ..:;..\ ~ 'W..r - (~.J~I e y 1 ~ ~
wheel drive t and sometimes articu ..:;..1 j
'
Lo~ • ..:>.~ c..-."...J ~,r ..:;..l.JLbI
lated. 0..J.s..:. L.L"..>.f..J '~..J l?"'Lot ~...)
..~
Auxiliary Lane - The portion of the ~ ~...,.h-U \.f?jL>...o ' k - o..,....;U>1 ·0.Jl.>
roadway adjoining the traveled way . :;.. L..,.,r '•.s.or .• . .) L.".')..J 0 ' .J..J..w I ,-""I ~ ~
for weaving t truck climbing t speed LS?t ,-"",~9 ..Jf ..:;..u..r--!' ~..J Jl:.J1
change t or for other purposes sup .J..J~ I .s
• ~ .~ L.." 'o..."J L.O I
plementary to through traffic move . ~'..,.hJ1
ment.
Available Head - The highest head l.ir°Lo .J L......::.

.. ~
1·1 - L L=...A.JI ~I
water caused by a channel constric 0..J...) ~ ~ lS~1 ~ ().$. ~L..
tion that can be tolerated without c ~5.J...o.J L..,. ~.Jb...J L.."
( damage to roadway structure or
adjacent property.
..J f .J '...r''J'
.·~~I
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) .J..J.,,-.JI • .s~ \.f?~1 .h.-~I (AADT)
- The total yearly traffic volume \.f?.."...:.-J \ ~ Lo.> 'J , ~I - ..........,......J I
divided by the number of days in ('~t ...)...).s. ~ Lo~ .J..J~, • .s~
the year. • o...:....Jl
Average Daily Traffic (xx) (ADT) - ..........,......JI .J..J.,,-.JI ·,s?.h..~ (ADT)

The current or projected average ·o.s~ ~~l ..J1 ~G..JI .b-~I
two-way daily traffic for the year , 'fxx .o..:.....J ~4-=-l ~ .J..J...,.....J'
14xx used to define the traffic for ~ .J..J~' • .s? ~ ~~ ('~..J
that year in the Hegira calendar. • '6.."...P,--rJ I • ....:....J 1 ~
Average Highway Speed - The weight rw..J I J-::o...,hJ I ~ 6.s.-"--' I .h..~

ed average of the design speeds ~ • ...)..h-o.JI cuy-ll ,-:-,~l J,,-~I
within a highway section when each ...)Y..J ·uL,.. ~ ('l..AJI ~~1 0-" 'k
subsection within the section is I ~ 0-" -r ~ ,y- J.s..J ~ L.;.. • .s. or
considered to have an individual • '~I
( design speed.
5
Average Initial Horizontal Illum y~1 '4.."...i.J~1 6-W':l1 .h-..,.=...o
inance - The average level of hori 4.."...U ~ 1 6 'WJlJ .h..y..o..J' l5~ 1
zontal illuminance on the pavement ~ ~?.JI
area of a traveled way at the time
the lighting system is installed,
0-'~ w.~-,
0-'"
• 6'W'l1
·uy...,......Jl
r~
6J.b·,. IL"
~r (
L... Li.c .~ C""""" L.:>.,....J \ -' 6 ~ ~ ..:;" L.,......J.J I
when lamps are new and luminaires ..:;,,1 -h-, ").ll J.,)w...:. 6 'WI 6-h-,) ~L"
are clean; expressed in lux (lumens
-,' c-...,......Jl ~\ 0 6'W'l1 <.rL..,,-i
per square meter or horizontal
surface) • '(0~1 ~I
Average Overall Travel Speed - The

summation of distances traveled by e~ - ~I As.r-JI .h-..,.=...o
-,' ..:;"L..,..S...,......JI J$ ~ ~, ..:;"Ut...-....JI
all vehicles, or a specified class 0-'" ~ ',:.P.- ~ ~ .. ~ elyt
of vehicles, over a given section .~ .~.) 6..r=J J)I.>. rL.....Jl ~..;b.J I
of highway during a specified ·W-S.JI ":;"U-,~I e~ ~ . . . ...rJ-..o
period of time, divided by the sum

mation of overall travel times.
• ~..;b.J \ ~ ...r.:---U
Average Spot Speed - The arithmetic .h..y::.....Jl ' - - IL.-

~..r--. ...r--'I
As· .h-J-'-"
mean of the speeds of all traffic, 6.$? J$ ..:;" u ....-J \.:r'" L-.:>..J I
-' , ....I-,...,......J I
or a component thereof, at a spec • ~ ~ ~
•
6.h..i..:, ',:.P.
ified point.
l\Xle Load - The total load trans <u~1 ~~, - ....Iy--..o-ll Ll,.,.....,..
mi t ted by all wheels on a single ..l..rL ....1.»-".- ~ ..:;"JL.-.,..J \ J.S..,. <u~ \
axle extending across the full
....1-' L.>...c.J 1 ~-' • W...,......JI d>..r'-:' ~
width of the vehicle. Tandem axles ....II ~ ~ 0-" ~ ~I y.,)Ir.JI
1 m or less apart shall be consid
• ..l~ ....I~ J..-O' -,' ~
ered as a single axle.
Azimuth - The angle clockwise in '-:c'....I~ .L>...;:,1 0 '4..".-,1.) - ~I .. 'i".-, I ....I'

grads from true North to a given ~\ l,:> ........ l\ Jt-::..JI 0-'" 'io.>....I..l..::...o .~ L....Jl
survey line.
• 0-c.'-"-" r:-" .b.>
-B-
Backfill - Material used to re ,JI~':J ...... ~ 6..lLo - r.,)~' 6.,)ul

place, or the act of replacing,
JI ~\ ~ ~ ~ 15.:LJ1 r-'l\ -,t
material removed during construc L...o.5 , ' .... ' ", II ~ ,~, e-J.."..)' 6..l W.
tion; also denotes material placerl,
-,' ·.1..<:y~1 6..lL..o.JI ~I ~, ~
or the act of placing, material
acent to structures.
• ,L...,.....LI 6...:i.c.JL, ';'..l L.o.J I ~-' .~
(
Backslope - In cuts, the slope from ."bJ-J I
,":;" U ~ ~1 ....I I ..\:>-:. ':l I
the bottom of the ditch to the top
of the cut.
~, ~\ ';'~1 eU 0-'" ....I~I
.~I
Backwater - Temporary ponding or

storage of flood flow upstream from ..:r.t~ -,'
6.$J"'" - J~ t,.,..Ll> ~~
, L:....,- 0-'" ....IL..".-::..J\ .i,b • ~ c:.:......ii j.-.
a drainage structure. .c..9r-J-l
Balance - (1) An instrument used
·0.)YI 0 r~ 61..l' (I) - 0'~1
for weighing. (2) To design a sec ,. ~ .. r... ,. .. (y)
tion of highway such that the vol o ~r &:,.,r-0-'" Y~ I
15-,L.....". ~.,;, ~ ...... U'l r.)JlJl d>....I~1 ~

ume of earth necessary for embank .~I (L?"-'"
ment equals the volume of excava
tion.
(
6
Ballast - (1) Gravel, broken stone, ';'...> 4->-.) ~ (\) - d-:-,..,h-JI J...,..r! ~
granular materials, etc., llsed to ';'..)L..",j-J ('...b...:.'-::' ';'~ ..)1.>-".) .~
(
provide added stability. (2) A .,..)1 (r) .~,..,h-Jl ~ ...>I~~I
device used with an electric dis (,?!.L..,....>+> ~...>..J.:.:. L~ t-'" ('..)~
charge lamp to obtain the neces ·;,-"...:,t.....,.....>;-S.JI ';'r'~' 'U~ ·u~
sary circuit conditions (voltage, '~jJU' ( •..,.~~,.) ..::...Jyi-Jl.) ...>L...".-:.:....I)
current, and waveform) for starting • L~I ~.) • ...>'..)~
and operating the lamp.
Balled Plant transplanted with ~1.) 6...>.)~ J~ cL..,...;. - J_'-s- II

roots in a ball of earth. • ';'..,..,..,..:..J'
0-0 .•..J..::..5 ~ 6-' ...>,j
Bareroot Plant transplanted with 0.) ..)..,. C.)...>.:Y' c L..,...;. U~I ...>.)~I
no soil on the roots. ....>.)~l ~ 'i>..,..,r
Barrier Curb - A curb that is de ~f...> ~ ~~...> - ':p'-l..>...J1 o...i...:-..r!1

signed with a near vertical face ~..
'...>-' ~
I, cL....5· - II
. ....r--- ~
• ,.
('
~
.)
1C-
0', _ I
to prevent or discourage vehicles • ('L.JLJI ~~I
from leaving the traveled way.
Base Course The layer, or layers, ...) L.. 0-0 c ~ .) 1 'u..,..b - v--'- ~ 1 'u.,..b
~
of specified or selected material • ..)..\.:lo...o u~ ,;;.,1 ~ ';' Li.::...:...o .)1 .o.-:....."....su>
of designed thickness placed on a "--4b.) •.: ..,...... )I ..,...L.- ~ \ .oJ....,..b ~ ~..,.::
subbase or a subgrade to support a • cb....J\ .~ ('-"..LJ ';'~ Li.J\
surface course.
Basic Capacity - The maximum number cL.~ ~~\ ..)..u.J1 - 6.."..-'-~1 'ULb..J1
of passenger cars that can pass a '.>-b-i..:., 0-0 ~ 01 ~ ~, ,-:,.).$..r!'
given point on a lane or roadway ';'~L.- J~ ~/> .)1 ';'...>~" ~ ';'~
during 1 hour under the most nearly L<l.~..,.::- ~ 0.)..):0 ~1 Jb ~ .• ...l..>,.)
ideal roadway and traffic condi • ...>.)..".......J';,.$~.) ~.."h.LJ
tions that can be attained.
Beacon - A type of traffic control C \ .,.,..:. 1 0-0 C.,.,..:. -.. -6 i - . ~ ~ ';'...> 1..:.1
signal, generally used with an ap .~~ ·;'..)u ('~ ...>.)..".......JI ~ cl...>L:.I
propriate sign, in which the red or .)1 '1 ~I cL.-..u.J1 L~ 'L..D..:;.~)L,
yellow lens or lenses are alter J~ ·o..J..)~ .•...>~ Lib..::..) "~l
nately illuminated and darkened at •.•..."....:.,L:. Js ~~;'y
a rate of about once per second.
(- Bedrock - Rock of relatively great

thickness and extent in its native
'i>.-:,~
• ~~,
..;:.., ~ ';'~
Ly-:,L..S.... ~ ~
- 4_, ,,_, .. 611
..)1 ...L:....ol.)
·o..P--J1
';'~.$
location.
Bench Mark - A permanent or semi 0...,...:. .)1 ·~I..) ~~ - '-:'~ ....~

permanent marker of known elevation ch-J 1 ~1 0.)..r"-" C L..J.:.:....> 1 c I ~o....c.!. I ..)
above the datum plane. '15~l
Berm - (1) A raised and elongated 15~ '-""...>~' 0-0 'i>.>.L.-...o (\) - Ul..>...J1
area of earth intended to direct 6L........JI
..
... 0..).;;. 6...J..>.
u-
". I L<l...L~
... :"r-- .. .)
L i
" ..
I,,",
the flow of water, screen headlight ·;'..)u~ .)1 ·.......... L..~I ...>1.,.,..:.~1 ~.) •...>..).)
glare, or redirect out-of-control

vehicles. (2) Embankment widening
"Lk.
"LII
.r C<.>-..-p- ~,
..
cL..,..$..".......Jl
(r) ·;'.L
~..,.::-
11
~..r--- ~ ~jJ • ~
to provide lateral support for the .~...>h..J..J ';'~4 ·~U..) ~..,.::-..J
roadway.
Bicycle - Any vehicle that has two •

~...>--"';'.) ~ cl ~ ';,..,...sy 151 -
',-?-I...>.wl
wheels and is propelled solely by (..), ...r-95U) ..)-rUJ ';'~\ .u Lh..J L.,.. ..b...:U
the muscular energy of the per • o.."..)~ ';,~1 .)1 JI..)..,. (', ~t.....,..
sones) on that vehicle by means of
pedals or hand cranks.
\
7
Bid - See Tender. ..~ c;--I..J - Bid
Bidder (Tenderer) - An individual, Y -,' r -,' J~ - r.1.l....
firm, or corporation submitting a

Tender for the Work.
'L.- 6.5 • u.......JI
• J.....-s.-lJ • ~ ('..l...i..: (
Bill of Quantities - A list showing ..::-L".....S ~ ~U - ..:..~I A.....!.U
Work quantities and specifying unit -,1 / -' ..::-I.h .rl' ..J L..st-l J"h..;,-' . J,..........J I
prices and/or lump sums for specif • ~I 0-" ~ J~ 6....-JL.....:--' t-JL..,.....

ic items of the Work.
Binder - Material used to stabilize -,' , " .. I ('~ 6JLo - ~L.. 6JL..
or bind together loose soil or JI~I -,' 6-'y-.".J' o...,,~1 .h..,...J
aggregates. .4.".....oLS.".J1
Binder Course - A plant mix of 0-" ~~ ..b..".....J.; - ~L.. 6JL.. u-- u...,.b
graded aggregate and bituminous ~ e!>Y ..J U-!I 6 J Lo-' '4.>..J.l.:..A c.. Lo.51 y
material placed between the base 0-" c~, ch-JI .u....,.b-' '.i~ U-li ~
course and a bituminous surface '..JU-l1
course.
•
Bituminous Concrete - A combination ..::- Lo.5 \ Y 0-" ..b..".....J.; - .......J U-l I 6...:.. L-..;-i-J I
mineral aggregates and asphalt

~ .b...J>...;:. ~I ~I-, ~~ ~
~~ment mixed in a central plant. .~ J U ;;""'..J u j I L L -..;-i-J I -' • ':?A.r ~
Bituminous concrete is usually • '~L.. l:r'l'-' ..!J..l..::--, ~-' ..b.J.>...::. L,
mixed, laid, and compacted while
hot.
Bituminous Material - (1) Material ~ ':?~ 6JLo (1)- .......JU-ll 6Jt-JI

containing bitumen. (2) A general ..::.....:.....'11 . U .. (y) u
~ (' ~ I '..J
term encompassing asphalt cements, •...,... \.,. ", "II ..::-...l..i.••;~ 1-' ~ '1 I
cutbacks, and emulsified asphalts.
Bituminous Pavement A pavement ..J~ 0-" ;-,..5..::.....". J..o..J ..J U-l L..,. ..u.".J'
composed of crushed rock or other L5~'
...r6.···.'
' ~I
.. ~
.. J'>-,,-, '.i~
aggregate cemented together with • ..JU-ll r"'
bitumen.
Bituminous Surface Treatment - The '.1 J Lo e!>-' - ..J Li...J L..,. ch-J1 ~ w....
application of liquified bituminous ch- ~ 4.".....oLS..J 6JL.-, Ll~L.. ~..JU
material and aggregate to an ex
ing road surface.
• J Y >-" &:.? (.
Bond (Tack Coat) - The application ..JU ('I~\ ( ~j-LI , u.,.h.J I) .h..,..".Jl
of a liquid bitumen to cause a new ch--JL.,. 6..)..,,-~ ~ u...,.b ~ J-:, L....
surface to adhere to an existing .Jy~1 ...,....J..:,...JI
hard surface.
Borrow - The material necessary to '~'1 L .:.S..J I 6 J L.-l , JI~'1'

construct the embankment that is ..::-~ c-::- L:. 0-" ~..,.::..::, '1-, '.l..."....J.".JI
not available from the design exca .~I
vation.
Boulder - A rock fragment, usually 6JU ~ 6~ 0-" w.z. - J~'

rounded by weathering or abrasion, ;;""'y-ll j...1~1 j....U.,. I~~ ~
with an average diameter of 75 nun .~, -,' 1..J".0 ..' 11 0 Yo ~.b....~
or more.
8
Brake Reaction Distance - The dis 'oj l.......a..J, ~ - ~ 1.ri.U J.,..iJ1 .)-' U L-..o
tance traversed by the vehicle from .• ..)JbL:....., '6.h.:>-J ~ ·W..ro--l' ~ ~ \
( the instant the driver sights an '6.hJ ~ JJ,.,..::.-JI I.:r"'~ '~ J-!.L.-Jl
object necessitating a stop to the .: ~ , .,ri-J 1 .. ~ .h...R.AJ 1
instant the brakes are applied.
Braking Distance - The distance re ·O-o.)JlJI 'u~I ~ u....ri-JI U L-..o

quired to stop the vehicle from the .b...S..AJI '.l...,- '6.hJ ~ '.--,.5..ro--l 1 JJ,.,..::.-J
instant brake application begins. .~'.."....ul ~
Branch Connection - A multilane c,.' -' L.:>-J' .• .)..L<L:....o .....J...:,-' - ~ ..;.i u...-'
connection between two expressways '~..r' ~? L.r.:'-:'
(motorways).
Breakaway (Yielding) Supports - A .•.)~.su 4...0 U.) - J L..:U.;.)I.J LL,. L.i ..:;.. L. ~ .)
support for a roadside device that -' t 1. ...
-'~~..r--
.. . I... II ~ '->
. . ~
1 _ '• .) .... II
Y...:r-
yields or collapses readily when • '6..-5 ... t
,J-"'?
I..
~('
...lb..a.:. Lo ~ I
~
..
struck by a vehicle.
Bridge - A structure exceeding 6 m ~ -' L.:.....o t 1 ~ ~~ 'L.:...,. - cS..)-:'.,s...J I

clear span measured along the cen 'j . .. I... I \ ,~, L.. L.:i... .. ~ L....::. J' I
(
terline of the roadway, which car
ries traffic over a watercourse or
~-' '-'""'..r--
•.6."....:..j -,t
0-'"
~Lo cS~ ~
'
-,-,..ro--l'
opening.
Broken Back Curve - An arrangement lJ".

L..o..... ~ c,.1 ...... ·.ft _~
1 ••
- ~b....i.-..~
c _~
- - ..,--
of curves in which a short tangent • 0 ~ J' I ~ ~ 0-0-.! ......, ft J,.:w..".
separates two curves in the same
direction.
Buffer Zone (Buffer Strip) - Lands - (J.)L.aJ1 .b..,....,..:..JI) 'U.)L.aJ1 ';;6'.11

adjacent to a highway acquired by L...s,j 1 " . I... I I '0.....>. L:...o.J 1 .I ~ I
('~............... ~-'
the highway authority for the pur ~ ...,o~ J.AJ' ·.;-,I.)J'';S~'-,
pose of preventing development -,1 -,-,..ro--l' .• ~""":' ~ ..D l?,.:LJ I ,.,..::.-J , c-
that would be adversely affected ...::..."..,.J' ~..:P.- \ Y '0-0 L.j J'
by traffic noise, or for erecting
noise barriers.
Bullet-Nosed Median - On a divided .J,.,~ ~ - ub .~ .. II ...;.1... II

.. -'..r-- ..r---' J j,pL.i..J1
L ..
highway intersection at a grade, a -,'...l.>....:-L.,. ~ ~
6....oy-L-JI JyhJ'
long-radius configuration of the 0...::....", l;-:- ~ G-, -' ~ j,pL.i..JI ~
median end to permit flatter turns &:-.AJ I 0-"" 'oi.!'.) L<!> '';-' I ...l.::..- L.,. ( L..o.........LJ
from the crossroad. • ~ L..i.::..AJ \
Bus - A self-propelled vehicle used •.."...:. 1 J WJ-" - (6...l,j L.:>-J I) ~,.,.:.-,9 I

for the transportation of passen '0 ~ u.." e".. L.S..,rJ1 J-i..:.-l (' ~.;S ~ \
gers with a wheel base of 8 m or ....
~
Lo......
. ~A<f -' 1 -' L.:.....of A L.lb-' I..u.... c,.~
.
more including articulated vehi • '•.! L.... " II ..::..W..ro--l' dJJ
cles.
Bus Bay - An auxiliary lane at ~ .,;. ". . ; L,;' .•-' '-> - v-.t-<''''':'-' ~ I ~y
intersections or midblock with ta c,. w...,...ro--l' .~ ~ -' f c,. w.b ~ I
pered entrance and exit for un (-'..l..::...o (~-' J>,.l..o ..:,.' ~ y -' L.Z..J I
loading and loading passengers. ...,..L.S..,rJl J-,,.;,-:.-, .)~ c. L....::.J"
Bus Lane - A traffic lane reserved -'-'~ .~ '.-,'-> - ~,.,.:.-,~I '-,'->

for buses. .~.."..::.-,~I
Bypass - A highway that permits -,-,..ro--l '.S~ ~ (' U J-"-..,,..b - u.."...,ri=

(
traffic to avoid part or all of an '
L'
• -t-""'"
, ...P."
. -,.. t·6.-....:..S.- 6..ib...:..... -'-'
. L.>...::......
. '
urban area.
-C-
Calcareous - Material containing or

similar to calcium carbonate or
-,1 ,~
.~,
~~
-,1 ('-,.!
·• ..)Lo -
15 II c,L.;.,.,...,...,rS
~ • ..)L.
o...,.~
(
lime.
Calendar Day - Every day shown on ._.··.I~ Ie:: .• ;;-.11 • . 11

~.;r---. ('~ v--' -~...r-- r~
the Hegira calendar. .~~l
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) .~ - J ... .,.- II ~J~L5 J..1...AA

The ratio of the force required to ...r L...s....
" '6..-,"
...)-' .• ,
"'...r---> ~ ....... JUI
••.
J
.•. ;; 1\
..:r--
penetrate a soil mass with a cir .......)JU\ '.,.,...w' ~l 'r- 0 4..rW
~Yl..)
cular piston of 5 cm diameter to J' S-.• II ~, 0-" .•...l::.S ~,~~
the force required to penetrate a ~ , ..,r=.> ~ , .•...,.-..:..-' , ...rL,..s..J I ..,.-i-:- ("...l>...:..- L..,.
mass of high quality crushed stone ••....i"...j~, ~ ('-" 'JTY ~ ~L.:...J' ~
with the same piston. The rate of
penetration in both cases is 1.27
mm per minute.
Camber - A slight arch designed or 'L.:..-." J>.\..) ~ ~ ...r..,..,s - ,-:,,-=,~I
•
bui lt into a structure to compen .~\ ~ y .... 611 'L...:..:>...:.~' ~.."......::...
P. for the natural deflection

a~[er loading.
Candela (cd) - The unit of lumi •.• 'L.i> ~ I 'u L.:..$ ...r~ .• ..b--' - )1........l..:. L5
nous intensity.
Candlepower (cp) - Luminous inten ,~ • 'L.i>~1 .• ~ - -..........:..JL..,. '~I

sity expressed in candelas. It is ~L:....Jl .r ~ ~-' c,~L.." L~
no indication of the total light .~I 0y>.J1
output.
Capacity - The maximuM number of ~, c,~..;--o-l-J ..)~ ~l - ULkJI

vehicles that have a reasonable .•J G. 0-" ~ '? ~,.,.... u,J-'...T'" ~~
expectation of passing over a given II· ... .. ... JJ6. t.. 1
u-Z> '-T ~ ~.) •~ ~...r- -'
section of a lane or a roadway . '~LUI ~~, -' J-'....r-o-J ....9-,..".b
during a ~iven time period under '
prevailing roadway and traffic con
ditions.
6..,.y...r-' I
Ulary Moisture - Hoisture that
c~lngs to soil particles by surface
tens ion and reaches the particles
~,
~1
'0...,.yb...,..J I
y~L.,.
-
.~~,
6..,.-...,.....:.-J I
c,~~ ~ (
~, y~L.,. c,L.!...".~1 ~l ~-'
by surface tension either when free '~."
..r---II JJ1>..0 - "4~'
.. ~
. La~ La\
water passes through the soil or by J.:.51 .o....i.,.b 0-" ~~1 ,-:",,~L..,. -' I
capillary attraction from a wetter 44-=-1 1.5\ ~ eJ~ 0' ~-' . '~ybJ
stratum. Within limits, it can .... • '.~ ..)-,..b- J.:>'..)
move in any direction.
Carriageway - See Traveled Way. • ('~' ~~, ~IJ - -=-L..,....,...AJI ..r-
Cationic Emulsion - An asphalt ~I ~ .."..J I «.r--'"'" ~ I ' . J,."

e • II
emulsion that contains positively c,L."..!-? ~ ~~ .. ~, I.e J.... • •
charged particles that are at <..-.h.iJ1 ~, '--'~ ' y y <.::,.~ '6..:..~
tracted to a negative electrode •..,...J L-.J I ~ L.,.JyS...J I
(cathode).
CBD (Central Business District) '~1 - (~..;5..r--J1 ~J4-=--J1 ~l) CBD

That portion of a municipality 0-'.5.". ~ .6..,,-..Ll.,....J I -' 1 .•~ ~ , 0-"
\.here the dominant land use is for .b~l ~ . 5u
<J"J ~..)-'1\ •. (' I ...l>...:..-~'
intense business activity.
..T'
.~l l5.J~, (
10
CBR (California Bearing Ratio) (J",o>". I I L..,;....:..J~L5 J..l..A.o) CBR
The ratio of the force required to ..,...~ o-"Y L;I~'J ·........;,JUI.>yUl .• ~
penetrate a soil mass with a cir ·........;,JUI.yUI ~I 'r- b~ ',Syl j0
cular piston of 5 em diameter to .J <;" a II ~I 0-" 'o...l.::..S L;I~~
the force required to penetrate a "I ~
'-' ,,' 'JI'~. ~ ,..,...L...s.JI
. ~ I' , ~L...
v---
mass of high quality crushed stone .~.lJ1 ~ ~ 1.JrV l.;(b ~L>-Jl ~
with the same piston. The rate of
penetration in both cases is 1.27
rom per minute.
Centerline - (1) For a two-lane I' L...s..J I ...,..",?-U .•~ L.. (1) -..6..-.".J I .b.:;.
highway the centerline is the mid .~ y .h-.".J f .h.;. 0 w ~.J L>-J I ~~
dle of the traveled way, and for '~L..~ • ...,..",..).>.J' 0-" I' h." a II '~l
a divided highway the centerline 0~.s.", ..LO .h-.".J I .h.;. 0 w ~ ' """"'.JhJ...J
may be the center of the median. ~~I ~ 'b~LiJ\ t....ih..:....ol .~
For a divided highway with indepen ~.Jh.J.J '.~L...,.~ • ( .•..r:'~') .J~~l
dent roadways, each roadway has its 0 W .• \ .• " a " L;..).>.JI ',S~ r~' rL.U1
own centerline. (2) The eiefined (r ) ,~ U"'L>-J' .h-.".J I .h.;. ...,..",~ Js.J
and surveyed line shown on the U~I ~ 0.-...0 ...s.Y~ j~1 .b..J1
plans from which the highway con ...,..",,..,..hJ I • L.:.-,. ~~ oL....a ~ ',S.iJ I ~
struction is controlled. • rL.U1
t. Centerline Projection A line

drawn on a topographic map to ex
.•.h.".....r>-
.J L......a.5
~ r-..r:'
Ly.::. L..,,-:. LS..... I
.h.;. - ..6..-.".J I
, j L..:.S...::.... 'J
.b.:;.
.•.."..j I ~ ~
.h.L-.
plore its possibilities as a high '~.J ...,..",..)o..J

way route.
Central Business District (CBD) illj Y - '-:tj5...r--l ·6..,...J~I ·db·· II

'
That portion of a municipality F 0~.s.", ',S.:u I '0-.."...L1.,..J , 0-" •~ 1
where the dominant land use is for '',S.J~' .bL...:...:J.J y ..,c.J'J I J~I
intense business activity.
Channelization - The separation of .J~...rJI j..,:.....; y - ..::.. I .J L-.a...J I .1..,,-...u..:.

traffic flow into definite paths, ·o.h..,l ~ '.j...\.>-..o clj"-" ~1 ~~\
by means of traffic markings or '.J~' ~, cLJL"J\
islands.
Channelized Intersection - A grade .j~I ..::..1 .J L-.a...J I ~j tk L:i.:.J I

intersection where traffic is di .J~...rJ1 j..,:.....; L"j
"
"
~
d"
u.J-'-"
.kLi..::,
c
rected into definite paths by is '.J~'b.b-'~
( lands.
Channel Stabilization - Protection c' .J L-.....J I '0..", L.....>. - ..::..I.J L-.a...J I ~

of open channels from excessive JS"~'~ ~\ .J...'..Y 0-" ·o..:..~l
erosion and scour by channel lin 0' LI ..... S". II~ • ·.~I 1'1 ~L...,.
ing. Linings may be flexible, such ~f '•.J~\ 0-" '•.5j ~ J.:..."o...:-y 0~
as rock riprap and vegetation, or , '0...:, L....?---l' 0-" • ..,......L., 0~ ~ 1 G L:. ~ ,
of rigiei concrete.
Check-Dam - A structure usually ...s~, ...,..",~ ~ • L.:.-,. - C"" L5 ..\

made of sod, rock, or stone, placed ~I .o....,.y'J I 0-"" ·.ju ~ ~L.JI
in a watercourse to retard water ~~ 'u'..r- '~"i .J~l ~\ • .J~'
flow, thereby reducing erosion. • J.$L:.JI 0-" ..h..." ill ~~ • L.J \
City or Village - A subdivision 0-" 0~ - '-:t..ri .J I o...:.....~

CLbJ
comprised of a collection of houses L.o~ C.J \.:.ro .J I J..;, L..."
~I 'u,~
and/or farms, used to designate or 'r:~\ J-...-,..J I t?.Y'.....9..,;~ I' ~
identify the location of the pro
posed Work.
(
11
Classification - The grouping of 'A..o L....J I J..,h-J 1 ~ - ,; _....... -. II
highways, materials, soils, etc., 6..,-L..:....::....l ~ ·6.-,....;.::..JI ely'.) .J'~I.)
according to similar traffic or
physical characteristics.
• ·0., R.. • b.J' Co L.i.:>.J I .) I ...).)~ 1 (
Clay - A fine-textured soil, usu 'JLs. ~ L...:. ~ 'L,-..;::- -
CoI:.l JLA...J.,..JI
ally plastic and sticky when wet, ..::....:. LS ':.ll j." s,' ", I'
'U;- '6.>.j.J 0.).$..::. L.
which usually breaks into hard ..::....:.LS l:.ll .~ cW
~, ~.) UJ...,.....,
lumps when dry. When the moist ~ '0 I I .• 1\ 'L,-...;.::..JI ~ l:.ll • u4
soil is pinched between the thumb ,1 .1.. Lh..-.' .• <". LL.......-I' I . .'1 I
~...:r- .. ,.>- u.;r- .. .) (' '"Y""
and finger, i t will form a long, • L...:...r"
flexible ribbon.
Clay Sized - That portion of the ·6.-,....;.::..J1 0-" '~I ill:.l y" - ~I
soil finer than 0.002 m. .,..... ..)" r .;; JJ)r 1
Climbing Lane - An additional traf ..)')..Y' '• ..) L> ~..)...)..=.jl cu..:...)'11 0..)L>
fic lane provided for slow moving ~ ·.S.r-J' 'P .. 6, 1\ CoL...,.~ WLo'
vehicles on the up-grade side of a ~.,.,hJ1 oJ-" I J..".......,., '6.>.yl_:.~1 Jb~1
highway. • (' L.t.J 1
-'overleaf Interchange - A four-leg

.llterchange with loops for left
turns, and other connections for
right turns. A full cloverleaf has
ramps for two turning movements in
each quadrant.
L....,...) ,
.• ~
.~1
oJ-" J-S-J
u - r--j-:'
,jLh.......;.'1 L...,.
• L....,...) '1 I
.. ~
L..)~
.u: ~,
.ll~
U
u..).)
c--=-
JS.:. ~ ~ L..i:.
i."...r!-'
15/'.) ..)~I
.J,..lSJI ~L..i...::..JI.)
0-" J.s ~ ~ L.,...:, '1 I
J e~1
•
Coefficient of Utilization (CU) .;..J~I ~ ~I - rl.l.:io...:..-'11 j...w.....
The ratio of the luminous flux ·U. g" nil ·.'Lo'11 ..)JL.o-o oJ-" ~yAJl
(lumens) from a luminaire received • ..) J L..:o..J I .. , Lo'1 \ ~I ~.."b.J I c6- ~

on the surface of the roadway to •..h.-'U ~
l....:>...a.Jl·u-"
the lumens emitted by the lumi
naires' lamp(s) alone.
Cohesion - That property of mater ~\ .• J L..J.J .o...o......J I o.:u. ~ - c.l.- L-.:....II

ial that tends to make its par .. • I . ~ e ..
~~
"0" 1,,·i..A,'1·
~
I J.=.-:. .
ticles stick together.
Cohesionless Soil - A soil that, ·6.-,....;.::...-11 o.:u. ~ - 6.S...~ ~ i...,..,.,..:.

\~en unconfined, has little or no
dtrength when air dried, and little
.•,.,...,
~ o..i>-,::.
L,-I
L..~
....)~
..,.,...,
0~
4-1
'1
~.),
L..~
.~
~I
(
or no cohesion when submerged. j."..J..:9 c.l.- ~ 4-1 0.).s.... ill:.lS.) . ' I .);-J I
Sand is an example of cohesionless .J,..YI • 'L...JI ~ Co~ l:.ll 0.).s.... '1 .)Y
soil. .c.l.-Lc...;..J1 .. .......".~ 'L,-...;.::..J' ~ J ~
Cohesive Soil - A soil that when 4-1 ~, ·6..,-...;.::..J1 ~ - o.s...~ i...,..,.,..:.
unconfined has considerable ~ L..~.) ....)~ ~ l:.ll .•~

r.J
strength when air dried and that • 0 L."...o.J L..,. Co~ l:.ll c.l.- ~.) , I .);-J L...,.
has significant cohesion when sub
merged.
Collector Highway or Street - A (' Ls. ~.."b - c..) L.:. .)1 ~ I" W: d-::-..}:>
highway that provides a combina .• ..).)~' J.,.,hJ' oJ-" Jy.J.JI ~
tion of land access and movement of • ~1y..J1 ..).)~' ..S? ~I uLo'1L...,.
through traffic. A design classi .J.,.,hJI oJ-" ey.Jl ':.l;-J ~ y".)
fication for these type roads.
12
Colloids - That portion of the soil ".l....,.~ I Lr" • .)-?---II \,!,U.:l ~ - 0-='...r"-I1
finer than 0.001 mm. o 1" .;-. 1 0-" jJ~'
( Compaction - The artificial densi 6h... , u..::...S-J ~~I ,;',:AS" II - ~.ul
.J-:'
fication of a mass by rolling, 4...LL.
..,.r- 1.5.1 .J 1 o..,,~:UI.J <!.l-LlI.J ' .. t·- II
tamping, vibrating, or other means. oLS?1
Compressibility - The property of a oJ L.J L.." u~ 6.."..., w.. - i.,...b Lit.;...:. 'J 1
material that enables it to remain o<!.l-Lli ..u..,. A.b~ ~ t.,-Lo,.,...:.
compressed after compaction.
Compressive Stress - The stress '-:'~ I.5.:UI J~'11 - ~Lit.;...:.'11 J~'JI

produced in a meMber when the forc o •••• '1
~....,..-
0 • ;;"
..r--
L....J.:;..,
'
Lo~ Lo ,
~
'
es acting on it tend to push the • ~ ~ CoI':'p'-' .b....Q,p uJ' ~
particles together.
Concrete (Bituminous) - See Bitu '6...:, L-..,,>-J \ t"" I..) - ( ........) L:iJ I) L L-..,,>-J 1
minous Concrete. • ~..)LlJI
Concrete (Portland Cement) - A mix .h."....b. - (~Jl=,..)~ 1 ~ ~ I) L L-..,,>-J I

ture of portland cement, water, oJ Lo.J • L..a..J1.J ..l..:.)L...)~, c....:......... ~ I Lr"
t fine aggregate, and coarse aggre

gate with or without an admixture.
.J' .b..J>...J' ~ L.:.> LS?'.J ~ J 0..,....... L5..)
• 4....:..J..l..,
Consistency - The degree of cohe .......J Li..a-J I .J I ~ Lo..::..J I '~..).) - rI ,.,..u 1

siveness or resistance to movement o.J..::..S..J ~.J..s.......J 1 • I .:.p.- ~ I Lr" oS ..r-U
of constituent particles in a mass Lo rl.rU' vl~ ~ Lr".J • '• .)L..a..J1
of material. Some of the terms - (Z..:rJ - ~ - I,>""u - -...-l..c : ~
used to express consistency are: .1.5./'
firm, hard, friable (easily crum
bled), sticky, or soft.
Consolidate - To densify by compac j..:. ' -.J-:' .J' ..b...R.;,,-l L.." ~ .. ~J..".
tion or natural means. .~J.,
Continuous Lighting - The lighting ~ ,,/,-1\ o 'WI - '~I ,',-",'11

of roadways between interchanges, "U.::~II.J v L..b Lj..::..J I ~ v L.j L-J I
tunnels, and underpasses. • o,! I. II v'~I.J
( Contour Grading Plan - A drawing

showing an arrangement of contours
intended to integrate construction
~
~.J
L"'-Ll\
r-'..)
• L.."..j1~~I.J
- .;..\ _ ' .. ',. II
,jJ~ v \ .. ' ... ',. II
C"'..) ~
0-" .~
I .! ..
'i.h>
..ro>-"
A II
",
and topography, improve appearance, ~.J '~~I ~'y ~.J ,..)-yh..o.JI

reduce erosion, and improve drain .,j~1
age.
Contour Line - A line (as on a map) ( lb.."...,,>-J 1 ~) , j L.L5.J I ..h>. - 0...:--- L.:... .h.;.
that connects points of equal ele t u...::...)~ \ vI j ~I ~ J,.:...".I.5.:U1
vation on a land surface. • ~..)I ch... ~ -b-Iyl
Contract Item (Pay Item) - A speci ~ o-b-.J (~.ul ~) ~I ~

fically described unit of work for l?'"' ~ L.:...,. r..l-i.". oJ..h...o o..)~ ......J..r--
which a unit price is provided in .~ ·Lb..s....J1
the tender.
I:
\.
13
COntract Time - The number of --,' ~I rL..".' J..l$ - ~\ • ..l.e
J L..o.5..::....,'J ~.;; - L,~ 1
working days or calendar days al I

-r-:'
.. - -
L""--- . -"
...~
II
r··
lowed for completion of the con ~.)-11 01 ..l."...L...=--.I1 ~ ~1
(
oJ-"')
tract, including authorized time • Lb..stJ I ~ ..),..b.". Lo ~ --' • L;--,- ~..::>.~ 1

extens ions. When a calendar date . 'J ~ .. JL....S..:.-)lJ
0-".
- ;;
~.;r--
-. II ~ L:...JI
~ .. ..)
of completion is shown in the ten ~~, rL..".'JI --,' ~I rL".\ J..l$
der, in lieu of the number of work . l:""'..)

' . ~ ~I
L:...J 1 l.:u. o.;r J Lo.S.::..-I ~

ing or calendar days, the work con
templated shall be completed by
that date.
COntractor - The individual, firm, --' , .r-J I

4i.5 ." , ~I - ...~ L.i......l1
or corporation contracting with the 0.:;..JL., I yo-l' ;;..) I.)." L ;;.D w...:.......J I ' - -j..o.J I
MOC for performance of the pre • J~I J.~.s.JI ., J~
scribed Work.
COordinates - A set of numbers used r~ rU..)~1 0-" .~~ - ..:..~t..1>1

in describing the location of a ~ --,' r:b- ~ 6.h.i.:. e?Y w..D--' '?-"
point on a surface or in space. • • L..D...iJ1
COrridor - A strip of land between ~

- .
~..r-
'.1...~ ~..)
'~'..h....'
0-" .. J""' - . .; __
- - '"
•
two termini within which traffic, . - ";;.5 .. - oJ Lh..:.. .
..)--'..r-- :..? ~ lr'

opography, environment, and other 15? 'J I ...,a.!- ~ I--' c..."...,..J I--' L"...; I ..r _~ I--'
characteristics are evaluated for • j.:i..:..J I ..,01 ~ ~
transportation purposes.
COrrugated Metal - A sheet of metal ~~ r-=- u...l..J>.AJ' 0-" LY - ~ u~

that has been formed into a series ;;"".)1~' 0.:;.. 4."......::..J , 0-" "U......L ~
of small regular parallel undula .o~, :,.1;···.1\
tions.
COst - A Saudi Riyal value that can 15J~' J L..".-r!L..,. ~1 - u.J..S....J I

be attributed to a specific ser Lw.. .,,' d......l> ~1 ~~~1
vice, product, or activity. • 0-::"-"-" .b L::....:. --' T
COurse - (1) A layer of road ma ..:;..AJ 1 ....;...,..) J 1Y 0-" '.u..,.b (,) - u.,..h
terial separately compacted, used .~ ....;...,..) '.u..,.b.5 r~--' o~ <!JJ..::,
as a wearing surface or as a base (r) .'~....;...,..) ".u..,.b 0~ ..rL..Ls --,1
for a wearing surface. (2) One el C..) L.;...Jl . . .1. ) .~..
A........D ..:.r-' ...,>..D
L.:J...\.:>.T
."
ement of the pavement structure of ....;...,..) '.u..,.b ~ • J...u.... ~ LrI .....,.>"~ \
Finite depth, e.g. bituminous wear- • ..)U-II 0-" ~~ ~
'lg course.
Crash CUshion (Impact Attenuator) .) l...r:>- - (..:.. L..l.o> ~) r t .1h..:> I ~

A device placed before a fixed ~..AJ' ~l..> ~ c....,.~ ~ r Lo \ ~--'"""
roadside object to absorb and dis ~ Lo.... • r' .1h..:>'J1 o~ ~--' ~L.."..:;...c'J
sipate collision energy, thus re • 0 \ S I-. IL..,. ..) I ~ 'J 1--, 0 L..,. L> 'J I ;;...\.:>.
0 0
ducing the severity of injuries and

property damage.
Creep - The slow movement of a ma .h...Sr.D ~ ;; J L...J ;;'... b .' It 0.5~ I -.»..)
terial under stress usually imper 4.b.JL, 0.:;..\ I. " 'J' L..."......,..... ;;Ju uA 'J
ceptible except to observations of • 4....l.",yJ~
long duration.
Crest Vertical CUrve - A vertical • l,~.J..) ~ •."..).:u..J ~, ..) ~

curve having a convex shape in pro ...........u.... 1<:'
~ --' ~ ·"l..>-II
."...,......
ol..b...i.-..,
file.
(
14
Critical Density - The density of _U..r-o-JI ~.sy U~ - ~~I U~I
traffic when the volume is at capa
~ ~I 4..A......J1 ~I ~ Lo~
( city on a given roadway or lane.
At a density either greater or • ~...r---" 0"'"
· · L . ~
.. ~..) L>. ..J i ·0-::'-"-" ··_L
~..r-
smaller than the critical density

0-" ~, ..J' ...M'.s' U~I w.s..:. Lo~
U~I
. - 1\
..)..J~ ~ ~
• .. •6.> -- 'I
. ..;--
the volume of traffic will be de
<!.I~ Lo~ 6.>~1 U~1 ':'-...l>-:-..J
creased. Critical density occurs
~..J' 'Asy-JI ~ ..::-I..)L..".-.JI ~
when all vehicles are moving at or
• L...,..."....ri..::. uy-JI
about the same speed.
Critical Depth - The depth of water

~·_·~I
&.I 'L..Jl·· ~ - --'I ~
c::..;--- '--'1
flowing in an open channel or a
.~..:P.- '~ 15~..J' U~ ~L.:...i
conduit partially filled, for which
h....,.,.=.-0 ....;...,..:. 'As y-J 1 u Lb ~ l?..J L-.::.
the velocity head equals one-half
• ~..J..)..>...",yJl ~I
the hydraulic mean depth.
Critical Flow - A condition that .. 01 ~ ..h.. ..>-'- UL>. - C::..;--- - ·~I

-- 'I &.I
..,........
exists at the critical depth; under 0..J.s.... • LJ\...;...j\ o~ Jb ~ - C~I
this condition, the sum of the ve Y 0..J.5.-J 1 ·U Lb..J 'As y-J I u Lb c~
locity head and static head is a '15~1 o..",L.y..:..Jl
minimum.
~ .. Critical Length of Grade - That

~j-o - ..)~' ~.):>-LJ c::~1 Jyw'
combination of gradient and length ··LiI J_L..J
? . . ) ~I
l.:Ll1 ~...r---..r' C..) ..l..::o..JI
of grade that will cause a desig 'As ..;--<' ~ L..:.. ~ ~ ~, l?..l~~
nated truck to operate at some pre j..:o' 'As y-J I uD Lb-...:.\..J • LU.. .~..l -l>-.o L."...:- ..l
determined minimum speed. A lower .~..lw, ~~..J ~.r-L 0..J.s....~ dJ~ ..r--o
speed than this is unacceptable and ..::-1 ..) L"...-lJ 6.."...J L.<> I .~ ~ L..., .~..) L>. ~ Y
usually requires that an auxiliary .'.b..,...,..<!.1~ ~1
climbing lane be provided for slow
moving vehicles.
Critical Slope - The gradient of a ~I l?..l~ ~L:.:J C..)..l.:. - c::~1 ..)~'

channel that sustains a given ~ ~ ' L.o.J I c.9~ ~ "il,j L>......J I
discharge at a uniform and critical
depth. A grade less than critical
j..:o' 0..J.s.... l?.:Ll' C..) -l...::.-ll ..J • cy..J ~
• ..) ..l;......:..a ..J' J~ C..) ..l.:. I.r"--:' Cy 0-"
is called a mild grade or slope ~~I
·
0"'" I ..) 1...l>-.:..\ ..) ~I L.o.-:......-.
...
whereas a steeper than critical ..)I...l>-.:..~I ..>...",~ ..)~ ~ c~\
slope is called a steep slope. • (1..lG.)
f Critical Velocity - The velocity in

an open channel or a conduit par
tially filled where the velocity
~L:.:J ~ uy-Jl
l?..J t.......::.; L.."..!.? ' ~ 15...)-?-" ..J ,
...,........-ll h...,..,..=...o ....;...,..:. 'Asy-JI
~j
uLb
- ~~I 'Asy-JI
r.5....
~
head equals one-half the hydraulic
'~..J..)~I
mean depth.
Crossing Sight Distance - A dis Jy, ~ UL-.. - ..)~I ......~..) UL.

tance along an intersection ap • ··L .l-.~ . .......1 -- .. \ ·-L
proach leg such that vehicle oper ~ •'-'.r- L 0""'. ~ ~..r-

.~~..) 0-" ..::- , ..) L..".-.J I ..J..l!, u ~
ators can see other vehicles on L.b~1 J.;b-ll ~ 15?~1 ..::-I..)L"..-..J\
crossroads in time to avoid colli ":'-..J..h. l?..l L....i..:.J '-'- ~ I c...i Y\ ~
sion. • ('I-lk\
Cross Section - The transverse pro ~~I ~I - uD..ro-=--- t.. Lh..i

file of a road showing horizontal o.."...u~ 1 ..lL-<.......~I· nLI - " ..• 11
. ~ '~...r--- u"..)
and vertical dimensions.
.O""-'~I..J
15
Cross Slope - Two-lane and urban ,.::.-1 j "~..rJ' J..,b-JI - ~~ ..)~
curbed arterial highways on tan c'~~)" cl j 0...l...>..JI J...rb..., ~..)L;...J1
gents or flat curves having a crown
or high point in the center of the
.b...,.b ~ .~..) J~
.o.....:i Ly-l 0""'~ "-,t~ c I
..,...; ~ ~!...,
~6,," " ..., 1 '~L..::,
(
pavement and sloping downward ..
~..r~
.L II ~
.. :...> 1,~ .
~..
·"-....Ju '6h.i..:, ..., 1
toward the edges. These pavements ..L9..., • J-,:-..,b-JI ~L>. ~ L~ ..)~...,
may be superelevated toward the ~ uu...:...)l ..)~I c~..)),1 6.:u. 0...,.s...:.
right or left shoulder on appre ~ j"""::' ~ 1 ..., 1 0-"-::' ~ 1 J-,:-.P-J I ~ L>
ciable curves. • ·o...b~_11 c l ih,,' " 11
On divided highways on tangent or .:.p.- L.:>...,. 'i.o~ 1

'~..rJ' J.P-J' ~
flat curves, each one-way pavement clib,,·.nl1 ...,1 ..rL....:..J I .b...,.b ~
may have a unidirectional slope -......:,L...,. JS ....."....,..)~ 0...,.5..,,- ..L9 ,'~~I
across the entire width of pave ~.r IS..).." ~ 6~)'1
. 1S..)L>.1
..)
..v....:......
ment, usually downward toward the ~l • ..)u ~..., , J-,:-..,b-J 1 .•...."....,..) 1
outer edge. ·4..)w....J1 'u L.:>-.JI 6 4-=- L." ~L..i.>..:.. )' 1
• J-,:-..)b.J.J
Cross Walk - Any portion of a road ~ .. .L . • . 1S1 - _ . " II •

~...r- Lr" ?. ..)...;r-r- ~
way at an intersection or elsewhere .. L " . . I . LS..a 1S1 1 .. L l-. L...:i.::,
~~ ~ y u ....., "...r c
0
distinctly indicated for pedestrian cl..)~L.,. .• ~\ ..)~ r..y..>-:' ..)...\>.....0
ch-
•
crossing by signs and by lines or • J-,,-..;h-J' j.o IS";> t c L.~ ..., t .b...,.b...,
'ther markings on the surface.
Crown The highest point of the J-,:-~ ch- ~i>.h..i.:, ~1 6.....i.J I

surface of a tangent traveled way • ~~ (L.b...J ~ ~ (;>OM L.....o c 1..) L.".--.J!
in cross section.
Crushed Gravel - The product re ~\ .y.... .yo ~ L... ..r",,~ ~
sulting from the crushing of ordi "':'p'-)'1 ~ ~

~ S..)~,
nary gravel with substantially .• ~ ..;-:..s1 ...,1 .i>- 1..., C6-'~ L..:.-J,
all fragments having one or more .L..",~
faces resulting from fracture.
Crushed Stone - The product re Lr" '1 .:.p.- t .y.... .yo ~ L.... - ..r",,~ ....P.->
sulting from the crushing of frag ~ ,"~.5.J' ..)~, ...,1 i""""'..)~l ~
ments of bedrock or large stones eb- \.~ L...:..-.II ., .:.p.-)' 1 ~ 0...,.5..,,
with all fragments having all faces • L..l!>~ '6.>.~ 'o.J...o L.S
resulting from fracture.
Cul-De-Sac Street - A local street 0-" (~ ~\..) U~ - ..)...,..i-o c..)t...:.
uen at one end only, and with

special provisions for turning
''''' L> .b...,? u..., , .bJ.j .• ..b- \ ...,o~
• 6..-1> 1...l..,. 0!..)"" .LLI (

around.
Culvert - A closed conduit, other ~

I ., 1;._
,~ s?-" -
(.. L.s)
6..). ~~
than a bridge, which conveys water .L...:...:O ..,...; J~I ·L....j1 ~ ,,~
carried in a natural channel or .i>-1 .;; ~ 0 L... is?-" ..., t .~
waterway from one side of a highway ''';>)'\ -......:,L;...J\ ~1 ~..) J-,.:-~ ~4
to the other side. Culverts may be ~ L:.l .yo •..) L..,.s c I ..) ~, 0...,.s...:. ..L9...,
prefabricated pipes of concrete, ...,t ~! ..., 1 .~ L......P--' I Lr" ~ I • j-ll> 4
steel, or vitrified clay, or they c 1 • ~, 0...,.s.:. ..L9 ..., 1 J~ 1 ..) L.:;...i.j I
may be cast-in-place structures of L~ LS.." ..,...; ~ • ." I "I 1 .~ L......P--' I 0-"
reinforced concrete, such as box cl..)L.,.-.s..Jl··...,l 'Y...,~\ c'..)~1 ~
culverts and arch culverts. .·......~I
Curb - A structure with a vertical ..)~...,t \?'"t..) ch-...,j .~, - ...>-=-..;-i1

or sloping face placed along the ,J-,.:-..;h-Jl ~ ..., J-,.:-..,b-J' 'u L>. ~ ~~
t
edge of a pavement or shoulder ,.L.......l\ ~~ ,-:-,,~ Lr" " j > j..S..:;.."....,
forming part of a gutter, and • J-,.:-..,b-Jl UL>. ~ ..., i ~~...,
strengthening or protecting the
edge. (
16
Curing Material - A material~ such ~I ~ 4.)L..o - ~..r=- '..)La
as saturated burlap~ polyethylene cy) 0·.' I ..",.: I~I CI.".J1 -,1 ~1
(- sheets~ or a sprayable compound~

, ~J ~ ":,,.5J"" -,1 ( ~JL..,..J' Lr'"
{ that prevents the evaporation of

0...:.. L...? 0-" .b.J.;..J I • La ~ ~
mixing water from portland cement • ,-:?...L.)l::,J.r-.J I ..::....:...... '11
concrete.
Curve Widening - The widening of 0-" • y..-JI dJj eL-:.I - -.;6.' • It ........>=
the highway traveled way on sharp ~
.. ~ .. '-:? j.J\ ' . 1)
~..r~..r--' " . I- "
curves to compensate for the fact 4.) L>.J I .:;., 1 ;,6.' • II .)....:& -::.- I J L"..-.J'
that the rear wheels of a vehicle 0 .. "',:;' b, II 0-.. " I... II
0 ..r- r..).>. ..A-~
do not follow exactly in the track .~La'11 0-::.... k o.J1 JL-... ~ ~
of the front wheels.
Curvilinear Alignment - A flowing •~ I ,j,J~ &..i..L-.:. J L-... - ~ J L-...

alignment in which the majority of 4...".~\..) .:;.,1 ;,6.',n 0-" o.J,yb"0-" ~~,
its length is composed of circular • .~-,,)...1>-'
and spiral curves.
Cutoff - (1) (IES/ANSI) A luminaire '4-h.-, 'y (7',)""'::- I..T"'--::' (1) - F 1

light distribution is designated as , L."....:.:.... '1 L..o~ Gb....O 'LL.LS '4 .~\
t, cutoff when the candlepower per

1~000 lamp lumens does not numeri
cally exceed 25 (2-1/2 percent) at
J-' '
...,..L."....J '6 -h.-' 1• • • J.sJ '~ L,. 0.."..D 1
To L.."...)..).>. ,)-' ~ '1 , ~.".AJ I &..i~ I
~1 J...,.:;. 4..".-, \,) ~ (o~ I ~ T 1 IT )
an angle to 90° above nadir (hori L..:UI) ~ I .1;., .. ....J '6.>, . ) . ..
, ( .. ~ ,,""- .J 0-::'--"--"
zontal) and 100 00 percent) at a 4...".-,1 ,) ~ ( ~1 ~ 1• ) 1• • -'
vertical angle of 80° above nadir. ~ 0Y 'bJ') A' w.y.u 4.."..)..J-"-"
This applies to any lateral angle L I' ,,1 I. ill,j "I-, .~I
..:.J J ':? Lr"'" ~-'
around the luminaire. (2) The ex JY.JI (T) • 0'~'11 4-h.-, Jy- '~L>
cess length of piling after re ~ (.)~I) 0-',) L>..J 1 0-" ~U.J\
quired bearing is achieved. • ........
.~..
11- .. " J ."......, II .L.......i~
~--
Cut Section - That part of the dJj - ~ 11

roadway that~ when constructed~ is
..
~..r--'
. 1-" .
...,.... • ...r;--'
'. - " ~ F.i.o
"":'J'11 l.5~ US to;:'·,n 0-'~ ,-:?j.J\
lower in elevation than the origi .~.AJ\ .~ J~I ~ ~'11
nal ground.
-D-
Daily Flat Rate - An amount charged r~ A..Jt.J.l..". ~ - c.....,. ~ l.T"J-=! ...r<

(' the equipment user for possession
of user-rate equipment ~ unless the
-::.-1 ~ .c'
,-::.-1 ~I ~ 'jl
:.J ~
.. ~
,I;.'
'11
-::.-I..l..A.o.J\
,·6.r.--L:.-.....J1
equipment is broken down~ sometimes • 4..."..5J....J1 ~ I..T"'--::' L..:.~1-,
referred to as an ownership rate.
Date - The day~ month~ and year are .o...:.......J \ -' J;-:..J I -' r~ I - [:;tJ L.::.J I
reckoned according to the Hegira ~J L.::._II -' '-:?.r.--y-l\ ~~
.....J...J Li....b
'
L
,~
calendar and the applicable date ,,-:?.)~I f"'!~\ ~ J..,.u.....J1
corresponding to the Gregorian cal
endar.
Datum Plane - A reference plane to ~ .)L..:......I l.5~ - ..)L.:..-'11 IS.."..:.--.

which vertical measurements and • 0..,:.....1 ~ 1 ~ L.:....c.-II-, .:;., L... ~ I ~,
elevations are referred. Gener ~iJ ......~) .)L..:......'11 l.5~ 0-'~ o.)u
ally~ the datum plane (elevation .~1 c6- l.5~ .h...."...::....o -h. (~
0.00) is mean sea level.
Deadman - A buried object serving ,I",.':'" I 1 r~ J~ ,.......... - Deadman

as an anchor~ such as cable-guard ~ r ~ ~1 ?1."......Jl -::.-~ j.::.....
rail guy anchors. •-::.-Jl,..",..5.J I
\
17
Deceleration Lane - A speed-change ~ .•..)1.> - &s~1 ~ o..)L>
lane that enables a vehicle to '.,$..r ~, • L..b.,. ~, ..:;.. L.,..,;--tWJ ~ &s ~ I
slow to a safe exit speed when • 1:"'..P--iJ J~ L.~ ·.....J!-JI L;-l J,..i5...:.
making an exit turn.
Decibel (dB) - The unit for meas . ..:;..~, .• ..l.:. ..,..L"...:i .• ..u..., - ( dB ) J..-,....)
uring the intensity of sound. When ..) La...:.> I 0..,..s.". • f - 0.).., I"~ L.~
A-weighting is used ~ this unit is . dBA o..l>yl 4.:u.
abbreviated as dBA.
Deciduous - Having leaves that are ~ .h..; L.-::...::. J I ..).., f eLl - ~ ..:- ~
shed at the end of the growing ..::..'·t...,...:...J1 ~ .~I r-y 'o..",Ly..:.
season; opposite of evergreen. • ".~I r-!"-LJ'
Deck - The surface layer of con '4..:, L...,.,..;-J' 0-" .~ "u..,.b - ~I
crete and reinforcing steel on a .~ ch.. ~ ~ ...l.."...l>..,
bridge.
Delay - The time lost while traffic J~6~

" .. C"• L..AJI - II
c...J.,J- - ~ 'l.:...J,
is impeded by some element over .~L-.J' ·•..>\..)1 .:.Y 1:..)L> ~ ..)..,~l
which the driver lIas no control.
Delay Rate - The difference between ..,f J..l..st.o.J I ~ J~' - ~ l.:...J I J..u..
the observed rate or motion and a 0.5.,.» J..Lt.o ~.., o..>>,,~, o.5.,y-JI
preselected standard rate of mo . L.U- 4..) ~I ~ '-r'L"...:i
tion.
Deleterious Harmful. ...)l....D - ~,jj...
Delineator - A visual device for -S...l.A ~..u..::.J -s.~ .) L.r.-- - .)J..b- ..... ~
defining the alignment of a road . ~.".b...J, I" L.b...:....;, I
way.
Dense Graded - A well graded aggre I ~ L:...."...)..>.::. '.'>..)...l.A "o.h...l> - ~ C""'..).).;

gate with sufficient fine material 'u L.5 •.J....-J ~ ~ L.:.. .) \ Y L..r,.
to nearly fill all voids. .~~..:;..Lil~'
Density - (1) The mass per unit 0-" "• ..u..., JS-J ·d..:..s.J I ( ,) - u L:..5...J I
volume of a material ~ usually ex o..>u ~ ~.., • o..>L...Jt ~
pressed in kilograms per cubic JS-J I"'? ..,f ~ ~ JS-J I"'?~
meter or grams per cubic centi J.5..J ..:-'..)L.."......JI ..>.» ('I') '~..)- 0 •• _.
meter. (2) The number of vehicles ~ . "1 L-..JI "I... .. _ 1<

~ '-'-'..).. ~~.:r ~~
per kilometer on the traveled way .'~
at a given instant.
Depressed Highway - A hi~hway whose 0~ ~..) ~~ - ~ ~..) ~?

roadway is below the adjacent ..j>..) ~ I '~.".::.-.o 0-" .r-"> f 4-i ~.".b...JI ...ro-"
ground level. .~.):JJ 0..).., 4-0-1 1
Design Capacity - The practical 6..JLhJl '0.......,....; - ,"= .pO II (0...-) .... u.
capacity or lesser value determined '• ..>..b...A.J' .L~ j..if Jf._. 1 0'l11
for use in designing the highway to ~..)
• ~~ ~ ~ ~~
4-<0 '
accommodate the design volume. • ~t r-:--J' ~~
18
Design Class - A grouping of high 0"" .)..L<tJ ~ - ., • .: .... e, II u~l
ways for geometric design purposes • . , P ". II .......>1 J~ ~ .~ 11 .• L 1\
( according to the level of traffic
\..
_U..;--o-JI '6...0-b- IS~

- .. .. ~
'-:-"--> • o-.)..;.-rJ1
v...r-"-'
service they provide for road ~..,..:. • ..,vhJl ~ b'· • I LIb~;:' ~,

users. Four design classes that '4'~
'"" •• '4 ••.• •• ":0" .::..u ~ -" -. -~
~.l
it-. • ..."
are recognized for rural and urban ·o~ I ~..;,.J I

..,VhJ I J I .» ~ (Ly..,. , j~ )
conditions, respectively, are: dJh-l1 ."..=..J' ~ I.i!"J
: ~1 'o..,..~ I J
expressways, arterial highways, ( ..u I J..,rJ' ) Y.."...u 1 ..,VhJ , .O""""'.."....J ,
collector highways, and local , ·0.."...b......J1 ..,..;-6-J ' J '0 Oo?" ° II ..,~ I J
roads.
Design Discharge - The discharge a ~~, .~ - 00, .... e II ....;.".~I

culvert is designed to pass. This (IS~I ) '0
:.;.
L.-..-s..J ,- ~ ~
, 1\
discharge depends on the recurrence ~~~I I.:u. ~J ,LIb..r.:'~
interval of the design flood, which ~.:LJI .~' u w.."....u , :.; I :.;s..:. '0~
in' turn depends on the importance ~\....e>.>.J ..,......;-6-JI '~l ~ 4:';J~ ~
of the road, and the characteris • 4 L.."......-Jl " n........ °
tics of the watershed.
Design Headwater - The elevation of J.;...L. cLi.;,:.;, l.:?0.:o .. ' II -L-Il ~
••
culvert inlet ponding above the ·iI.! Soli·o.........::...i \ IS~ ..,y '0~
L.,...-...J I
culvert invert, for a given storm ~ ~.) J.<, L.iJ ~ L..,.. .'0~ L.,.JJ.J
interval, culvert type, size, and '4:.; L.,...-...J 1 c,.,....:..J ·0..,.......:...J L..,..J ,j.p I ~
discharge. .,j~' '~J ~J
Design Hour Volume (DHV) - The ~ - (DHV) uL-.JL..,. l.:?0,!o .. ' II ~l

future two-way hourly traffic vol L..,...>->-" JI.... ~~ I
n u-9 ~J..;--o-J I
)'
ume for use in design, usually the r t'""',. op". II ._~

\.T' 4..o1~)," , .o.>L....JL....
.
30th highest hourly volume of the ~)'I ~JL.Jl ~, ·o.)u u,."s.,.,J
design year (30 HV). • (HV r+) ('.! .p". II '0...:..- JJl;. ~ L....JL..,..
Design Lane - The lane on which the ~ ~l ·o:.;L.:.-JI - .e 0, .... e1\ .:.;L.:...J1
greatest number of equivalent ·U.)~' .::..)'~I 0"" .)~ ..r--5l ~
8-ton, single-axle loads is ex uJs..:.J •u L.b I ·0..,.....:, La..:. '0"':'.) .)~ ~Y-O-J
pected. Normally, this will be IS ~ ~:.; ..,.....):> 0"" ~~ L.:.-J I IS-l> I
either lane of a two-lane highway ~.):> .. 0"" 4 ~ L>-J I '0:.; L.:.-J I J l • ~~ L.:..
or the outside lane of a multilane .vl :.;L.:.-Jl .)~ ~~
highway.
Design Load - The loads that must ~I 'U~l - • .:o"o .. '!l 'U~l
(
be supported by a structure.
Design Noise Levels - The noise

• ( .~)' I)
v L."..."..::..-.-o - .,.,,0"
·L.:...,..Jl L; 1 ...........:
e 1\ ~l ..:-L..-..".=-..
ul ~
levels that represent the upper ~ ~~I .h-ll ~ ~I ~,

limit of acceptable traffic noise vLb~ .)...b-A..l1 J~I ~J..;--o-JI
established for various activities ('~J ...,.:...»)'1 v~I~)' Jl .".; I".'" ° II
or land uses. These levels are ,.r.?L:, ..).".~ .::..L.".~I
'0-:"..).) 4~
used to determine the degree of ,'O.."..r--,..Jl v Lb L:....:....J I ~ ..)J..;--o-J I ~
impact of traffic noise on human
activities.
Design Period - The number of years ·6...0.h.JI ..::-l~ .)~ - .,'0, eo"· 1\ .~l
of intended service life of a fa JJl "..)-:"1 J-,..:i ~ .j-J~ ·6.j.)~1
cility before the first major reha .·6~..)..).".~ .~
bilitation.
\,
19
Design Speed - A speed selected ..) L..::...;....:; Os- ..,)-' _ '6 _' e _ " ... - II .....cy-JI
for purposes of design and correla 6..,;.- ~-rJ I ~ L.,.,.;..j I .h...,...).J ~ ,-""I~)r
y.,.:..J L- L"...:i..o ~.J , ~ _' .......... I..-l
tion of the geometric features of a

highway and a measure of the qual
ity of service offered by the high
~ I l7'b.J • 0-::',.rb-ll ~.,.,..;-"'" ~ '
I ..
.,....,. .
~
-
u. 1 . < _.
...,-.-...,.. 0 ~.
.; -
'''-o~'
'~-'"""'
v·.J-'
(
way. It is the highest continuous 0-::'.)0 ~ 0 La 0 I .. ;,' • 1\ L"
..;:. ,L"......JI
speed where individual vehicles can ..r-ib-JI J I ..» I 0~ La ~
,
~..)
travel with safety upon a highway ''; i> ;,.;. . • ..).J.."......J I OJ L.:.5.J .~, .>-"
when weather conditions are favor 0-::'.):>.-U 6..,;.-~-rJ1 '6.: '.: .... -. II ..r-'. '-"-"--' I .J
able, traffic density is low anrl • ~)'I Os-y-JI ~ OeS, -.1\ ....;_." ,hJI ~
the geometric design features of
the highway are the governing con
ditions for safe speerl.
Design Subgrade Value - The sub '.)sLUI ~ ' ... e_,_-, II f..........-i-JI
grade strength value that is equal . ...r----
0-'" . 1.. I I O.3sLiJI ~ 0'1--'
_ ~ ..
to or less than approximately 90 0-'" ~ ~. .r j.:i.::, .J 1 '-5..J L-::. ~, "_~.o.."......JI
percent of all test values in the .tLh.:iJI ~ c-l..)L...,...::.>.)' I !"'_< ~
section.
Design Thickness - The total thick ~~)" ~I - II d...-JI
•
lT e ... _ - ,
'ss of the pavement structure ~ I ..P- 0-" j~.J 0-::'~ 1 ~_' , L:....,.-l
~ctermined from the thickness de '4....-. ..."r--
. - II ·0....:;
.../
.~
-.
,--,-,L.:.......J
..•
~
~
..
sign charts as adequate for a given ..)~ .~ 4..".J 4 I c-)' Y'-' J-...,...::..J
total 8-ton equivalent single-axle • 0 L.b 1 ~ L.....: ~', j ...r-Lo
loads soil strength value.
Design Traffic Number - The average r-9~1 .h-y-:...o - t;?J"- eo- 11 ..),)_~-\ ~..)
daily number of equivalent 80 kN j ..rLo ..)~ c-)'.7""'" J L...R..". ~I ,'" ~ I
j
single-axle loads estimated for the ·0..)w..J1 J>.1 0-" ·o..)~ ,~N ,.," 'Lj
design lane during the design • 0 .. ' ........ II '0~ 1 • L.:..:, 1 ~. _,_.............:.. I
period.
Design Vehicles - Selecterl motor c-I ~ 0..)L.::..>... c-I..)L.".- - r- ..... - 11 , '..)L...

vehicles with the weight, rlimen r~ ~ ~t...>.>-.J jL.......,1. 0 1j.J'
sions, and operating character '~~I J.)o-ll ~ .h...,.\~.. t""'y

istics used to establish highway • '0 '. _ ......J I c- ~, 0-" c-I..) L.,,---J I r ...-'....::.....::.-l
design controls for accommodating
vehicles of designated classes.
~sign Vehicle Turning Radius - The

~ .....b. -, "II '..)~ 11 1S..,)..e
f
0'..),),\
.urning radius of, a Design Vehicle ..l>..J1 ...I....:-~ L-L-I ('~ - ,e~1
used primarily to determine the J.)o ~ ~ rj ';''', • 11 lS..L....l .r- j )' I
miniT'lum radius used in the design • ~ LJ.::....o.J I J.,.,hJ I.J 0 1..),) ..L i : c- L5y
of turning and intersecting roarl
ways.
Design Year - The future year used ~I J.... . II ~ - r-----. 11 ;.;;...

to estimate the probable traffic ~.J~ J .... 11 ~I -,"",~I ('~
">'o
volume for which a highway is • 6...e~)' ~~I 0-::'.,.,hJ1 """"""- LS'~I.J
designed. A time 10 to 20 years '0...:..... r· ,l"~ L.JI~ o~' "~~.J
from the start of construction is • 0-::',.rb-l1 • L.:..." .. - \...1...." 0-"

usually used.
Destination - The location of where LS'~I 0~1

o.l..:&
~ 'T?"y'
a trip ends. • o.b."..r-JI
Detector - A device by which ve c-I..) L."..-J I ~ j ~ - .l.,_, j 4<

hicles and pede s t rians are ena blerl • ~..).J.Y' .J 1 ~jYO.J ~ Lr" - L...:.-...J I .J
to register their presence or pas
sage. (
20
Detention - Storage of surface run ~, ,-:-,~~1 'La j (Hy....::- - 4-=-> I
off from a drainage area in natural .. , .;'~ ..::-L"'..i>...:.....o
..J ..... ~ , jywb..:...a 0-"
(
or manmade depressions.
• ';.~ L.:...,
Detour - (1) A temporary rerouting .;'.5~ ..::....(,...0 j."...J~ ( 1) - '6.=...j:"" '6.J....y-.:.

of traffic. (2) The route of the ....> L,..." ( r) . ~..l L.tJI Wt>....> L,..." 0'" ....u~,
temporary rerouting. •-::.-.ij....-J I j.".y---::..J I
DHV (Design Hour Volume) - The ~ - (uL-JI ~ ~I ~) DHV

future two-way hourly traffic vol ~~~, ~ '~L-Jl ~ "">..J~' ';'.5....»
ume for use in design, usually the •
c , ..
• 0 0" II :.~
l..i: 6.A I ~~ J.. ;;" 0 II ._•
"-r
30th highest hourly volume of the ~ ~~, 0~JL.J' ~l ';,..)u y»..J
design year (30 HV). . (30 DV) ..... 0 ". 11 ~ -...c L-J I
Diamond Interchange - A four-leg C;-'....> 1 0-" t-6 Li.:. - ~ J.s..:. ~ ~ u.:.

interchange with a single one-way 0-" C;-'....> J.5 ~ ..l.>-I..J ....>~ ....)-"'-G u..J ~
ramp in each quadrant. All left ..:;..L...J.......C
.. ~~..J'~
. . . . . -- 'I t L....,:.J 1
turns are made directly on the ~ ';'..r-~ ....>~l u-ll 0'....>..J...LJ1
minor roadway. . l?"....rU' ..;.."...,.,..b-JI
Dip (Low Water Crossing) - A road ~ - (..I' ;.;.' 0 ~La ~) ~
t stream crossing designed to allow

occasional flooding. The road
grade is lowered to stream bed
~
~ ~..J •
l5~'
~
~ •..;.."...,.,h-U ~La l5....>-?,-",
....»'J
-::.-.i..J 0-" 0~ Co..J...\;>...,
t'-9 l5~ u-ll ..;..".....>hJl ·;...."....b:.Jl
level from bank to bank. .l5?Yl u-l' 0 .. ".;;, II l5..l.>-1 0-" ~L..,.jl
Direct Connection - A form of ramp 0-" tY 0-" ';'....> y - 'O.r ~ I u."yl

that noes not deviate appreciably J~ ~ ~ ~I .:.J~1 ,,;;..,~,
from the intenned direction of tra ~..J • ..ly:>--i-o-Jl ~\ 0 ~, 0-" ~
vel. The inner loop for left &<? 0-" Y Lc...;. 0:," I J,;...\....o ~ 0 ) ~Jl..::.
turning movement is avoided by the La1 1.~.
•~ J.s..:...... .~v->
\. ..\....0 (' \~,
use of separate structures. An ';'..r-~\ 'o..J....:,..,.,J1 ~ ·4>....>L.>.-l1 .• ..J..",y,
outer connection is a direct con .~I u-l\ 4..?-:....,.JJ
nection for right-turning move
ments.
Direct Cost - A monetary value that .~,

l?"" - ·0.r L.,......J I ~ L.S...::..J I
is the sum of expenditures that can ~ ~, <..i..".:.J L.t>.-o-I\ ty~ •.."...lJ...:....J\
be related to a specific service, .b~ ,
..J <: L.::...;,\ . . 1 J.~ .. 'o.....~ 1
i.r""'"
product, or activity without prora •<..i..".....> t....".....J , 0 j-y-J t"'" j Y 0..J ..l L.r.:'-"-"
Ie tion •
..~
\'t(
Directional Distribution - The one 04--:-~' ~ - ..:;..Wt>4-=-~1 ~ t-='j..,.,.:.-JI
way volume in the predominant di ;'.5~ ~....r-l' o~YI ~ ..l..>-1..,.,J'
rection of travel, expressed as a ~ 0-" .""'..J~ ';'~ tL& , ~ • ..ri-J \
percentage of the two-way Design l5..\....o ~ ~w . . :;..~11 ~ ~\ ';'.5~\
Hour Volume. . '~L-
Directional Interchange - An inter (' u J~ ~ t-6 Li:;, ~4-=-1 ~u.:.

change, generally having more than • ". L I .. U . ,. <1 I_
CO • ~....> ~...r-' o,j.oO 0-"..r-- i.r""'"
one highway separation, with direct Y Lc...;. 04--:-JU ';'..r- ~ ..::-)1.."..J ..ly-..J
connections for the major left . '~....r-l' J..;hlJ .;....,........:.. L..,

turning movements.
Directional Island - A triangular ;.~ ';':.J""'? l7'" - ..:;..Wt>4-=-~1 'O:.J""'?

island used to direct turning move ;'.5~' ..::-w.4--:-'" C"""'~ ('~ J~\
ments along turning roadways. • 0 ....>..J...LJ1 J.,;.b J..,b ~
'
21
Direct Shear Test - A shear test in .,Yb-' - .,.,..:.L..,.........JI 4...,-..,.,..:..J1 ~ ..> L,..::..;..I
which soil under an applied normal J ~\ ~ ~ -s. ~ I ..,.,..9-) 1 ..> L,..::..;..\
load is stressed to failure by
moving one section of the soil con
~1 -s.JU J.-..,.;.. ~
.~-' L:>. 0-" ~ e. ~~
·~'..".JI ·o..,....,.,..::.-JI
J..:..-i-J \ .~..>J
(
tainer relative to the other sec .?"'ll e.Lh..UJ 'o~~ ·i>..,....,.,..::.-JI
tion.
Discharge Frequency - The runoff ~ ~I ·L.....jl .~ - .........~I J.l...A.a
that can be expected to occur '1 .. ':)'\ ·--11 .L..:....:.~ I ·L.-.........:.,1 ....
~~ ~ ~ .. ~~
during the life of a highway. ..rL...~ ~ 1".:0<"" II ~ ..)J-, .~~
Design may be on a 10-, 25-, or -'~ r 'o~ 0~' ~~I ~ ,)
50-year flood. . '0-:.-'~. -' ~.I,j-:!~-' A
~
•
Ditch - A trench dug in the earth 6...r-'> ~ J~ L>-" '0..> ~ .,Yb-' - J~'
for drainage purposes. , 6~' c.i-".ya.:. ..,a'...ri~
Diverging - The dividing of a sin J.>. \ ..".J I ~ J.:..J 1 ~ .,Yb _ •" • A- II

gle stream of traffic into separate ,'o~ ..::-L...i..j~ .."Jl ~1 ·0.5~
streams.
•
Divided Highway - A highway with ~~, .,Yb - ~I ~..r'1 ~,..,.h-JI
separated roadways for traffic in ~ 0L..:i.".? u -s.~' ~..r"
'osite directions. .~..>~~t...;.-::.' ~ ·0.5~
Divisional Island - A longitudinal ·o./":'~I ~-' - ~4.. =..JI J,.....; .jot?
island to separate opposing traf ~ 'oS~ I J,o...i.::. ~, ·0.."..j,.,.hJ !
fic, to provide protection for left '~L...c.>-J\ ~~-' ~~I ~~)'I

turn bays, and to channel traffic 'oS..Y ~~-' )' L......Z 6 t...;.-::.)' I .l....,:./":' ~
into the proper approach paths at 'o~l ,-:-,' ?)' \ ..::-I..>L.-.o .."JI ~I
skewed intersections. • 'oj~ I ..::- L..b w..:..J1 ..L:...c
Dormant Stage - The period in plant ..,..::.-JI .• ...b.~\ ~-' - c-L."...,....JI 'Lb..ro
life when seasonal growth ceases. ,..::-~ ~."......JI ."...,..:..JI ~.....u~
Drainage - (1) Provision for the ,6~1 0-" ~ \ 'i>...l.".--, (1) - J~I
disposal of water. (2) The mode in .~, jJ...:. L.;-,- ~~, ·~..".JI (r)
which surface water is carried off. .'~\
Drawings - See Plans. ,..:;.,1 bb-;.. 1\ c.i-".~ .;-h-:-~ - ..::.-L..o.>-..r'1
D... tver - Any person who drives a

Jr vehicle or other vehicle
~ ·o...,-.Sj'" J~ ~ \S~ -
clJJ ..,...; ~ -.!l...)-"'-" ~ -'~
..;.!-L.-JI
-.!l~ (
(including a cycle), or who guides ..:;.,~,~, J..>--o' -s.~1 -'~ , 'o>l..>...LJI
animals singly or in herds or ..:;., u ~ -' ~ 0 L"h,j J.5..:. ..,...; -' ~ '0 J ..>...i-:..A
flocks, or draft, pack, or saddle I, L · < ~ L I~· .. ~ ~ -,T
lr"'" ~./":' -' ~-'

animals on a road. . ~,..,.h-Jl
Dri veways - Minor roadway connec Jy...iJo~ ';:"'...,,........ - ..::.-I..>L.,...-JI ..::.-1.",........

tions that fall into three cat : 1" L..j ~ ·0,:,JL:. .."J , ~-' ..:;., I..> L.".-J 1
egories: private, commercial, and ..~ u -' .~..> 4-=--, ...., L;.
public.
Dr! ving Lights - High beam head ·~w.~1 ..>'.r:-~l ~ - • .l~1 ..>1,.,-:-1
lights. , 'W L.J<.J I .i>....i..Z. LS.J I
Dry Masonry - Stone laid without ~1 ..>~~I ~-' u L>..J

. I . ~I
..> L>..>.
mortar. .: (.b~) 'iGY 0-'.l..,.. c:!"~
Ductility (Steel) - The ability of o.."...J..,.U - (..,....wI ~) .l~1 ''-,..-..:.

a material to deform plastically .i.Z.oy ~ 6~ 0~1
0..Ll...J1"
under tensile forces before frac • ~ 0~ J.,.J .~ ~.
turing.
22
Durability - That property that ~ ~I .~ L.:>..-I I - J-..>.:..JI •.y
enables a material to resist dis 4 R ... b II J-.,'y 'o...o,.,L:i... 0-" '.~L..J'
ruptive forces of nature and those Y ~~ ~I J-.,I~l ,.,1 ·.j"..l..AJ1
applied in service over an extended .~.) .•? .s..l..o ~ ·o...o..l>..J1 ·L.:....:-f
period of time. . '.J."...,b
-E
EAL (Equivalent Single-Axle Load) - (EAL) .)..,..L-JI ..)~' J--> J.)La.o

The effect on pavement performance 0-" ',,-,,~ 12 0-" ~Iyl ~L:..JI
of any combination of axle loads of ·• .)~I ~, ' '~~I JL....>91
varying magnitude, equated to the
number of reference single-axle
Lr'-''''
.. I'
'~L..i.J1
.. ..
.) . . II
~
J~~I
.. L. II
~....r--
.)..UJ ,.<".
L ..,., L...o u..:r
I~
lr'"'" ..),.,
L.>....o..JI
loads required to produce an equiv .)..).$: 1:~~ ........)JUI ..),.,L>.......JI ·• .)~I

alent number of repetitions of an A ~ .)~I .)y--o...!' .)..P-o .:r ,.,L...o
8-ton single axle. ·wb
Ecology - The branch of science r~' 0-" t..r" - '~~I ~ r-h
concerned with the relationship of c~L5.J' ~ uJL,j\ ·"-I.)..l.,- ~
organisms and their environment. .L~,., ·.~I
~ J.,
Economic Analysis - A justification ~..) L.<>...,.,.j\ .j":!~ - ,-?.)l.A:...i~ I I... • II
of the expenditure required versus ...i."..J L5..:;..j I .~ '6...:...) u..... -....",.,~ I
the comparative worth cost projec .
~,.,
.. f - L... '.,..1? . .
.j":!y-o--
' j . ;, . . . I 'u.J..:r--
- ... "
tion of a proposed improvement and ~ y I ..,.-.i-.:. ~ '6...:...) LL.,., cy.i-o
as compared to other alternate • 'oJ."..i.,. .hh;.. 121 ~ ~.) t......:u..J L..,.
plans.
Ecosystem - An ecological commun 4T o...,p. c~L5 ~l y - ~I ru:....:.

i ty, considered together with the ~ ..;--&'L:......s.JI,., l.7-'b ~ • L.... .~
nonli ving factors of the environ . '•.).;>.',., '•.).;>.,.,.5 ·•..!..."...,.Jl <.!.l...1.;, ~ '~1
ment as a uni t.
Eighty-fifth Percentile Speed - The 'o.£~' - c.~1 ~ Ao JI ~ ""-",r

speed at or below which 85 percent L.y..:...o J.j 1 ~ ,., L~ ~ r u-=--J \
of the vehicles are being operated. . c I .) L..,.,-.J I 0-" .• ~ I ~ Ao 'o~
Elasticity That property of a 4 ~ L.... J-=..-:; u-=--J I '~L.:>..-I' - ,.,.r--I'

4...:.
material that permits it to return L...,...,,-~ .•~~' u~w...,.l ~, ~~ Lo
approximately to its original di- .~ ~ ~ ~..)-<! Lo-L.>
{ mens ions upon the removal of an

applied load.
Elastic Limit - The greatest stress .h...R.A..Ll ~ ~ , ..l>.J, .Y"", - 6...:. I ..1> ,.,.r--I
that a material is capable of sus ,) 0,.,.) Lo ·.~Lo "1,, ......... 01 ~ ,-?.iJl
taining without any permanent de d.J~ ~.) ...LR..,o r-!-l ~ .,.,.::..::- L'i'""'" ~
formation remaining upon complete • Lo L.....:. L-y-:.> ~,
release of the stress.
Elevated Highway - A highway whose L. II -.s..:.

...
~....r-- ...T'''' -
<Lll>
L ..r"
.-1..
~..) ~..r'
roadway is on fill or structure '4-a~..) ~ ·il...o.!.U ~.)1 0~ ,-?~l
above the level of the adjacent ~ 1 .s,.,..::.--o ~ ~ j" • L.:.....,- ,., f A....s....L...r
ground. . ".J' .• ..),., ~ I ~..) ~ I .s,.,..::.--o 0-"
Elevation - Height above sea level .y cL-~..:..)~1 .~ - eLi..:...) ~ I J.)..a..o
or other datum. .•."....,L"J .~
.y ,., t ~, cL .s.."..=.--c
•.s.,.,..>-1
Elongation - The increase in gauge ..,...,u.... J..,b~ ·.~L"...;-JI - .)~I ~L>

length of a tension test specimen, ~ ~";' ~I ..)L.,...::..>.I ~ .~ .sf
usually expressed as a percentage ..,..., L..i.J
.. I JJ-'
-L . .0-" L '
.. ~ 'L..-.:.5'.
. ~ L...c.
of the original gauge length. • ~~I
23
Embankment - A raised earth struc ~~
. ~r
'.. 1"
l?"" . r
'L..-, .... L II
. -~..r- ~
ture on which the roadway pavement • ..;."yh-ll '.~..;' 'L...,- u~
structure is placed.
(
Embankment Foundation - The mater ·• ..)ryo-ll ..)Iy-o-ll --: ~?-JI ~ V"'L-t
ial below the original ground sur y:..,,:::- ~l.).~)ll ...,o..;~' eb-
c.~
face. the physical characteristics .~yh-ll ~ ('-"..) ~ ·~..)w...J1 ~L.".;;.
of which affect the support of the
embankment.
Emergency Escape Ramp - A short Lr' ~ 'y- y".) - 'LS..;Iy,.,J1 ..;~

~..)I...>
section of road adjacent to a steep i"" ..; ~ .~~
'?
")lo
&"
" .L 11
~..r-
downgrade for slowing down and c W ~, I..H_i.".)I .) 1 .~ ..r--J' ~ 'L.h....JU
stopping out-of-control vehicles. • L~ .•..)'h.".-J\ .il.i.:. ~,
Emergency Vehicle - A vehicle be c' ~I ~ .•..; L".- - 'LS..; I.,.,J:>

....; L..,..
longing to the armed forces. civil .)1 ,~~I tU-Ll1 .)1.~1
defense. police. or any ambulance '.-,..5...ro lS 1 .)1 ,-.3 W<- )11 .) i ~.r--l
rescue unit vehicle. or other des LS"-p' c..W...ro t51 .)i -.3W<-\ • .hy 'o.~L:.'
ignated vehicle used for answering ·U.." ,LJ,.J\ c~1 ~\ 'O-,.~JU .•~
•
emergency calls for assistance. • ·.~L....o...JI ('""'J...i.::. ~~ ~I
irical - Developed from exper o....,.~, ..;."..;b 0-' '~L, ~~

ience or observations without re (',.,...L-U ..;L....,...:&l u.)...l...,- 'O.h.,.W I .) ,
gard to science and theory. .cL.".~' .)
Emulsified Asphalt - A mixture of c.J.-L. )I I Lr" .h.".....b. - ,.' J> -. • 1\ ..::.J...i- 'J I
asphalt cement and water mixed with •..".,JL,....::....,JU '• ..) La.) • w...J I.) ~)I\.)
an emulsifying agent.
Emulsified Asphalt Treated Base - A ..:..-l.i-'J L..,. ~ l...A:. ~I ".1-J:: l-:i..J I

base consisting of a mixture of Lr" u~ ~'''J..oLiJI -. k-. • 1\
mineral aggregate and emulsified c.J.-L. )I , .) .~ L.$ ..,rJ I ..) 1y-o-ll Lr" ..b."......L.:,.
asphal t spread on a prepared sur ~~ .)~ eb- ~ ..b.-.,..". '.' I.",". 0 II
face to support a surface course. .'~'~
Encroachment - Unauthorized use of 0....,. C~I ~ i'" ~)l1 - lS~1

.~ L.. ". L 1 \ . . 1
the right-of-way or easements as . . ) )I \
, , ,. .Li.:.:. .) , ~...r- i"...r--
for signs. fences. buildings. etc. • cJI ,~~\.)..;Ir~' cl..; ~JU .),
..::...=....:..
F-orgy Dissipator - A riprap basin
~oncrete structure placed at the
•.5..) Lr" t~'
~
c..~ dJ~
t"'-'"'"
" ..
~)I,
...,o,y---JI
Lr" ~.), 'o..,;..:..,-"-p
L 1\ I" .• L-,s. .
- ULh..)1
(
outlet end of a culvert to dissi " .) '~...r- ........... ..;. C...".,.......
pate the stream energy and reduce J.5L::..J 1 j..., I y: j.",J.:i.::..) t Lj~)I , '. yJ
scour and erosion. . dJ~ 0-' ·.......,..L:...JI ~I.)
Engineer - The duly authorized ~ J~\ ·•..;I.)yl ~ - ~-r-'l

representative of the Ministry at ~.)1 ~ -.3~ lS.iJ1 t.)y:.......J\ C?,.,....,
the project site. acting directly )I"
.)->--" ~.)
" .1..;"1\,,
•~ ..:r-- ..' I" ~~
"L
o.
or through his duly authorized .J.,o-..JI ~ ~.L.-rJl -.3I Y )l1 .r
representatives. who is responsible
for engineering supervision of the
Hork.
Entrance Loss - The loss of energy ..0LiJ\ .~ - j>...1...o..J1 ~ ..DL.UI

at a culvert entrance due to the ...,....,...... .•..;~ t51 j>..l...o ~ 'uLhJI 0-'"
shape of the entrance. " • j>..l..c..JI ill~ J~
Environment - The totality of man's u~)lL..,. ~ La J.5 - ~I

surroundings -- social. physical. • ~ L...o.) I ..'...."..' b.) L.". ..) La.) L".> Lo...::...> I
natural. and manmade. \
24
Environmental Design - The location ~ - r- .... -. 'I ~ c....,....,..JI 'L.& I.,.,....
and design of a highway that in ~I....h" ~.,; ..,.".~ ~.>-" .i."-~.,,
/'
cludes consideration of the impact I. ..t.. 11 dJj L..~ .. .... .:LJl -UI
( of the facility on the community
~
..,.-L-l
~..r---
~
~
·ub.;....,.j, ~l
~
.~ LJ I
or region based on aesthetic. eco 'o~'", W~I ..r>~1
logical. cultural. sociological. '6..". j L..o...::J'i 1." ' y ~ 'i I ." ·o.."...s U...::....J, ."
economic. historical. conservation. .~~ I ~ 0-" dJ,j,5." .~.,; L.::..J I ."
and other factors. • 15.,.». 91 J.,..l ..:r---
- -11 ." '~I
.. . ~I.
Equivalent Single-Axle Load (EAL) (EAL) j~I .,;y-JI J,.....:... JjL-..a

The effect on pavement performance 0-" '6.,r. ~ I:?l 0-" ~, .".J I ~U 1
of any combination of axle loads of 'oj~l ~I ·~L..,..::....o..l JL..>.~I
varying magnitude. equated to the u-=---JI." j~l ..,.".~, ~ .,;.,,~,
number of reference single-axle .~.. L..,j.j,
.. J Li.:. ~ I j ~
..." L.....o
6.-. . - < ..
u,.,-.
loads required to produce an equiv j...u. c~~ '6..0,jJU, .,;.,,~I ·.j~1
alent number of repetitions of an A ~ j~1 .,;~l .,;,..,..s... 0-" ."L.....o
8-ton single axle. .~
Erosion - A slow wearing away of ~ '~I J,5'""L::..J1 - (~I) i.".~1

the surf ace by natural action of ~l.,,-r-ll ~ '0 " ..... 6 1\ J.,..ly ~ ~,
wind or water.
. '~''''
( Erosion Control - The prevention or I I
....,.... y 1
~."
I ~.. l C"'-"
. ·......~I '4.>-iLS...
reduction of erosion. ,·6..".~1
Estimate - The expected total cost W L..>. ~ I ..L.J ~ I - .,;-a--l I ~..l.:i.=.

of the project. . t"'~ '6..J,.j y....J \
Excavation (1) The act of taking c' ~I .6..".....W (,) - (,."_" - 1\) .,.,...;..:...JI
out material. (2) The materials (i) ,·o.>-~I j\ yo-JI (1) . j! ~I
taken out. (3) The cavity re ~o" ).;,'''0 1\ o.,.,...;..:...JI ."T ~.,,~I
maining after materials have been • jl yo-JI C' ~I
removed.
Existing Noise Levels - The noise. '~5 - o..."..JL"..J\ ~I c.L".~

made up of all the natural and man 01y~I ~ 0-" 'U-JJ-o-II ~I
made noises. considered to be usu '0 j y ~ I .~ L..:.,.,.J I ." T ·0~..".....,.hJ I
ally present within a particular '.~\ ·oYI..LJI JLh.:. ~ .,;\~L,.
area's acoustical environment. t..'yT \ "...... ", 0 T ~." ". L.:..~
Unique noise events may be ex .0.i.,,-..,r-9 vI -l>-T 0" ~ ~I ~,
f~"· cluded.
Exit - The point where traffic '05.,.»- L~ C~ ~\ ·o.b...:i..:.-JI - C~I

leaves an expressway to travel to ~ ~ (71"'>- ~.,; ..,.".~ 0-" .,;.".,;-o-J'
an intersecting road. " [.., u..::......, .. ,
'L ~~
Expansion - The increase in volume ~ ·.jL...o..JI ~ ~ojL.,.j-ll - j~1

of a material due to increase in • ·0.,;1~' 'o':>-.,;j ~ojL.,.j-l1
temperature.
Expansion Joint - A narrow space u-=---JI .•~\ ·uL.......JI - jJ...e...:...l1 Ll.>."

left between two parts of a con ·~.>J-..".JI .~ L-y>-JI 0-" ~? ~ <!.l.,;-::.-::.
crete structure to allow for ex '-:"'->' ..r-L.:.5...:.~1 ." T jJ...o...::.-lL..... L..". 1
-r-' c:-- J
_ A . . . • ..
pansion and contraction of the con J,.....;,...JI ~.,,1 ·•.,;I~\ ·o.>-.,;j ~ ~,

crete with changes in temperature . • L..,,~ ~'.".JI
and loading.
25
Fixed or Permanent Counters - Em
~,., - ,.,' -...:....,,~I vl..3I...u.J1
t......!.1.lJ1
ployed for continuous counts, re
..3..AJ1 '0.:'
. . ; . . . ., n 1\ L"....i..LI :; 0 ".;. • 1\
n " r
/
( cording the distribution of traffic
~..J~'" J"'.."....J' ';,05Y J.:.-.::. l" ..::.....ll,.,
by hours of the day, days of the c"""'- ~ I ~ J l..l..o r , ..,.J.c AJ: L.......,. "'u L...
week, months of the year, and from lSyi-' ~ '6..:..-,., ,·il-:..-.JI J"'~ lS..l..o ~,.,
year to year.
Flared Intersection - An unchan ~I ~ LL:...JI y.Jb,., - t:?.>-t' d.,b ~ L.i.:.

nelized intersection, or a divided ..
~~""""-~L
.1. IIh L:i.:; I. .. •
,."
1 .hh.;.....
highway intersection without is , ~ I ~ JY
~ L>..::. '... L.
0,., . - ~..r • . II
lands other than medians, where ~ ~ - •.."..h....."..J1 J~' I..l.s: L......".....i
the traveled way of any intersec ';'J w.. J ~ ,.,' -::.-, J L..,..-.J' ~...,.b ';',.>. L-o
tion leg is widened or an auxiliary • ~LL:...JI ~ .yL..;\
lane added.
Flexible Base - A base with low -::.-Ij 'o~LUI - ~.."....JI .~L...i.J1

resistance to bending, enabling it '~L:;.. ~,., '~JlJ ......,.,~I
';' g.: "0 1\
to stay in contact with the under 'u.,..b..J L..,. .~ • L.i..,...J I L-y-J ~
lying structure. This type of base \~,., • ·L...:....,. lS' ~ L.y.::..>-..::. ';'..3,y>-,.,-...J\
distributes loads to the subbase. ';'..l.s: LUI ~I JL..o.:>.~ I U~ cy:.J1
Examples are dense graded aggregate .il,....b.....J I ..l.s: I Y dJj J~,., . ..,JJ-J I
.~
bases and asphalt treated bases. ;,.>..J L<t.....J I ~ I ,.,_i-JI ,., 'il.>-y.l.J I '0 g ,. ,. < II
•..::.J..i- ~ L..,.
Flexible Pavement - A pavement u.",.s..::. ,:?.:l.J I <....9.<>..,r-J I y.Jb - w--J I J..,.,rll

structure that maintains intimate L.o...,. ';' ~ ';'...i.o-:;....L <....9.<>..,r-J , u..,.b y
contact with and distributes loads ~ 'il-U1.."..Jl JL..o.:>.~1 U~,., .~
to the subgrade, and depends on -::.- ~ -::.- I J j <!J LS.::..>. , ..,.J.c L-y-:; L.,.:, ~
aggregate intergranular particle • L~ ~,., 6.b.J.:>..J I
friction, and cohesion for stabil
ity.
Flood Frequency - The average in h....,.,..::.-o - 0~1 -=-,.,..3.>- J..l.-a.e

terval of time, based on the period ';'~ ..,..L-l ..,.J.c - ·~..:rJ1 -::.-I~I
of record, between floods equal to ......,., L......o.J I -::.- L..:. L..; L."...DI ~ - ~I
or greater than a specified dis ,.,' ~~ ")..l>..A ':-'~ .:Y' ·;'..3.!.Ij-JI ,.,T
charge or height. Generally, ex ';'..)W: ~ ~,., • o~1 CL.i..::...)1
pressed in years. •..::" , ,.,...:..-.J L..,.
Flood Plain - The area adjacent to ';'J"'~\ ';' -6' n " y.Jb 0~1 J-t-
,
-I'
" "a:.
a natural wadi that is inundated
during floods of all frequencies.
Normally, in highway drainage de
o~I
,.,' u...u.a
~w..J1
Wb~
J~l
uL.5 L...".\ "u~I"
~
~I ,~
~,.,
('-'..Y'
•
lS..31.."..J
~~T
...".,,-..:--c
sign, the area inundated by a 100 'il. .. 6 .• 1\ 0 ~ uu .~ ..r-JI J.,.,.hJ L.,.
year flood. uL..A."....iJl oL.."... Wb~ ~I I.;(" ';'..)W:
• ';'~ ';''!' L., lS.L ~
Flow Line - The bottom of a wadi, ,., , ':?..) I .."..J' cu y.Jb ~...I..:o-II .hi.
culvert, ditch, or other water ~ L., lS...r."-" ,:?I ,., \ ..),.,..h.~1 ,., , ';'..) L.,...LJ 1
course. .yi-1
Foliage - The leafy portion of a ~ lS.:l.J1 •~l y.Jb - dJ~1 -~I

plant. .. .-::.-L..,....:. ,:?I ~ J' ..),.,~ I
Footing - Portion of the foundation ':? I ..,..L..., 0-" '? y.Jb - ~I l.1"'L-~1
of a structure that transmits loads •• ....,,~, ~I .;,yL.,....o Jw,;~, ~ 'L..:....."
directly to the soil.
Foreslope - The slope from the edge ·..... 1 J...,. I.;(" - ~L.~I JI ..\:>....:.~I 'UL>.
of the surfaced shoulder to the top ..
~~
L. II (...i.::..5) ~w..
.' ·uw..·0-" ..) \ ~I
of the subgrade, or the bottom of ';'~LUI 'o...i..,..b ~I ~ 'uy~1
the ditch in cuts. ~ ..3,.,..h. ~, Cu ,." .Jy..ro-l 1 J.,,-AJ-l
•..::" W: ."b-i-J 1
27
Expressway - A multilane, rlivided ~I ~I ,j.."-..,,h.J' - t-o'.,.,......J1 ~.,.,h-JI
highway designen to move large 6.5y ":"~~ ~I..J • .l~ ..::..I..;L.,..
volumes of traffic at high speens ~..J '4Ju "::,,u...r'""! ~ 6~ ..;..J...r
under free-flow conditions. Ex ~ 'd..",y..J ~ , u;Jb... L;-J J.,.,h-J I 6 ~ (
pressways have full control of ~ L..,..:...o ..::.. L..b L:i.::. .l.»..J ~ ..;..J...r-ll
access with grade-separated inter • ~..;-..ll ..;t.........JI .y 'ci..J~
changes.
Expropriation - Acquisition of ..J>I..;-i~ 6 .. S I. II •..;...IL..:u. - "os 1.1\ t...:r:

property for highway purposes. • ~....".--. II ".1.. 1\
'-'..r-- 'L:...:.I
-F-
Fabricating Plant - A plant where IS~ ~I ~..;y~ - ~o 0,,,,_,.,, i..bJ
component parts are formed, welded, ..J1 .• ;. ,-.;.. II '1.)-:'-'11 ~..J ~ L...y.."...J
or bolted together to form assem 'O-l> I..J 0~
6-l>..J ~ ..J1 4-c L.:>-J
bled units, such as heams, trusses, 1,51 ..J1 "::"L.:-Y~I ..J1 ..J>..;'~I ~
or other parts of metal structures. . IS? 1 ~...\...Jt.o J.5L."...<b
Factor of Safety (Safety Factor, J",........

• 6..c)L.J 1 J,... u ) 6..c)L.J , J,... u
Cut and Fill Slopes) - That factor L5.:Ll ,
j...G..J1 Y..J (r...l..;..JI..J ~I
•
-.11 •y,- .J.,.,.....li.::
. ll--i.....1.. .. < .
which the shear strength may be J-s<.:......l

~ ..J"" .y ~
~ • ...1..J.h-o 0) I Y U ~ ~ y~.., ...~...~ I

L .tuced in order to bring the slope
into a state of limiting equilib .~ ,j...J~ ~ J."b
rium along a given slip surface.
Feasts and Holidays - All recog ...Iy~, ~ ~..J - ..:..1.)4~lJ .ly~t

nized feasts, holidays, nays of ~..J 4> I..;..J I (' L",I..J ..::..J!.b...".J I (' L", I ..J
rest, ann other religious customs L.y-,- .j~1 IS?~I ~...wl ..::..\ ...Iw..JI
recognized in the Kingnom. ••~ I ~
Feeder Road - A type of road serv \..r" cy -= ( ,,?Y ~ ~~) "?~ ~~
ing two distinct functions. It 'ci.... ,h. 1,5...1~ ..J~ ~...I.A> ('~J.."h.J I
".1..1\ '~.I\ .. 1..1\ . •.5 ... 11
provides a traffic service hetween '-'...r-..J ......r' '-'...r ~ ~
primaries, arterial-collectors, .... I..... 1\ JJ1:,...JI..J "P ...... 11 ..JI 6~\..;..J1
other local roads, a town, village, ~-L.:....:......J I..J 1S.,ri.J I..J 0~ I..J ,IS? ~ I
industrial or commercial develop ,j-bL.:....a...J1 ·d..",..;~1
..JI ..JI Y L.:.-.JI
II J.Y'..:r--'
.. , 1 Li....,. t.. .
.. ..r Y ~
Lc.5"
~~ ...r--
..... II
ment, or a recreational area. It \,r'
I ~-rJ ~L,...J • ~L>...J\ ~I S I··, •• II
also provides direct vehicular
access to privately-owned proper- ~ 0..J.s..::. • '.6 ',. II .O""',h. 0 L.j U...:..J I
•.5....P--' ~I 0' ~ J..J~I ('Li......J1
q. Land service is the first
'-~llsineration, but traffic service
may have more than incidental
• 'd..",y~ \..r" ~, ";..J...r-l l (
significance.
Fill Section - See Emhankment. ..r> ~, (~~ ~) r.l..; ~

." . t.. "
'-"""...r-
Fill Slope - In fills, the slope If'' - ~L..".......I..;..Jt UL:- ~ - .......... .l..;..J1 ...k-e
from the top of the subgrade to the 'o.h:i.:. ~ 1 ~ \ ~. \..r" ~ 1 ('-?'.>

.~
toe of the fill.
Fines - (1) Aggregates - Portion '~I - (,L5..;..J1 (\) - i....sL.:......l1 .l1~1

finer than the 4.75 mm (No.4) (r). t"'" f..;Yo ..,..L:i.c JL,...;-i ..r ~ ,,?.:Lli
sieve. (2) Soils - Portion of a JL..,-..;-i \..r" ~ L5.:w1 '~I -~y::....ll
soil finer than a .075 ron (No. 200) . (r" ~..; ) r-'" ..;' yo ..,..u...
sieve.
26
Foundation - Lower part of a struc Y".) •~ I$.Y. J-i- )11 •.,j>---ll - "",I- )II
ture that transmits loads directly , '"-'''~ I u-J \ '"r L.,...e J L...".;.. )II J-i-.:,..". I$. ~ ,
to the soil.
(
Four-Leg Intersection - A roadway .) j 0Jb ~ Li.:. Y" - ~ L,...rJ I ~ Li:..J,
intersection with four intersection L...o~ 0~' ~L5 I jl.) .~ t::-"..J'
legs. If two of the intersection ~JlJ ~.,.,....J.-.:- Wy 1,,)1~1
legs are approximate prolongations Ar l.!" ~ L..i..::..J, 'A..".) ,,) ~ L5.) ~"'p-)l,
of the other two legs, and the IIV ~ ~y':l .)1 'b..J") ~ ..J~l
angle of intersection of these pro 4..:.\ ~ ~ I ~ 0w 'b..J") ~L..i..::..Jl
longations is 83 G or more, but less ~ L5 1 j 1.) , 'A..".) I j-J 1 ~ Wi l,!" L,...J ~ Li.::.
than 117 G, it is classed as a four L,.Jy , ,,)1 ~I ~l .:ro 0~I
way, ri~ht-angled intersection. If ~"'p-)l\ ~':Il Jy.,,) cu,w...::.':1 L..,....".~
two of the intersection legs are ~
, ,,)\ ~)I,
~~
, " I
Lo!-'Li.::...J\ 'L
...) I ..J' ~L5.)
approximate prolongations of the ·b..J") IIV 0-" ~I .), 'o-:-..J,,) AT' 0-" JJI
directions of approach of the other ~Li.:. 4..:.1 ~ ,~ ~Li.::...J' 0w
two, and the angle of intersection , ....".)'.:rJ I , j~ l,!" L,...J

of these two prolongations is less
than 83 G or more than II7 G , i t is
classed as a four-way oblique in
tersection.
~eboard - The vertical distance

between the level of the water sur
face of an open channel at design
flow and the top of the channel.
' '..."..- t .rl'
'OJ~
o~ ~.)
'OJ 1.....--1 1
'" L:.J
yO,:
~
° ,,",
- "?
• L...o...J I
II ~~I
ch-
LhJ I 'u L-..a.J I
r.sy.::.-..o ~
-b- ~
, '. L..:...i.J,
•
Free Water - Water that can move j..b..::..;:. ~, .L.."...o-JI - "~I
• L.."...o...JI
through the soil by force of grav ,"~ j w.....J,o .)-.L,. 'L~'
ity.
Friable Soil - A soil that can be ~ ~'o-,..~'

~, '6...,.~1
eas ily broken and crushed by mod J~\ .b....2.AJL,. 'o.J.)~ L~.) u,~
erate finger pressure. ,~I C" L..o t..,. L~
Frontage Road - A road contiguous .. JL,.jl

eY"' ..
~...J
b.JI <LD>
..T -
- • G
u-:"'""".~...;-
-. ,L
to a controlled access highway so • ~I Jy...).J\ ('.)~1 ~~1 .J-,..-.."hJ-I

designed as to intercept, collect, •.5..p" ~,)y.) ~.) ...,o1~':I ~ Y".)
and distribute traffic desiring to .J-,..-,.y.,.J' ..J,y& u-J t 'b w.....J I .L& ..J.).........,..J ,
cross, enter, or leave the con .)1 ..."...... Jy...).J 1 .) 1 ('.).5..>-e..J \ ~y-J t
~-0lled access highway and to fur
dh access to adjacent property.
y-ll Jyy\ ~ dJj.5.)
,'0..J.)G..AJI
0..:......
..::,.1
C.)...P-.JI
S I.... 11 ('
Froude Number - A number derived .:ro oJ" I.:.. .., • II ~~I Y" - ,,).)...;-J ~..J
from the velocity and depth of flow • 'o~jL-:-J' t....JL........::..) ~~, ~.) '~y-J\
and acceleration of gravity, which ~..L..J ..::..JL:.J 1 G l.>...J..).J \ ~ ~ I$. ~, .)
distinguishes between subcritical, ~.) 'OJ~ I 1y.J.J I G • L.."...o-J I ~
critical, and supercritical flow in ~.>y-l\ 'b..J..).J\.) - '0-:-~\ ~.),,) ·o'>..J..).J I
open channels. ...." L.O...1.J '0.>~ I '0.>..J ..).J \ .)
Functional Classification - The ,,?-I' ~ Y".) - ~."JI r-' i-,I\

grouping of individual highways in ...,........,.. LiJbo~ r.s l ~ 'o,,).,rL-J1 '~~I
a highway system, according to 0.5..p" cy.) .J-,..-j, 'J5 '~.) .)1 ...,0...ri-
their purpose or function, the type GI .. 16"'0.) • Ly-o...l..->....,- ~I ..J.).........,..J\
of traffic they serve, and their 0~ o!J L.:.J>.) L~ J.S.-" '0..0 w...J t '0":' L..."..AJ 1
maintenance requirements. There , ~ G~ C..J..L...:. ,,~\ 0-" cW.,)-A'?-"
are three functional classes: Pri · s.yL.: .J-,..-.."b '~..J .J-,..-..;-b : (' ,: .... II
mary, Secondary, and Feeder high • ( l,!" ~ ) I$.~ .J-,..-~.)
ways.
(
28
-G-
• cl:.).Jl LJ-" '6..i...,.h ~..) ~ - 4',; 1:-- 1\
( Galvanizing -
coating of zinc.
Application of a
Geometric Design - The arrangement ..r'L....."J1 ~y - u-~I ,"_"0-,1 1
of the visible elements of a road, c 4-.,) ~ 1..) .,) L-o..J I ~ • ...h-.}:>.J 'Y..r-!I
such as alignment, grades, sight .cl.,)~t..) ~.rWl..) 4.,,-':'~1 cL..iL-o..)
distances, widths, slopes, etc. .t-!'

Geotechnical Engineering - The ap ~ - ~I 4y~1 4-..l..:.-t...l1
plication of scientific methods t:>-' O""""~1 Zs,,) L..,....o...J I..) '" I 1\ J.}:>.J 1 n Sl
-.:J.._ ~ L........' i.oL..:;..J1 cLo~~ - 'ft - It "

and engineering principles to the C--
acquisition, interpretation, and ~1 J~ l, ii-:.J n"" '1 I" 1:...::...) ~J~l
evaluation of subsurface data to y.,) 'J I 6y:...:uJ 6...:....).s...o.J I ,,) t ~ t ''65".>-''--:'

predict the behavior of the ma • '4.....,.y.J1 ~L.S.."...., ~")L.,,.-o dJ.J ~..)
terials of the earth's crust. It '4......l..:.-y-Jl..) • .,)~I ~~..)
encompasses the fields of soil me ( ·L.".~I) 6,: 0,::6 II..) 4y~1
chanics , rock mechanics, geologi • 1~~1I lS,..?'Ji c'J~'..) 4y~1
cal engineering, geophysics, and .".L.I\
'-'....r--' J..,.,) ~" "..;....-0
, ill:L.
related fields, such as pavement
-.,
6..• design.
Germinate - To sprout or start LJ-" ct....,....:..J I 'C..),..? 4.,,-1..l..,- ..::.....,....:

growing from a seed. • '4>-J1
Glare - The sensation produced by lS.i......J I ~ L-> 'J I - ~.."..:.J I ..) , 6....l..JS j-I ,
luminance within the visual field J w.-...'
. lr'.,)~ "Y:.7?",,)
',,) ~ ~ '
that is sufficiently greater than .:r 6~ 0..).5..."...) 4.,,-..)~1
b.,)..l..,- '..l!.I,)
the luminance to which the eyes are ~..) ~I ~ Co,,)..)-'G l5.:LJ\ "."..<WI
adapted thereby causing discomfort, ~ ..)1 CL."..::..,)'J I f~ ,.,)~..) L..i"...o
or loss of visibility. ~ ..)1 .,)L.o....,-'JI ~ L..,)-u 0~'J1
• 4.,,-':'~1
~\y\ ''6.6' • II - uL-..lJ1 ..), .'. \- • I,

Gore - The area between the bifur
cation of two roadways, bounded by ~I ~ ...l>-.::...)~? t..;-i.::. ~
the edges of those roadways. • ~.}:>.J I L;.j L.>
Grad - An angular measurement equal 0-" I"? J,,) ~ L.". '..),).JJ ~ L."...i..o - ,,) I ..P.'
to 1/100th of a rieht angle. There l5.~..) ~LiJ' 4.,....)I..:>.JI ~ '6...:.Lo
',,)\..P.' i" ~ 6Y I.J.J1
(
; - ~--
are 400 grads (400 ) in a circle.
Gradation - A general term used to fU ~ .Y" - r.,).l..:....a...Jl J"...... -.I\

describe the composition of an 6....:.......su
.. L...L.S,,)I
.. ~
,-<-
.",...." l.r.1..,,-- J..,- ..:r-I f ~.'
aggregate, soil, or other granular • 6,::.: .• "" lS,..?\ ")\.",....,, l5.\ ..)\ 6....,.y..)l
material. Gradation is usually ex ~I .:r j ..'" 0", II 6,,)W: "'"" ~..)
pressed as the proportions (per LIb.,)")...r" ..l...:& A."...o L.S...r-II ,,) I .,.,.....JJ ~~ 1
cents) of the aggregate that will fG.>I cl.:l J,.,..,.I~ 6~ 0-" JL..,.~ J5 ~
• U L:.~ ~
pass each of several sieves of dif
ferent sizes.
Grade - (1) The profile of the .h....Y ~ 4-.J' ..h-i-o.J I ( ,) - A.:--.,).J.J I

center of the roadway, or its rate •.b."...,.-y-J'j ..) t ,,)~ I J ~ ..) t ...h-.}:>.J I
of ascent or descent. (2) To shape l.r.'
I
..r-. .""""'
. . . 1...
...r-- ~
, < ... 6,,)ul
..) 1 ~
' < .... ( .. )
,
or reshape an earth road by means (r) .cL.&l.,.,.J "j... ..)1 "I":p'-I 6.Jl,)L..,.
of cutting or filling. (3) To ar A"...L..::..JI (i) •F 1 ~ ~y.J\
range according to size. (4) Ele . C: LL.,)'J I)

vation.
"
29
Grade Compensation - The practice, vI ., .....,,, 11 ~ - ~..rl.J1 ~ ~-,..JO.:._J1
on sharp curves, of reducing the ~ ,-:"yL.1 •• ~L>..JI (vL ib R', 0 II)
percentage of gradient to compen
sate for loss of vehicle momentum
"0..<:
...r IT • ~ L..iJ I
•..".."....u
'. • 1 1 1\
~..r---""""""""
R ".
'A...o-' L.i...o.J I ';' ~ L.".').) v \ -' L.."....J'
';'..-...-:,
(
and increased tractive resistance.
Grade Contour - The trace of a pre Li..L ~.l.:>-AJ' -6-.J1 Y - ~-,~I ~

determined grade line plotted on a 'i>.b.."..,..,> ~ ~~I
f""..r-'l ~
topographic map or traced on the J>-,~l ~ I".."...~I .), ·.~I~..r--b
ground by an Abney Level Line. For

~, .)l.."h -,'..\.>....:.\ \J"'L.."...i..o .b. 1"1 ~L...,.
example, if the contour interval is ~ ·;,jL.......o...JI ..::....:-L5 I ~1 .J~. Abney
5 m and the gradient 5 percent, the

~ 0 ~ J..".......JI '~.) ~ 0 ~ ~1
grade contour intersections with

t:" 1:-'~\ .b....,p...o vWobLi:. wU • ·;'.!..L.o.JI
successive contours would be 100 m U t........... ~ w.".s.". A...,..j u...:...o.J 1 v 1 b.! ... " II
apart. ~ j.S ~ ~ .;,.!....
Grade-Controlled Location - A sec 0-" t LhJ Y - ~-,.l.J1 ~.h-o ~.."...
tion of highway where the highway

J-"o~ I -' L.....o 0..."....; w.".s.". ~..r-' I ~~ I
route is controlled by the maximum J."........... ....,. L~l ~'il .h..JL...,. L.....).s......o
allowable gradient and the dif • ~.."h ~ ~ t L.i.::.-' 'i I 'o.:,.-,...LJ.)
ference in elevation between ter
Tllini.
Grade Crossing (Railroad) - The

intersection of a highway and a
railroad at the same elevation.
..\..".l>-JI
-
•.s-..JI .h.....
.tu.;.-,~l
-J- ~~...r'-'
';''>--'~ ~ ~
- . L II .I-.Li:.
C
~Li:. •
Grade Intersection - An intersec 1:?:.l.J1 ~~, y.) - I:?.) L-..:...o tl'Li:.
tion where all roadways join or ~ J~I ~ L.:L..::, .), • ...L...s.
~
cross at the same level. • -l>I.) lS"""'::'-'-
Grade Line, Grade Profile See -'~ I-I:?.) L-..:.:...J I .b..i....... - I:?.) L-..::..J I .b..-;.
Prof ile Grade. • I:?.) L..::..J 1 .b..:i.......
Grade Separation - A structure that •.s~ ~

I:?:..LJI .L.:...,....J, - lS~ J,.....;
provides for highway traffic to .,..,>1 J-"o.."h ~ .) 1 JY -'.)~ L...,. -'.)~ 1
pass over or under another highway • ·o...",J.."...l..:>..Jl ~1 Jy.)f
or the tracks of a railroad.
Gradient - The rate of rise or fall J..LR..o ~ - -,I ..\.>....:.~I .), ·L...:.>-:.~I '6..:--'~
~ith 'o...,...-.:...J L...,. .b.."...,.;-l1 .) 1 t L.i.::.-' 'i I
respect to the horizontal dis
_ance.
';'j L.....o...1J
• ';'~'il (
Grading - (1) Construction of the '~.) ~I ~ I (,) - (.1..,,-.~. -. II) o..".."..-:.JI
earthwork portion of the Highway. .. L II
~...r---' 0-" , t.;r>-'
'i'). (.
i.?"" I ...,r----
," I' • " - 'I
~
(2) Planing or smoothing the sur _1-...... ..
c- ~..".......,.)f ~
. .. ( ..1 ) .~...;--
• . 11
face of various parts of the road I" I ~ L...,. J-"oJhJ.J ';' ;, I..,.;." 1\ '1 ...J-:>- 'i I
by means of a motor-driven adjust ';'..1.,- L.j.) ~~ ~ .......J..c.J I 0-";' ~
able steel blade. .J-..,~
Gravel - Aggregate composed of -,4-> 'i I 0-" 'i>...LJy

'0.."....., L5-' ~'..>-" - ~ I
hard, durable stones or pebbles, .hJj-J 1 0-" .) 1
J-,...:...::... \ ';' J..". J..: ';'...,...J...:... I
crushed or uncrushed, often inter- L.....!..I ~ w~.) ~\ ~ .)1 ~I
mixed with sand. • LT-'.. I ~. J--J>-:;..",.. I.f? :.l.J I J...o. 1L 'i>.b.. \ ~ ..
...;--...r-
Gravity Escape Ramp - A road that J-"o.."h - ~~4-J1 0-" '-:".)-'~ ~

runs uphill from the main traveled 'Lh...,.'i ~, ~l ~-' ~.."h ~ t~
way, to slow out-of-control ve • ~ ';'~I" ~--i:, ~1 vL...,..$~1
hicles.
(
30
Ground Control - An accurate ground ~..l ~..JI c--- - O""""';'..J~I 'W1..r--J1
survey of targets, or other fea ~ ..J-yh.:. ~I 15/~I ~L..A.....JI -' ul.ilbjLI
tures visible in aerial photo ..l.5L:....1J ~ I 0-'" 0 ~y L.J, ..J~ I
( graphs, to insure the accuracy of
0-'"
.h!. I ..p--! I ..l I ..li I ~ t""'~ I """L"..i..o·U..l
photogrammetric mapping. '..J~I 6.:.I.A. 0-'"
Ground Cover - Herbaceous vegeta <:--L~•.dl 4...,- ~ - ~..)C}I -l..b...A.J1

tion and low-growing woody plants ·.~I .•.• .' A';' II vL:.L.,..:..JI -' 0~1-,
that form an earth cover. ''-''''..J~I ch-'~ ~I
Ground Water - Free water contained ~I ·.~I 6~I - t...,.....;~1 .L..".....JI

in the zone below the water table. <:--~ v""'::' 'uul-, ·ub..:....o ~~
.6~I
Grout Mortar, composed of sand, 0""" 0~ .bJlo - rl..,..Llt u.,....i.) 6..;..>-"

cement, and water, of such con ~ r'..,...o..,. ~L....JI-' ..::....:......~I-' J....,~I
sistency that it can be easily . 'u-'~ .... I ..l.>...:.- L...,.
worked.
Growth Factor - A factor used to -,.

• '.n II r ~., 1_L..>u. _
l..!-"
•• '- 'I
..:r- J-. L..>u.
predict increased traffic based ..6......".::... """L-l ~ ..J-,~I 05/ .• ..l'-."...;,-,
~
upon an average annual percent in ••"""'y.-JI .• ..l'-."...:rJ-.I '~~I .•....,......:... I
crease.
Guarantor - A bank approved by the 15.:L1 I ~1 J.....i5.J I -' f lJA w....J I

Government of Saudi Arabia, that '0.."....,.~I.5J........c,.Jl ......-,5>. ~ ~, y
provides the guarantees called for ~I vL..:.~I r"""'..Li.:..J ·;"""..l~1
in the contract documents. .. • ..l-.i...aJ I ~ ~-' L,..b~
Guardrail - A protective cable or -'t J-" L.5 .r .•..J y -..". L:i..".J I ? L>
rail device placed along the road '.jL> J..".b ~ ..l...:...o..o ~I -' .:r.:-..;,-,-I..J..l
way edge for the purpose of redi ,.::.-L...,.5~I ~y ·• ..lLd dJ~-, ~..J.b.J'
recting vehicles that have left the . .;h> 'o.ki.:. ..l..:& ..,.".~I .r 0.::.-.::../ ~1
roadway at a point of hazard.
Gunite (Shotcrete) - A type of ..l...:..JL:,..Jy ..::....:...... I '0...:.J-" 0-'" t..~ - .bj...

portland cement mortar blown into rI ..l.>...:.- L...,. ..l~ I 0 L5...o.J 1 ~ u--9~
place by compressed air. The ma ~~t ..ll· -
...:r--'
'I.h..J.;.. ~-'
n • .b
~
' . ~I ...>-
~.
terials are mixed while being • 'OJ"~ J)l;.. 0-'" ~
forced through a nozzle.
#
Gutter - A paved and generally L.,...J U u y .)-" ~ La .)-"-" - i.& ..".J ~ I
't. shallow waterway provided for car
La
• ·•..,p.b.....JI 6~I...i.,.,~ Jl,..;, 0-'5...".
rying surface drainage.
GVW - Abbreviation for gross ve 1

~L..iJI " . 'I
LJ..J~
......
~..J
_n 1 Lo-::...;.I - GVW
hicle weight. •.•..J L".-J.J
-H-
Hardpan - Layer of extremely dense '''---,?S.J I 'o...,...r=--J I 0-'" 'o...i.,..h - ~ ..r
.......
soil. • ';,..".GJ..J
Headwall - A vertical wall, at the -?t ';,..".y

~ \,"""l..J ..JI ~ - ~I .h!.L>
end of a cuI vert to prevent earth ~ ~~I ..::..;,...;:. ~La 15..)-?-" -' t .•..J Y
from spilling into the channel. '15~I ~ .b~I 0-'" -o...,..,.,.::.~'
(,
31
Headwater Depth - Culverts con 0 t ....;-'~I - ~Lo.JI lS~1 ~
strict the natural stream flow and ~ ~L.o.JI lS~1 -,1

·o-'L..,.....sr.J1
cause a rise in the water surface ~ ~-' '-' ~ '11
• L...o..lJ (,;r"-:Hb 11
(
at the culvert entrance. Headwater lS.)-?-O ..;-os-' • j>...L..J1 ~ ~ t Li.::-..I 1
0'
depth is the total flow depth from
0-" &J~1 t~ ..;-os ..Y' • L.o.J 1
the inlet invert of the culvert to 6-,L..,....t>...LJ ....»'11 ....;~I ~ j>...L..J1
the water surface at the inlet. .j>...L..J1 ~ ·L.o.JI ~ ·O....,..-...:..JL...,.
Herbaceous Vegetation that is . . ., 1 ,-:-~~I
~ 0..r» -' ,-,~I lSl ~

nonwoody. .'~
High Mast Lighting - Illumination &..u.::.-'"" • .1...eS 1 r 1 .b..:.- L.,. • • L.i>'11
of a large area by means of a group .~ 1-, '6..ik...o '0 • L.i> I 'u L>. ~ ill j-,
of luminaires designed to be ".

0
0 II vL..9L..:..5..J1 0-" .~~
0
~L...,.
r'
mounted in fixed orientation at the ~t ~ '0 91 -.;..0 L..".\-,j ~ ~...,.::.. ~
top of a high mast (generally 25 m To Wu L,-J..,b 0-,.s.". ~\) ·~-,L...JI
or higher). . (J..,b1 -,1 '..r=--o
High Pressure Sodium Lamp - A so - ~ L.JI .b..&.2J 1 -' ~C L..,.-..o

rJ-::' ~..,...,..J 1
dium vapor lamp where the partial ..I w.....,. Y r~r. ~I ..Y'-'
'-5.~1
r~ ~..,...,..J I
•
pressure of the vapor during opera- ..I w......,..JJ ~.j>--J 1 ~ 1 0-'.s.".-,
ion is of the order of 10 kPa (0.1 0...".1 l.,T" ~ , . '0.>-'~ 0-" J.! RO••• II .~ L....
atmosphere). • ('-5.~ 1 .h..i..a.J I .• -l>-' 0-" • ..I , )
Highway Planting - The installation ul-,j - ~..".JI ";""~I ~

of plant materials and irrigation ~ ,L-r.:-...rJ ·o..s..,...:. • ~ 1-' v L:.. L,...:.-' ..I ~ I
systems on the highway right-of-way .~.5.. II • oJ:.. ......;~ t.. 1\ .u..b..:....o
..r--- r-- 0.
,....,.~..r--
••
('y
for aesthetic and functional pur •...,.",Y,..J I ~ J ~, 0-" 0>--0 • Li...<> 1-'
poses.
Highway, Street, or Road - These o~ - ..;.,..? -,I tjL:. -,I ~-' ..;.,..?
are general terms denoting a public ..,01 ~~ '-..oLe Li"./ ~ ....... Le vI .... 16 00
way for purposes of vehicular tra ('y 6...ih..:....o ~ La...,. ,v L...,..5..r-l' ~
vel, including the entire area • I

~
I·<L. . . t . . II
~..r--
within the right-of-way.
Horizon (Soils) - One of the layers vLi.,.b ...1.>1 - (·L,.~I tl""':'~) J-i'11
of the soil profile, distinguished o~ ~-' 6...,.~ ~~\ tLh-iJ1
principally by its texture, color, J~I -' 0..,...u' -' 0-::'-,.5...::..J1 ~/ .:.r
structure, and chemical contents. • ~~ y'-..:.:...Jl ·o...".-,Lo.."..S.JI ..r>L...:.-.s..JI-,
Horizontal Alignment - Horizontal

geometries of the roadway.
·0..."....0...;'11 ·o_.l...JyJI ~'11 -,'-.AJI (
.~..;hJ.J
Horizontal Curve - A circular curve ..Y'-' - ~'11 ~~'11 -,I 0I-,-,..u1
or transitional by means of which a .:.r ~ - ~u..::.....:..1 -,I '-5.y' ~ ·~I
highway can change direction to the ~...r-~..r-'

• II ".1. I, oL>...::.\
. ~
'.. o..L.t..
.. ...r
right or left. .. "-,L......". -,1 ~
Hot Mix - A general term used for ~ ~ (' Le ~ - v>.L-..J1 .b..."...b....1
hot plant-mixed bituminous concrete ..::....:....o.~1

0-" ~I ~ ~I ~I
and sheet asphalt mixtures manufac ~...,.::..-, ~ ~\ -,Li.JI ~U...U '-5.-,LUI
tured and laid at temperatures -' n· ~ '-..0 r.-,1~ 'o-,I y v4--,~ ~
ranging from 120 0 to 190 0 Celsius. • ';"""'~ 06.>-'~ ''I.
Hourly Volume - The number of ve ~I vL...,.~l ~~ - -uL.-J1 ~ ~I

hicles passing over a given sec ~/ -,1 0-, L>.
° 0-" 0-::'--"-"' • j> ~ ~
,tion of a lane or roadway during 1 • 0 -l> I -'
° .~ L.... JJL;..
hour.
32
Housing - That part of a signal ..)~ ..,..t-, .r 'j-?--Jl - ,-,_,_, - II d-,~
head to which the optical unit and ' yyAJ' .. -l>Y I 6.."Js: ~ '•...I L.:. ~ 1
( door are
tection,
attached for support, pro
and attachment to other
'. • L...>' C"""" l...>..A LU.;.. ~ ~~ 1 '-:' L..,.J I -'
L~""":'-, ,l.y..oJ:..)-, L~L.c...J .::"L-~I
parts of the signal assembly. • ~yAJ' "-,L..:.~' '6.s.~ ,,?L,.
Humidity (Relative) - The amount of • L.....JI ...I w....." .~ - (7o _', " II) ......".b~I
moisture in the air compared with L~...IL.i..o ~ ., -,-r-l ~ ·•..)..Y'~1
the amount that the air could hold ~, ..~-'..) ~ ~ '
Lo ....!~' 'A..".-o.s.JL...,.
if saturated at that temperature. • .6...l..:.L....o "-,, y .~-'..) ~
Humus - A brown or black material -,t .~, ..)\~, - ........."...uwl ..:,.\ ; I;... II
formed by the partial decomposition ~j-?--J I J-b..-:;..J I 0-" .•~ ~ I ., ..)."..-..J 1
of vegetable or animal matter; the ~t , .•~,~, ..)1 ~1 -,t .::"L.,..:..J.J
organic portion of soil. • '6...,...r=--J I ~...r=- ~ ~~, •j-?--J'
Hyd. - Abbreviation for Hydraulic. •d".-.J-'...I ~ .6....o.J..S ...I ~ I - Hyd
Hydrated Lime - A dry powder ob "";4..J1 Jy--....Jl ~ - ~I ~I

tained by treating quick-lime with .::,,~ ~I ~I "~L.t..o ...L>t..,- ~~,
enough water to satisfy its chemi J-b..-:;..J I c.1 -l> ~ • L.....J I .r .•.".... L.S
.~, '.~ ·~t ..;-~,
(. cal affinity for water under the
conditions of its hydration.
Hydrostatic Pressure - The pressure ~-' - ..:,. ~I 'U L> ~ J,!. L-..J I J:....a.p
in a liquid under static condi ,'::" ~ 'u G ~ 0-'~ J,!. L.. ~t ~.h.S.AJ'
tions; the product of the unit ~ J,..,....u'-, J,!. L....J I ~ .• -l>-' ~ L. ~-'
weight of the liquid and the dif CLi.::....I I 0-:!-:'-' ~ '6.b...:i...:- 0-:!-:' CLi.::....I ~ I
ference in elevation between the .~l ~I ·L.....JI
given point and the free water ele
vation.
-1
Igneous Rock - Those rocks formed ~l -'~, ~ - ~LS~I -,y.........J1

by the cooling and consolidation of ..,a...G d- Lo...::.-'.•~ 0-'~ '• ..)-,.."...,..J
complex silicious solutions (mag ~I (~I) ~-' ,0...r" ~-,5" I.:
mas) newly risen from some deeper ~L.. ~ ~t '::"L.".~ .r ~-l> "::",;,,y>.
level • " ·,.h)ll
.~. Illuminance - The density of the ~ ~~I J.-3..l.::..J1 '.j~ - .. ·L...>~I
-t. luminous flux incident on a sur ~yAJl J.-3..l.::..J 1 '6...o-.:i J-o G ~-' L. r!-'
face; it is the quotient of the ch--I ' •L...:..". L. ~ ch--I' "> L......o ~
luminous flux divided by the area .~~-, Jt.........:.L...,.
of the surface when the latter is
uniformly illuminated.
Illuminance (Lux) Meter - An in '. • L...> ~ I ..,..L.."....:.U.) Lp ~ - ... L...> ~ I V"L."...i.e
strument for measuring the illumi (: .' '," I I .) Lp .r 0."s...::...".-, I.S~ r!-'- ~
nance on a plane. The instrument r!'...r" 0-'..l..,o -,t ~~ -,~l ~~ -,f
is comprised of some form of photo y>.1 ..,..L.."....i..a ~t -,t L."....cJ-, 'yy I!.l~
detector, with or without a filter, '''Y'..)~I!.l~
driving a digital or analog readout
through appropriate circuitry.
Illumination - The act of illumi -,t ·~1 'LiJI '~ - .. 'L...>~I

nating or state of being illumi -' t • ~ • ~ ~ 0-'.5.,.. .r:--J I 'u L>..J I
nated. Previously this term was ,~ ., "ILl..G ...I".' .... 11 I ~ ".u L.S-' . ' u.....
~ ~
used for density of luminous flux ~ ";-~I J.-3..l.::..J1 'u~ ~ L;-,.L....JI
on a surface (illuminance). • L. r!-'
\
33
Impact Attenuator - A device placed ~ ~ )L..p. - ~~I ~ )~
in front of a fixed obj ect in or

~ ,-:,..,riJ L,. -' 1 ~...,h-J 1 ~ ' ~ ~..Li..<.
near the roadway for the purpose of
stopping a vehicle at a controlled
~ J~ 6....,..S,J-" lS'" ..;~,
.4...J ~I
..;~ (
rate.
Impervious - Resistant to the pen ~I.>-." ~ l5..:).Jl y" - ~~I ~

etration of a liquid or gas. .~I)w..Jl -,' j.!.1y--l1 JI~I ~-,L...i-o
Independent Alignments - Each road t?..Y' ~,.b....:. ~ - "Ii-, • II ..:..I..)L-.......II

way of a divided highway is de · · L 11
~...r-
.-"'L.>..:.1
<:r, '
Lr" 6L.>..:.1
. Ie'
~
..
~-'
signed and located to take full ~ ~ L....ll...l..o-, r~I ~..rJl
advantage of the terrain. The me ,) ~ oj-' • ..,a..) ~ I ~ Lr" .. ...'l L.i..::..- oj I
dian need not be of uniform width t ..,......0..:.. LOt "oft "..r:'..J--:>--li ~ 0.".s..::.
and the two roadways need not be at o LJl, l..>..:. oj I 0-'~ 0' ~ oj L...S C. L-.::. oj 1
the same level. • C. u.=...) oj I lS~ ..,-i..:.. ~
Indication - The illumination of a • ..)-,~I ....)L:.I i...~ 6' WI - ....)L:.':l' I

traffic signal lens.
•
Indigenous - Produced t growing t or o , ... ,,,.:).JI o. L.S.JI olb _ ,L ~
~ -' ~ '? lJ-' ..T- '-?~
'iving naturally in a particular -'
, ~
~
...
6 .. " ..,.'
b" O'L.·
~~ ~
f
-'
~gion or environment. .~~
Infiltration - The abUi ty of the ";~I ~ ~ ~?I 6..)"l.j - ~..rJ'

soil of a drainage area to absorb ...'l~ ~ ~-' • 6L"....o.JI ...-r'~' ~
water, expressed in centimeters per • '6..<. L....J' ~ Co 1 J" • ..'., . II
hour.
Inlet Control - A culvert operates ....)L...,...s....JI ~ - j>...l...o.J1 ~ ~I

under inlet control when the flow ~I ~ j>...l...o.J1 ~ ~1 rLh.:..-,.
capacity is controlled by headwater ~ J-,.-..,b ~ d-3..l.::...o.J 1 ' L.A.J' ~ u-"
depth t culvert cross section t and l:t"'>~1 ~I -,' ~..rJ' lS~I
inlet edge configuration. • j>...l...o.J I u L". jS.:, -,' ....) L..,.....sJJ
Interchange - A system of intercon Jyb-ll Lr" 6~ y" ~L.i.:..JI

necting roadways in conjunction -,' ..l>-I-, C. u.=...) \ lS~ ~ '6..b..,.\~1
with one or more grade separations t ~..,b ~ ..)-,...".......Jl ':"~I ...rJ.7! ~f
providing for the movement of traf ~L.O...:...)I ~ 0l...:,-,~ ~, -,f
fic between two or more roadways on '0,.'3 , ..,.;,......,
'~fferent levels.
('
Interchange Lighting - Two basic 0L...."......"..) 0 u y elL..ll> - ~L.i.:..J1 .. 'WI
types occur, complete and partial. !.fb u... L.S.J I • y ?-' LLo L.S .. ' wJU
Complete interchange lighting is ~ ..r-l' ~..».J \ Co I ..) L". ~ .. 'W I
considered the lighting of the ..r-s ~1y..JI ..)-,~I 6.5..,>->-1 """"';' II 0
through-traffic lanes through the ~-,..P-l·i-' Jy.....'l....J 1 Co I..) L".-' ,~L.i.:..JI

interchange t the traffic lanes of Co I..) L"...J I-' ~..) G...o.J I -'
..u L......-I 1 Co L...", 4-=--'
all ramps, the acceleration and 'u..::...J' ~-'
'6..b..,.LrIl -,' .. ~ L.a...l1
deceleration lanes t all ramp ter • ~..) L>....o....lJ .. ~ I ..; 1..» oj , ~ J...,h-J 1
minals, and the crossroad between ~L....:i::......' ~ y..)-:>---ll .. 'L.i>91 L....l
the outermost ramp terminals. .. 'Wojl .. ~ 1 Lr" J,."..J..:; ...'l~ Lr" 0 ~
Partial interchange lighting con .~..) w.........JI ";1..»1 JS -,' ~ Lr" ,-:,..,rDL..."
sists of a few luminaires located ~L.:....o.JI <!.l.J..::. .. 'WI y" .. ...'lu ~I-,
in the vicinity of some or all ramp 'I.."... ~..)G...o.JI ";1..»1 ~ ~ ~I
terminals. The usual practice is ..)-,~I 'ilS y
t-" 'il...h1..Lli ~..)G-JI r'
to light those general areas where J-,.-..,b .:r
~..rJ 1 ~...,h-J I ~ ~ I y..J I
the exit and entrance ramps connect ~Li.::...::. ~I ~l...:,...o.jl-, ~ .. ~u..:.
with the through-traffic lanes *. ....l..o L...R.::....-J 1 J...,h-J I t-" ~..) L>...o..J 1 Lr.t-i
through the interchange and gener
ally those areas where the ramps ~
intersect the crossroad.*
34
*Note: These definitions are from db 0' il:...:>-~ ~L.>.J: 'eU>~ *
JI 0-" ;'jy..L ..:.-1..)- .. " ,,", II
the AASHTO "An Informa
u La..,..L-o J."..J.) Y".J AASHTO
( tional Guide for Roadway
~ 0 I .J • ...;.."b.J I 6 ~ L.,; I
Lighting" and some terms
..lJ 6...o,i;... ... 4 II ..:.-1 ... 16"'4 II
used may need to be changed
~ ~I 6~L.... ~ 0.J~
to conform with the ter ul 9" II ";Lj I _.... 1
minology used in the HDM. ...)-7, , CO"'-- ..r---'
~ 6...o..b. .., 4 fI ul ... 16"'0 II.J
.··.L..I' ~ 1 I.)
'-'...r-- <.r.:'-'
6...0.J Li..o <L,- ~ - ~ I J.J I <!J L..S...:o. )II

Internal Friction - The resistance
to sliding within the soil mass. . ~..r-J' ~ J;.I.) ...;':J,)~':J'
~ ~, 'UL.>.J' - ~bi-.• I\ ~..\.:o.J1

Interrupted Flow - A condition
u I .J L.>.J I (.$..l> I ~ 6.J L.o....II 6...,...S...r---l ' ~
where a vehicle traveling in a sec
tion of a lane is required to stop ~ 6.JL.>.JI 0-" ~ ~ ~~\ ~I
by a cause outside the traffic ul.J~':J1 ~ .J.J...r---l\ '6.5...»- .:Y <:.Jw
stream t such as signals or stop
.~~I ..:.-La~.J ~~I
signs.
Wo.L& ~ ~\ ii ib' • 11 - ~u..:...J1
•
Intersection - The area common to
two or more highways that come
.'~ 6.."..JI..,:,...,. pi .JI oL.i"..."..b
together at an angle.
6.J~1 6.."..JI,).JI - ~u..:...J1 6._,".)1,)

Intersection Angle - The angle be ,_L~ "L.. .1-,.
tween two intersection legs. .~ ~.r ~. ~
Intersection Leg - That part of any 0-" ~I ~ ~~I ~.Jj.Y' - ~u..:...J1 t...ri
~'-.e.JLo .J...L.i;:, ......... " . . . . II ,•. L.. II
one of the roadways radiating from M • ~. -- ~ v ' ~
u.k..... <:.J W. ~\ I J.::....o...o ~~I illj 0.J.5..".

an intersection that is outside the
~~, .Y' - ,-::,I?':JI) .L.y..:.lj ~L..i.::...J1
area of the intersection proper.
.L& u L..,..5...r---ll 4...0 ~ (.$ j.J I ...;-",..".b.J I 0-"
(Approach - The portion of a leg
• (...;.."b.J I ~ L.i;:, ~ 0-" L.y..." I ? I
that is used by traffic approach
...;-",..".b.J1 0-" t~' ~.Jj .Y' - <:~I
ing the intersection.) (Exit - The
portion of a leg that is used by 0-" u L..,..5...r---l l <:.J...P- .L& I" ~ ~j.J ,
• (~~\ 'Uk:.....
traffic leaving an intersection.)
Interval - Anyone of the several •.J.J J.J I 0-" ~ (.$1 ~ - ;,.r-u I

• .J.J...r---l1 ·o.J ~ 1 ~ ~ ':J ~,j.J I
divisions of the time cycle during
which the signal indications do not
( change.
'- Invert - The lowest point of the ~I ~'il.h..i..:. ~.)I .Y' - ~1
internal cross section of a closed • L:..J .J I (.$..,.>-?"-" ~ ~I..LJI Lt"'..rU1

•• Lh...i..o
conduit or channel.
~ ':J I .Y' - ~ Lh& ~ Jy..J.J.J . y J.JI

Invitation for Tenders - The adver
tisement for tenders for the Work. ~ ~ ~ I" t..."....:UJ ~ Lh......." 1"..u..::..J.J
~ 'il.J~ 'u..L,o ~':JI illj .)~

Such advertisement will indicate t
with reasonable accuracYt the quan .)1y--J' uL.".......5.J tl~'.J ,J,.......a.J\ ~.Y'.J
tity and location of the Work t the ~ 0 L.5......J .u. .J-".J I".D..::..- ~1
•..:.-\ ~Lb...aJ1
character and quantity of materials
to be furnished t and the time and
place of the opening of tenders.
~ .)..\..:>.....o.JI OL.5......Jl ~ - 6-"",,~1

Island - A defined area between
•.5...»- ~
, "s.,,"
I
I I ".L.. II
~...r--~,
._"'L.:....:;.\
lanes for control of vehicle move
• ;,~I J~':J.J ..:.-L..,..5...r---l 1
ments or for pedestrian refuge.
35
Isolux Line - A line plotted on any ~ L."...,..J I .b..J \ -Y' - .. - L..D ~ I IS-, L-.:. ..b>
appropriate coordinates to show all ch--JI ~ .h.L.Jl ~ 0' c<'~ ~.i...JI
the points on a surface where the
illuminance is the same. For a
j..., LSJI e.Jl,.h..::.....JU-' • ~-' L...::..JL"
IS'-, .~ ~ ~ ~ .b..J1 0~
~L..D.......J I
(
complete exploration, the line is a .• ~ Lo I e L>..) ~ .b..".b--J 1 dl:. v-o 'o..J...J....
closed curve. A series of such IS-, L-.::.-J ~ L"....,. r-..) ~ .~ ~
lines for various illuminance va •.• ~Lo'1'
lues is called an isolux diagram.
-K-
Keel - A large crayon used for .i...JI .. <

~ ~ r-U -Y'-'
-. _~ II
c-- _ Ii
r
marking stakes or surfaces. -,' ebb • II ~ eoLoJl; t""y r~
• JL.::.-,'1\
-L-
Lamp Lumen Depreciation Factor C""""" 1..•.,....0_11 .. - L..D I <!J~ I J,..o u
(LLD) - The multiplier to be useci ~ ...,.. L.....>. ~ r )5. -. • II .j..<: L.D..o..J 1
in the illumination calculations to ~~I .~ ~ '''-lo..J\ J~'1 ·.~Lo'1\
relate the initial rated output of -b-ll ~-' ..)~I Lo>~~ ~I •."..J-,'11
light sources to the anticipated
•
~L.:,...r,._JI \J"L..I ~ ~I ~J'1\
minimum. rated output based on the • L"'""" l...D..o..J I ~ l?-' r..l.> Oo Oo ~.i...J \
lamping program to be used.
Landscaping - Enhancing the natural - .. _~._ . b II .,.,.J;L..:..A..JI rl.u...:.-L" 0-::'-:f~1

features of the land through the ~~ lY ...,e..)5U .•.. pOo .. b 1\ r-I~I ~
design and use of vegetation and y" L....",j I -' .•~ I I ...b....:.- \ -' ~ r
other materials. .1S..,»'1\
Lane - A portion of the traveleci ~~ I 1.;f'~.;hJ I l?-' .•..) l.>..J I - ....) ~ I

way providing for a single line of eoL,.5..).....J\ ~ ~ ~ ~ J~I
traffic in one direction. • -b-I -' 61..>..:;, I ~ IS? '1 I ."....L:. '. -b- I -'
Leading - As applied to a signal Lo - ~u.:...:.~1 -,I ~..J""'~I -,.,..o.JI
indication and the accompanying 0-" 0~ Lo-' ..)-'~, .•..)~, ~ c....l>-...,,
traffic movement, means that they ·•..)~'11 dl:. ..)-,-yb ~ ..)-'~\ '•.5y
occur before the principal traffic Ly.,.1?' ~ ~...rJ1 •.5~' rLo1
movement on that approach. Most 0~'11 ~l .",...-' •.•..)~'1\ 'u.h.:.... v-o
frequently, it is applied to a left l.r''1 6W-..::.'11
...) '. ~I ~ <!Lb . ..5......
'-'-'
turn indication that precedes the ~
"'11 ..r--Il
~-;..
..)-,-y=...,...,.......
1~....Oo
~
1\ ..)
~I
Oo
nisplay of the green indication for

~ffic from the opposite approach.
6 ~ '1 \ V-OL,J L..:iJ1 ..)-,~I •.5y
• J
r Lo I
L.D..o..J I ('
Ledge Rock - A layer of stone in a ..)4->-~ \ v-o .~ - ......~ u..,.b
quarry. .~ ~ .• J.>->y-a-J I
Left Lane - On a two-lane, two-way ~~ ~.;hJ\ .",... - IS.r-=-..JI ..,.,~I

road, the traffic lane that is to ·•..)l.>..J1 ...,.." ~..)G. v-o .j,J~1 ~4--=-'1 I
the left of the centerline and nor ~ I -' .h..y I .b..> ..) '--=' ~ 'o....u I ,.,.J I
mally used by traffic in the oppo v-o 'L,J L..:iJ 1 •.5~ I '. J U L"i-" ~
site direction; or on a multilane ~~ J.,.;-.;hJ1 .",...-' • Jw........J1 64--=-'1'
road, the extreme left traffic lane 'U,j\ y l ·•..)l.>..J1 I.;f' ·.J~I CoI,.,G-Jl
of those available for traffic tra ',,~.~.;.,. II eol..) l.>..Jl v-o ..)L....."..JI ~\ .",...
veling in one direction. .~.
• 6W-..::.'11 v---r~ . .. 1 I
36
Left-Turn Lane - A traffic lane .•J L.:>..J I - J L-."...J.J u I J-J.l.J I ..J ~
within the normal surfaced width of ~ J>y JLbI ~ ~..AJI 0-'" ',,-,,~I
( a roadway or an auxiliary lane ·~L.b~1 ·.JL.:>..JI .)1 ',5...lw...J1 ~I
adjacent to or within a median,
reserved for left-turning vehicles
·•.J.>.I..Ll1 .)y .• ..,.H:'~, jib' I I '.J')~' '. 0
'uG ~~, r ~ ~ ~I-J l;--iu...:. ~

at an intersection. ~ JL....."...JI ~1 .::.-L..,...S~_II 6~'
....,.."h-JI .~,
Leq - The equivalent steady state ~ ..::",.,..".J I LS..,..::..-o - Leq ~ ',5 I JI

sound level that in a stated period .•? ~ ~ ',5.:Lll .•...::....,.L.:, ·o.JG
of time would contain the same ~I .bL:....:.....ll ~ .~ .• ~,)
acoustic energy as the time-varying ~.: p" II 0 IT-~' LS~.J J-,:,~'
sound level during the same time .•.,.,.=.-LJ I ~ • ~I 0-'"j-U G..,...::.
period. • ·•."...:......,j-ll
Level Crossing - The crossing of a ~ Li..:. - LS..,..:.--JI ~ ~ ~ L..i.:..J I

roadway and the tracks of a rail ~ ~ ~.b-..J' •..s.....J.J h,,-.,r;. t:-" ~~
road at the same grade. • "-?"J..Lll
Leveling Course - The layer of ~\ • ...l L..o..J 1 '0J...,..b - """'..,-..:...J I .~
( material placed on an existing sur

face to eliminate irregularities
CJL,~
"~...l,;:...
JJU.J L.,.
.J..,..b t'">.)
...lY y
J-,.J
eb- ..,."...; t'">y
.• ...lY y.J' '-;-'~ I
prior to placing an overlaying .eb-.J' ill j ..,."...; .....L, L.S
course.
Level of Service - A qualitative ~'LJ -r..r--

.. 1\ L.........D1 -
I.J"'..
...... .ti.-II LS.".......

measure of the effect of a number , ~1 .•~...;-- ~ ,J...,' ~I 0-'" ...l...l.c
of factors, such as operating .~? 'J.)~ , • .5? J ~ \ ,,.;-i-J \ '• .,).,..0
speed, travel time, traffic inter , "...l L".-.iJ I ....... )L... , J,.,..,.....,.,J' .) .•J') L.:......J I
ruptions, freedom to manuever and .j""..JLS.::,.) '~JhJ\ .6....0.JL, LS...l...o .·.>I~'
pass, driving safety, comfort, con Llb ...rJ.".., ~.J'6....0...l.3JJ . ...".-..:..-J L,. ~,
venience and operating costs on the • 6..,,0-0)';''' Q I ~.."h-JI
service a highway renders to its
users.
Light Distribution Pattern - An J L.....o..J ~~ ...u,.) - •y:.J1 ~,)~ ~

illustrated description of the be • .• • L.b I J ~ 0-'" ..J...l L",..J I •..,..o.J , '•.5? .)
havior of the light from a lumi
naire.
,(' Light Truck (Pickup) - A motor ve .•...,..s~, db - (,-;-,t d"....,.) ~ 'A...:..>L:.
hicle designed for the transpor ".~\ j..L ~ ~~,
tation of goods and materials whose
...l'y.J'.) C" .. r .
io+ + UJ' '•.i.J L.j L-y-:..,).) ~~ ~ ~\.)
unladen weight does not exceed . rI y ,.,.,.JS
3,500 kg.
Lime - A general term that includes ~ ~ ru ~ yo - ~I

the various chemical and physical ~ .•.."....lL..o..J,.) ·~.)~I J~'il
forms of quicklime, hydrated lime, LS.:Lll ~L..o..J' .), ~I .), ,~I
and hydraulic lime used for any .. .. . J>\ ~~ 1 0-'" J>~ ',5' ~ r~
purpose.
Liquid Asphalt - Cutbacks or emul •.."..;,.J..L ~ I ...ll y.J 1 - J-!- L-J I o..:...l.i- ~ I
sified asphalts. ": I.",". • II ..::J.i...'il .)y~,
Lithology - A geological term deal cJlh.o' - (':f.'"y .".:.....J) Jy......J I u."s..:. ~

ing with the physical properties of LS...lL..o..JI .:"..".s.::...J1 ~ ~ l.7?'"."J-""",-?"
rocks and their structure. . • L-r::- L,..."..$,..,..::..) "J~
\
\
37
Load Factor - A ratio of the total ..)~ c~ ~ - L1,.,.....-J1 J,...l-..o
number of green signal intervals 4-0~ ~I ~'JI ....>~I ..::-,~
..)~ c~ .~, J,...L5.J~ ....>-,..,ro-JI
that are fully utilized by traffic
to the total number of green inter 6....>~'J1 ~ ~ ~'J, ~yi>-Jl ..::-,~
'4.$...)-""
(
vals for that approach during the LS~...JI ~I • 6-,....>.:w1 U L- ~~I
peak hour. Its maximum attainable .-b.I-, ~ ~ J~' ~ ~,
value is one.
Loam - A mixture of sand t silt or -' I ~ I -' J,... ...r-J I

0-" .h.",-J>. - J L.i.h..J 1
clay t or a combination of any of ..)1~1 6~.r ~y -,sl -,I JI....o...kJ'
these with organic matter. It is ~-' • ~~ 6..)L..c ~I 'uW'J~
sometimes called topsoil in con "~".Il

~..r---
L..·~
l_1I . 6 II L···It
-I, ........ ....r--'
trast to the subsoils that contain "LUI ~

·11 I~
~
'I L . ...r--'
.... " .~-' I~ . ·. . .
little or no organic matter. -,s~ 'J -' 1 -,s~ ~ '-' ch--J' ~

• L·;. -" "..)L.o...JI .
..:.;r--- . . . o............s
. r.~ . I,
lr'"'"
Local Street or Local Road - A ~, ...;.,.-...,h-Jl -,I ~I C...)L:...Jl

street or road primarily for access L-L-I r ~ -,s.:wl ~?...JI -,I C....>L::...JI
to residence t business t or other ~i LSI -,I J>..... -,I ~ ~1 J>'".,.,J.J
abutting property. A design clas ~ ....>.:.0 ..,11 I~ ~-' • "....>-,w......
cly~1 ~-' ~ ~~
•
sification for these types of ..::-' e.: no",
r"ads. 'LS? 'J I
Locked Gate Access - On access con ~ '~j - 6...i..Wu 6..,.1 .>-:' .r Jy.-.1...J 1
trolled highwayst an opening in the Jy.-.1...J1 ~ ~I ~ ~I ~...,h-Jl
access control line to enable a LS~..l> '.h;.. -,1 &"...r'" ~ l,~U~-' ~I
railroad or utility to service its .. , • • • . L.. II I, oL.-t..:....:..." 'A...a..l> .
~-' ~..r--- lr""'" 0-"
facility from the highway. The . 4-0 1 ~I 0-" ....>-'~I
public is denied the use of these
openings.
Loess - A uniform windblown deposit ~I ~-' L....=...o...JI '~I - ~.,.,J.J' 6..,...r

of silty material haVing an open ~1 0-" 0-'.5...::...:.:.-, L ~...r-J I L.y..9.i...i..:.
structure and relatively high cohe ~ ~~ ~-' ..? J.5.z...,. J~-,
sion due to cementation of clay or ·juL.... -,sl -,I JL,.-,~' .....9~ 1....>b..:. ~..r-..JI
calcareous material at grain con • Ly-::.I....>~ ...,......,JL..::. L..c~ '4.."o-J.$
tacts.
Log, Drilling - A record of under ..}o....>'JI ..::-';""'::' ULo-...JI ~ - .ri>-" ~

• ....> ~ 1 '-:-'~ j...,..o J~ 0-" ....>-rb-=- L.... '-:--""
ground
6
conditions
, -Uling test holes.
discovered by
A drilling
documents the thickness and
..:r.:-~-, ~ ~ ~ .;-i>...JI ~-'
_b, .. ~ ·L..>,.I
•<J"'.....> 'JI c- . • " ..::-J] .. S··· ... "
... ..r'~
(0
composition of underground geologi
cal formations.
Longitudinal Running or placed .~y, ~ ~~ -,I LS~ - ~y.

lengthwise.
Longitudinal Joint - A j oint that ~ ~I "--l...<>YI - ~y:....J' u..YI

extends lengthwise of the roadway. .~?..JI ~ ~y. ~
Luminaire - A complete lighting " ~ WJU "U..o LS "-b.-' - " - W'J 1 ~

unit consisting of a lamp or lampst 'u W 'J ~ L""""'" L.>.... -' I L L..,..o...o 0-" 0..,.5...::...:.
together with the parts designed to ~yi>-JI ~,j~ 'AM';' II ~I?~I n~I
distribute the light t to position ~y-, ~L..c.>.-, L"""""'t..o.......Jl ,-:-,~y-,
and protect the lampst and to con .6....iLhJI ....>~
nect the lamps to the power supply.
38
Luminaire Dirt Depreciation Factor - tL-..:.'i1 VS' c=-L..:...JI .. -W'il ~ j...u
//
(LLD) - The multiplier to be used .::.- L.,.. L....>. '?"' ('~ ~.:.u 1 ~ W>.....J, .Y'
( in illuminance calculations to ac '."..,o-J' '~.$ ~ ...).! •... I .• 'W'il
count for the reduction in light LS.)...o ~ "'W'il ~ 0-" .•...)..)L..:>.J\
output of the lurninaire over a '''-!r'i\ r.5 l y ~ .~ .•~,) .•~
given time span due to accumulation '~I '~l '6..-...u Cb.- ~
of dirt on optical luminaire com
ponents.
Luminaire Efficiency - The ratio of ..:.-1 -b...,.J1 .~ - .. -W'il ~ "-L..i5

lumens emi t ted by a luminai re , to ~I .. 'WI ~ 0-" .••. " ... 1\ • .."..!.."..,o-JI 0
that emitted by the lamp(s) used -,I C""'""""La......J1 0-" .••. R • . II CoI..>.>...,.Jl 0
therein. .~\ illj J>.\...l ·;'...lyyo-!I C"'""""La......Jl
Luminaire Maintenance Factor (MF) .Y" - .. - w'i I ~ 'L:,. L."...o j... u

The luminaire maintenance factor is ~-' yL.,......J1 .• 'W'il ~ 0-" ~L..:...JI
the product of the Luminaire Direct .Y"-' . C"'"""" La......J I '?"' .• •W'i 1 c.1 ..>.>.-'
Depreciat ion Factor (LDD) and the 0-s.......". ~.:.u I .• • W'i I ~ ya.:.& ~ L.a..> I
Lamp Lumen Depreciation Factor ·•...,.~I .•..,.,..J..a'i, ~l ~ ~
(LLO) (MF = LDD x LLD). It is the ~.".::. ~ .• 'WJU ~ ~...ll ...l...,,-~
total depreciation factor that can ~L ~...ll ~, ·,y>.Jl ...)..l.a-o ~ Lo...G.o
~; be applied to the calculated ini

tial illuminance values to deter
( .• ,..r-'C""'""""
J-,.J
• L....-..
U
La......J1
·o.JG. ...).i.J1
'..
~I.,}-,'-"O
~l
I 0)
~
.J
..•yL.,.....o .. o.. t:.·

Lo...L&-,
..
mine the lowest illuminance values
that can be expected when the light
source is at its lowest output
(just before relamping), and the
luminaire is in its dirtiest condi
tion (just before cleaning).
Luminance (L) - Luminance is the ~~ ';'.."..!.."..,o-J I '6....0 ~ , l.!" - (J \) .. ' w'i \

luminous intensity of any surface 0-" ~
"..>.>.-' 0 ~I ~
J.s.J eb....
in a given direction per unit of ~ Lo.$ ch--J'
ill.l.Jo....o~, <.::.o1..>.>...,.J \
projected area of the surface as ...l...l....R..,- L~ ~-' o~)'1 illj .:r Ly.."...Jl
viewed from that direction, ex • ('I' ('I·.~) ~I '?"' <.::.o~'
pressed in candelas per square
meter (cd/m 2 ).
Luminance (Lv or L) - Luminous Flux ~ ch- 0-" ·,y>.J1 ~...l...::. - .. 'w'i\

from a surface element divided by ·A.O~I -O,'b'.• II 0-" " ' R , " .11 <-::-> ~
~. the product of the projected area t L.a.::..J I ~ t...."...)yo-" ~, 0-"
-~ of the element perpendicular to the ~ t L.a.::..Jl ~ ~I '~-,' ,j.Jl-,
beam and the solid angle containing ~ ·•.."..!.,y>.J1 <.::.ol..>.>...,.J1 0 . L~
the beam; in lumens per square ~~ ~ '~-,l,) J.s.J C"~I ~L.,..
meter per steradian or candelas per • C"J-" ~ J.s.J c. ~ I ...l..w...,. -' I .~
square meter.
-M-
Maintenance - The preserving and J...,..b-J' t''''''':' f J.5.b...b.-,A...:.. ~ - 'L:. ~ \

keeping of each type of roadway, ~l~\-, .::.-\ .L:....:,)',-' J...,..b-JI ~Iy-,
roadside structure, and facility L..a...,..-.:.. -~~I Ly:.JG. ~ 0LS...,)'\ ...)..Li...,.
(as nearly as possible) in its ori .u.~
.. .. ~i
.. -' f..;:.,~
..
ginal or reconstructed condition.
Major Street - The roadway approach ,":-,I.,.,..::.-t)' I J? -' i .j.,,~ - ~...) c...)L..:.
or approaches to an intersection '• .$? ~i .• ...l L.<: J-..>.-,., J? ~ L..i.:;. ~\
that normally carry the greatest . c.' ...) L".... ...)-'..T"
volume of vehicular traffic.
\
'.
39
Materials - Any substance specified ~ L,...,I ~ '1 '.~..\>-.o '. ~ La ':?1 - oJ l.ro--l l
for use in the construction of the • 6..::. 1 • I p", O.J t.J~ '~I
project and its appurtenances.
Matting - Material used as a sur ~'".,s 4...0)';'" 0 11 '.~L..o....Jl - -L.b...iJ1
(
face protector in conjunction with .:L..JI
•.J.J. ~.J
. ii
.. I a p,
. ~
,,' -" L.c..-....9
.. _\., ...-I I
C
seeding that protects the surface .J.J~ J..,G I,) ~1 r:h-JI ~ ~'.J
until vegetation becomes estab •..::.. L:. L,...:..J 1
lished.
Maximum Annual Hourly Volume - The ~l As L-J L.,. ~~ I ~."...:--JI ~I

highest hourly volume that occurs '0..:..- ~ ~y" ~ ~~ ·Osl-JL." ~
on a roadway in a designated year. • '0...:....,.....
Mechanical Analysis (Soils) - Find ( .....~I tl."..:.~) ~~ J,.....J.:...:.

ing the gradation of a soil by the J."....,,\..,s r'..b...::.......L.." '."",y C.J-L:. .l.,,-~
use of specified sieves and a hy .J!.l r ,j~.J ~
drometer.
Median The portion of a divided ~.J ~y" 0-" ' ? - '6..".h-y l ..j-::'~ I
highway separating the traveled ~ ..::..I.J~I .J.J..r" ..::..1.Jl.> J...:.-,i.". • r~
ways for traffic in opposite direc-
Jns.
Median Barrier - A longitudinal

system used to prevent an errant
vehicle from crossing the median of
'-r'I.L.
<
.:r-
'•.J~
•. L..
~.J l!r.1~
rLh.:,
.J~
• 0-0'~L..A.a ~~\
~
•
0.J~
L..b.... .. II
,,~j-::'~
'• ......b-.."
.. ~
.. ',- II
'U.J I,.'> II
'...Td~
',. 1 I ' .~ l.>.
r~
. L>
-R' •
a divided highway. 'r~
Median Lane - A speed -change lane ~ '•.J l.> - '6..".h-y I ..j-::'~I ".J L>
within the median to accommodate ~
".. 'o..-b....
.. ~
.. II .• . ',. II
..Td~
I,
u->
I ~ ·Os-.JI
.J
left-turning vehicles. .I.JL.....". ,jl~'11 ..::..1.J~
Median Opening - A gap in a median ~ .•..0--::.....> L..b.-

.. ~
.. II ......r.t~
',. '\ b.=J
provided for crossing and turning L.h.... .. II " ..• .,
0'.J.J~.J ~ •..Td~
... ft ,
.J..:r.--- ..
traffic. ...::..l.J~l
Median Speed - The speed repre ~I tT' - ..b.-."..:-J I As ..r--J I

'.J' ..r--J I
sented by a middle value when all ~ 0.Js":;' ....6_."..::.-c '~ L~ I· • ".
La ~
speed values are arrayed in as L..,..."...:;,y ."-,..::-..r" 1.5';->- '11 'Os .;---J I ~
~~nding order. Half the speed val- .3""';.J'.;---J I ~ J.."..:, 0.J~.J ,L". ~ Lt:>..:.
, will lie above the median, half
below.
• ~ .;->-'1\ ~ I.J '.;h...~ I 'Os ..r--J I (
Median Width Transition - A smooth J-"..DG - ~y l "j-::'~I d'.r ~
adjustment from one median width to J>y ~I ·• ."..h...yl ·•..Td~1 J>.r 0-" ..,....L
a different median width. .J...L>..O
Mercury Lamp - An electric dis ~L.J-y5 ~~ CL."...:u. - ~j t:~

charge lamp in which the major por ~\ ·."..a.Jl0-" ~~, '~1 ~
tion of the radiation is produced ..::.. \ .J ~ ~.;---J' ~ I ..r--:..J J-,;y" <y ~
by the excitation of mercury atoms. .~j.J1
Merging - The converging of separ '.~ .J.J..r" ..::..l.J~ .L.i.:..J\ - t:: La .l..:.'11
ate streams of traffic into a sin • ...l> I.J .J.J..r" .J L."...::. ~
gle stream.
40
Metal Halide Lamp - An electric
~~ c:~ - ~~ ~L.a. c:L.,..........
discharge lamp in which the light
~~ ,y ~ .• ·L...o~1 ~ ~L,...)yS
( is produced by the radiation from a ..) ~. 0-" .h."..b. 0-" ' '. ... . 0 11 Cw...:. ~ 1
mixture of metallic vapor (i.e., ~ c.~-, (~j I.?f) ~~
mercury) and the products of the -,t rJ-::'.L L.5.-.J I c.' ~ LJl, ) c.1 ~ LJl,
disassociation of halides (i.e., • ( r.)-::'-l~ I
halides of scandium or sodium).
Microfiche - A photographic process • <:.. ..., ... , ~ • • . < .•

~ ~ Y,.J-Jy·· - ~-'~
by which ·a number of microfilm ima ..),y> 0-" -l..)s Jj...:. 4-=-h.., y
ges (up to 98) are transferred to a ~ ..l>-I-, ~ c:."..J ~, ~-'~,
single sheet of film, usually 105 rom
x 149 rom in size.
• J -, O.! J I0 '~'I X .J -. O.! I J0 -l w '.0 .•
Microfilm - A photographic process .. 6.-....j1·..··~ .. I .• .<
~ .. Y ,.J-JY • .. - r-::-'-'~
by which plans, specifications, and c. 1 hh.;. 0 II ~ ~ 4-=-h..l y
other printed materials are greatly .l5?~1 'u~' -l1."....J'-, c.L.i.Dl.."....,.J'-,
reduced in size for permanent stor • '~l -l .•..)..,Y'-:' L~,p..::.-J '-l..,-..l.:. l~
age, usually at a ratio of 24 to 1. ., ~I H .~ ·.-lw
Mineral Filler - A fine inert min .• ...Lo L;.. '~-l.Ju> .• -l L... - ~~ ..~
( eral matter such as limestone dust

or portland cement, used in bitumi
-,t
c. LhJ..;"
,.?~I
0 r~
~1 ..)t.....,..i
.I.?.LJL:;...)y-ll
~
~~ I
'~L...:.
nous concrete mixtures. • '6.."...) LL11 ...P-l'

'6...:, L-
Minimum Turning Path - The path of 6.h..i..:. ..)L.....o IT-.)91 ul..)-,..ul ..)L-..o
a designated point on a vehicle .~ ..l.:.L,. I"~ .•..) L..".- 0 .~
making its sharpest turn. ·0 ..)-,-l
'
Minimum Turning Radius - The radius ..)L.....o ~ u I..)-' .uJ IT-.)91 .."h:i-JI
of the path of the outer front r~ .•..)L".....J ..~..)L;..j, ...."....L...91 'u~l
wheel of a vehicle making its shar •0 , ..)-' -l •.."J....<: ..l.:.L,.
pest turn.
Ministry - The MOC of the Kingdom •.5...1.o..o.J 1 ~ c. J!.." I .."....,.J I ....) I j -' - .. I ..)j."..JI
of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh. ..• J>L..,.,.."JI • ·6..".-l~1 ·•..."....,,~I
Minor Street (Cross Street) - The -' t ~~ - (~ u.:..... C..) L.:. ) I.?"":" L.:. C..) L.:.
roadway approach or approaches to '.-lw ~ . j ? ~Li::. ~I ,-;-,I?' .j~
an intersection that normally carry • ~.."J 1 c..) L.::....J I 0-" Jj t c.1..) L".... •.s?
'f
less vehicular traffic than the
major street.
MOC - Abbreviation for Ministry of .•..) , j."..J ..) ~ 1 -,' rf MOC

'-r
Communications. .0J!.."1..,,....,.J\
Modulus of Elasticity - The ratio ~I -l~~1 .•...,........:. 6.;. -,.."....J I J.,oLot.o

of stress to strain for a material ,j-,....rb ,:;.,.".,;. "-lL... ~I '~L,. -l~1
under given loading conditions. .'~ ~
Modulus of Rupture - A measure of '6...:. L- ...P-l' .•..,....u ...,...,L.."....:i..o - c.1A.:J I J.,o Lot.o
the strength of concrete when it is • ~ L,. ~ L....LJ:
broken by bending.
Moisture Content - The percentage, ·......... ~.

···11 ·o.....-.:....JI - L-I.·
.~~11 l5~
by weight, of water contained in ......... " 11
. ..;r----- ~ l5 ..
.. ..~..
.. l5.:u1 .L.....lJ . ' .
l.J..)..r
'L,.
soil or other material, usually ...,...,L-f ~ ·.-lW ~-' .l5?t '.-lL...-,f
based on the dry weight. .,j4-Jl 0j."..J1
i\
41
Monument or Reference Point - A J L..:.- , • .h.:i..:.
..) L..:.-I ~ -' ,- r-l-
permanent or semipermanent refer c-" °L...:..:.l rLi.:;,
~'!'I J ~ -,1 ·4..o.!,1 J
ence point set during the surveyor ~ ~ '~.J ..;..".? 0L..:...,,-,t
construction of a highway so that
·.Jul
. ~ L,.,.J ~I OJ...,.
(
the survey can he reestablished

later.
Mortar - A mixture of cement, sand, J.-.,.,rll -' ..::.....:....,.....::/, .r ..b.."....b. - ("i.:.~ ) b)l..
lime, and water. • OLo..JI-, ~l-,
Motor Vehicle - Every vehicle that .0 J <!J~ ~ 'o...,.y L?t - •.J'-

is propelled by a motor or engine '
within itself.
Mountable Curb - One that can be ~

· <... ~.-'
. . ....i,
-
- a-...Js
..
..)~
.. -- I I I
v-t'
U .
..,r.!..,,
.....1
readily traversed by a moving ve • 'o.J-,~ ~.J~ • .5~ '•.J~
hicle.
Muck - An organic soil of very soft r' Y ,.;:..\ j .•...,,~ '.-,.y .L...:.....J. ......y
consistency. - •-, ~ u-"..J
Mulch - Material placed on exposed

:th to provide more desirable
moisture and temperature relation
ships for plant growth. It is also
used to control the occurrence of
unwanted vegetation.
'.-,..."..::.-J'
• '•.J I j >-' '.-,.'p.J
L...S
~
•..::-L::.~'
~
..::- L::. L..,...;,

c::t'~
0.-0-.:.
.J-,-rb
~
~yJ
• J L.
~-' L.i.A..J
.~ 0JL,
-
r~
..) 4-
'6...0~ I
,......:st
• '.-,.-,.i..Y"
•
Multilane Road - A road having two · L::. L.:..

U.J cL ..
.~..r-'.J
,L -..:-1 L..-JI ..)~ ...
~..r-'
,L
or more lanes for traffic in each -,l ~~, J5 ~ .J-'~\
·• .5~,......:sf ."f
direction, or four or more lanes o .J-,~I '• .5~ p f -,f ..::..1.Jw- ~.Jf
for traffic in two directions. It -,' ...1>'." ~~I I j 0-'5.,.. .,U-, .~~I
may be one-way or two-way, divided ~ ."t Lo~ 0A .,U-, ~L"...=.I
or undivided. 'r~
-N
Noise - Noise is unwanted sound. ',-:-,Y~I ~ ..::..y--J' yo - ~I

The sounds made by highway traffic, .j I y ~, t.i.:. ~ L:;.." .J"'~ \ '• .5..p""::" I .>'" f
especially horn blowing, tire '.,)-r?" l rI..h...::.-I r~'" ,eol.J Lb':l I ~r-'
!"nueal, and inadequate muffling of ...u:,y ,..::.. L.$~ I ..::.. I .>"" ~ 'YL.$
Jines, are generally described as
noise.
• ~I...." ·.Ju (
Noise Barrier - A barrier of earth, .,,' ,-:-,I.."..::.-JI 0-" ?l> - ~I ?'->

stone, concrete, or wood placed c::t'~ ,~I -,l •..JL...~I -,1 .J4->)r1
adjacent to the highway to reduce 1S~ do" 0.;. .., I ~.,rll ";""'.."h-JI .Jly-.,
the noise level on abutting pro • '0...0...;... L..::...o-JI ~ L...,...o-JI ~ ~,
perty.
Noise Control - Reducing to an ac ..::.. .. - II .~ . . . . . _ _ ~~';'.JI . -<~-. II

..r---' .. ~ ~ ~.....-
ceptable level, the amount of sound 1S~ ~I '6..-L->. ~, -'-" 0 .• ,:,,- a II
received at critical locations. .J~
Noise Level - The sound level ".~ ... ol' ..::..y--JI ~I 15""":'--' 1S~ -
obtained through the use of A '?""."..DI .J~ ~ J~l ~':II...." r'
weighting according to ANSI Stan • ...1>." . , w, /
i-I rJ.J ~L...u.Jj ~....r")1 I
dard 1.4-1971. The unit of measure .J L.:..". ~ \ ( dB) J-,..-..". ~ I '-f" <.r~ I
is the decibel (dB), commonly re ~ L.~ dBA ....r"..r-
r.. . . II--. .Ju L-t-::'-"II
ferred to as dBA when A-weighting • A <.r~
is used. (
"
42
Noise Standards - The highway traf . , 1~·· ..:..1 -, ,_ - ._.A II L.a..o
(
fic noise abatement procedures, co
ordination requirements, and design
".f .". "
~
..........::.5
~
.~
..:..1
'4 .,,,
..
or' ", II
~
16" O..J "'>..J...)-"'-JI
-
~
~~.;,
'~o5...»
11 ..:..L.....::..-a
j-.!-:!
." ~
a
~ .."", . ..J
noise levels in the Highway Design .~.ll .. ·r..I' ~..
.. ....r' ~,..r---
Manual.
Nutrient - Material that nourishes

0~ ~, 0..1 L,.j I - A..".~ o,,)Lo
and promotes plant growth.
• o~ ~..J ..:..L,...:..JI
-0
OBD (Outlying Business District)

That portion of a municipality or -'"''
...x---' dJ~ - (OBD) .~
lr" d L>.=.
u...>. u:-
...>Lbl ~ ·4...hI-l ~ .;. ..J1 o.......l...1,. ~
..
an area within the influence of a
..J' ~IA O,,)~ U~ 0~..J .o.......u.,.
municipality, normally separated

~..,.J' 0"'> 4.::..J I ~ , .r L..o U L-..o..,..
geographically by some distance
from the central business district
r' ..b-::.- ~ 1 .. 0..J~..J : '0..,:....:..... 4-J 1 0 ", ;; 6 " 0..J
• '2"'> L.::....::..J I ..b L..:...;..-.LJ I . . ~ ,,~I' , . "

. ~ l:f" ~ ~..r'
and its fringe area, in which the
principal land use is for business
activity.
~
One-Way Highway or Roadway - A
- .,h.\..J 64-=-' ..J~ ~...> ~f ..J1 ~f
highway or roadway having one or
..J1 o.,h.I..J o...>~ 4..,- ·~f..Ji ~...> ~f
more lanes on which all vehicular
traffic must go in the same direc
...>..JY' 005...» l...r:t-k ~ 0' ~ ~f
• ol.,;,...::,~1 '. ';.::-1 L...-JI
. ~lT"'>"
tion.
Open Channel - A natural or manmade

~ L:.o ..J 1 ~ ...>L...-o - uy:..s... .L:...:i
path in which water flows with a _t-. .... -L,.j\
• ...» ~ ~ ... ..l..::........
,. ..,....
free surface.
Open Channel Flow - Open channel

flow may be uniform or nonuniform,
0..J~ .D - u~ oL:...:i ~ ";";.i.:.
. 1
~..J 1..11..·
,.r"-"'. r --
.1:."'.. ~. ..J '" Lab'" 0
steady or unsteady, and subcritical
~ 0-'"..J • L>-..r ..J , C~ I 0..J ..I • ..I yb-.
or critical. Of these, nonuniform, . .. ·..l...::..J1 .. I '~I o~
~.P ~,c. ..J--"
unsteady, and subcritical flow is
y C~I 0..J-l..J -l~1 ° II ~..J rb'"
the most common type of flow in .::-1 ... ;; It ,_~ G ,. . '<~1 . ;;,~..l...::..J1
..:r---' ~ ~..r'-'..,-c...J--"
open channels. However, to facili
<::- L,. L....>...J I J-".;--::..J 0..:.. 1 ~ • u.,.,..:..s....J I
tate hydraulic computations, ~
, ( -L,.jl;;o5~ 4...oG-l1) " .. ..J...> . L.. -y---"11
steady, uniform or gradually varied
~..J' -l.",.h... ~..l-:. -ly..J L~ ...,o~
.~
....
flow is generally assumed. L...>........l-:.
•. . , ....> c.~..J
... f
\~,
Open-Graded Aggregate - A graded
'2~ ~ r LS...> - . t ........ 1\ r~ r LS...>
aggregate, containing little or no

-lly ~ '2~ ~..J1 ~ o~ ~
fines, with a high percentage of
0-'" o..."..J~ .~ ~ o.!.l~1 C" • ~ L:.
aggregate voids.
.O"""""'LS..,.JI ..:..wl.,.ri-JI
Open Space - An undeveloped area of .::-1 j ,O...>."h-c ~ '0.> L...-o - ...; y:..s... , l.,bj
generally consistent quality, char '-lL . .... ~ J.$..:...... ...... .4>-..J--".
acterized by a minimum of distract
lr' . ~ • r ~
..J1 ·o...c.~1 '::-1~l.::..J1 0-'" .h
ing or conflicting influences.
..·iL,.....>~1
Operating Speed - The highest over 0~ L~ 'u..r ~1 - J .. p' -.11 Os....

all speed that a driver can travel , .. r.. I .. L-..,. "'L-J
~...> ~-r ~
I ...
~ y .. 0 , '&-'
on a given highway, under favorable
circumstances, without exceeding
.~)..J~ 0..J-l • A."...::.l y J..J? Jb ~ .~
. j..J,..,h-J I LJ!> -l.,b...;;, Lo.S LJLj , 'u.....
the safe speed as determined by the • ;;,f o. 00'" II ~..l..:.-y-J I
design geometrics.
Operational Delay - The delay re .:r ~L.:..J' ~L:..J, - J ,,' pO" II ~l.:.
sulting from the influences of -.:;..j..J-'1 j:..... lS?~' ..::-I.,)~' ..::-1 ~L::.
other traffic, such as time lost, a ~ '.,)~I JJ~ O.,)~, ~ ~L.AJI
stop sign, waiting for a gap, con •.,)-,,,.,......J' • ,","",,~--ll
'ooS? r L:,....).,),
-,' ~ (
gestion, parking maneuvers, turning o LS..... ~ '0.,) ~\ JG...)\ ..::-l.,)-,L..:......., -,T
movements, or pedestrians. , 0 ~i -', 0 I .,)-,..Lll ..::- LS? -,' .,) ~)I\
Optimum - The best quantity, num -,' ..)~ -,' ~ J.<u' - ~)l1 .u..J1
ber, or condition. , UL:,..
Orders of Accuracy - Standards of c. , .)--'.JLJ

.(" u..wl· ~
L.su. - -"..wI
......
A....J;.,;.t
accuracy for various types of sur ..)"h...,j ·o..)u ,~, ..::-~ 0-" 'cit \".;.. A 1\
veying. Generally, high standards ..::-~I..l>~' r~ Wu ~~

are set for the national coordinate J~)u 1..)~ J-j' ~w.....-, .!.?"'..,..u'
system and lesser standards for , 0.: b.A It ~I ..::-1 ~
more local work.
Ordinate - The distance measured in ~ ~L.i..o...Il ul...-o.....ll - u-t ~I ~I ..l>)l1

the "y" or vertical direction on a r-.,) ~ I.:',J ~\ o~~ I "-,T .. ..:r>••. 04-=-1
graph. . lr".L...,
...
•
,.. ·i.gin - The
LP begins.
location of
Outer Connection - A ramp used by

traffic destined for a right-turn
movement from one of the through
where a o~ , ~
.,)~ c,S~ '"'"""~ -

·ooS...»-
c.-I',.,b
~
~~
c,S.:w1
o~ 1
0-" ~I
oL..S......JI
~.,)G-J'
..::-1.,) L...".-.II
~,
,
L:....:......J,
o--b.~1
~yl
A...o~
0 1.,)-,..)
•
roadways separated by a structure ,~~ ~I,.,b ~.}> ~I .~ J~
to the second through roadway.
Outer Separator - A separator be ~~ ~ J,., LJ - I.T.".,) G-JI J,... LJ--l ,

tween a frontage road and the road -' i j.;.. 1 ..L.J 1 ..)-'~ ~.,) '"'"""~-' l>""'~i
way of controlled-access highway or '~.,) c..,)~
major street.
Outlet Velocity - Is the speed of ''\- L....i... ..;-J~ \ ~.r ~ - ~-,...P--J' is. r
flow measured at the downstream end • (t-"J-'" ) 0.,) ~ , L:r' ~-,...P--J 1 J.}> ...L:.s
of a culvert and is usually higher ..;-J~' ~ .r Lr" ~i 0..) U o-,~-'
than the maximum natural stream 'lS~1 0 6 11
velocity.
__ ~lying Business District (OBD)

That portion of a municipality or
0-" • ~\
.,)Lbl ~
ill~ -
U;..\..)
(OBD)
~
~L=. ~.,)~
0-" -,I ~..Ll."
l?"" (
an area within the influence of a -', L."...;·i ~ 0..) U U ~ o-,~-' .'~..Ll."
municipality, normally separated ~~I lS.,)4-=--JI ~I .:r ~ u~
geographically by some distance r1 ~)I, .. o-,'s""-, ; .~ L.y.JI 0" iib . "-'
from the central business district ,.r
u.,)
~\
.
.bL...Z....:..... I . .•
.......,..... l:fP.,)5U
. \
~j - '
< . 1\
and its fringe area, in which the
principal land use is for business
activity.
Overall Travel Speed - The speed ~ ~ y--J 1 - 6."..J 4 )II ...r---.l l is . r

over a specified section of highway J,., L:,.. lSI • ~~ , '"'"""~--ll lr" Lr.:'-"-'" ' ?
that is the distance divided by the .h.....,.,..::u." •.,.,.".-J I 0-".,) ~ 'u l..-o--ll ~
running time. The average of all Y L.,,-.:..... • j>- -' , ..::-, .,) L.".-..J' ~ ~ . r
traffic, or a component thereof, is , ~ I 'ci...:....o.,) i c.y>->-"
the summation of running times.
Overall Travel Time - The time of Lo..,.. ~\ 0-".,) - c.-I4)II ...r---.l' 0-".,)
travel, including stops and delays. .-..rP-L:..J,-' ;jJ~1 ..::-~ ~
(.
44
Overburden - The mass of soil that ~1 6..,.~ 1 u.::..s - L.t-J,...WI 6...i..,J.J I
(
overlies a source of rock, gravel,
or other road material. This ma
';1
o~ Jl r
~I
.)
.)1
'lS"p-~1
~ ...)~
J..,b-JI
J"""
.J...".~ jl..".....
..Dr
terial is removed before the mate 0-" lS..p- ~ I j 1,.,......J I j..i..:, J..,...i '0 j L.....J I
rials are quarried to avoid contam
.6~1 ,-?j~ ~\
ination.
Overlaying Course (Overlay) - A L.>.b- '. I~ ~ L....1.A

...) LU 1 '
0-" ,- 6...i..-b
, - lS..,r-
bituminous surface course, either 1 c---
.--="~A 11 " , ..b. I~ • "
, plant mixed or road mixed.
• • L. I(
~.r--
I.
IT"'".) c.r ..:r---
Overlook (Scenic Overlook) - A

- (4 .. ".,6 y:.L:.... ~ J"":- Jb-.) Jb-.
roadside area provided for motor ,-,L>.oD~ ~ .L. II ~L..:.-... ~
ists to stop their vehicles pri , I . . ;,
~ c ..
,.~.r-- - "
,y 1 ~ I"~I...)L.."..-...,. ~..,.=..J' ..::.-I...)L"..-JI
marily for viewing the scenery in 4jJoL:........J L-L-l dJj.) . . L . 'I -......;.L,.
~.r-- ' .
safety.
...:"L.oL,. 4 .. " .. , h 1\ .."bL.:....o.JI
Overpass - A grade separation where

~ ~ r::...)~ j..,u - ~."... ~
the highway passes over an inter • ..L. ..' •. " ".L. "
~...) ~...r- ~.>-J' ~...r-' ~.r--
secting highway or railroad. . • ~ .L.L..i.::....- j....,..l;>. ~.b. t .L.u..::.....,
L .. . .) L
~ -P
Parcel - A tract of private or pub

.) 1 ~w...J1
l?". I ...)'~II .
0-"
"t..
"-"l::>...JI -
,
~
I ,
lic land of variable size required I"Y ~ ~ ~ ·.Jl."...::.-~I ~ Lw..Jl

for the right-of-way for a highway.
.~..,b-J
Parclo - An abbreviation for a par tT-? ~L.i.::. 4...)L.,......tJ ...)L....:>-::..>-l - (Parclo)

tial cloverleaf interchange.
• i""""""'~\ U...).) ~ ~ ~ J.Jo-'
Parking - The condition of a ve ~ '-? ~ UJ..,..:.-0 4...) L.".- U L,. - ...) l..J;.:..;. ~ I
hicle stationary for any reason
t"" J,>\ J..::...JI ~ ~I 4-?"L>.-l1 ~
other than the need to avoid inter 1 ... L.II
ference with another road user, t"" I"
1..1..6...,)'\
.)~.r--- Y
.\
r~
.)t •...).)~I ..lll.."..:u J~)'I .)1 .~L,
collision with an obstruction, to I"~ L.o...,.. 4 j yh..... 0-".)-I , 0-" rD
;;
comply with traffic regulations, or .cl-Jl .)1 ,-",G-..:.~I J.)y.)1 j~
for a period of time limited to
that needed to pick up or let off
persons or goods.
{ Parking Lanes - Additional width

outside the traveled way of a high
way or street that are designated
~.Jo
.c...)~
r::...) L;. ~ L.i> \ J>y - ...) l..J;.:..;. ~ I -=-1...) l.>.
.)1 ~...) ~.Jo ~ ..::.-I...)L"..-JI
• o..:....g:"", 4...)~"::'- I ...) L"..-J I 0-::'..»..::...J j~
for the temporary storage of ve
hicles.
Parking Volume - The total number I L,.,.. ~ I j..LJ>..J I - l..J;.:..;. ~ I

l,r , ...) ~
of vehicles parking in a particular 4...:..."....s Ub.;.... ~ 4.."b -,' • )I ..:;., 1...) L.."..-..l.J
area over a given period of time. t>.:..s-~.) .4...:..."....s ~..) ;;~ lS..l..a ~
It is usually expressed in vehicles • I"~I ~ ..:;.,1...)L"..-J1 j~ 'OjU:
per day.
Partial Control of Access - The

..r...)L.o.=, - JpJ-lI ~ ~?-,I ~I
authority to control access is ex ~~I .~~ JpJ-lI ~ r.$:.....::....J1 0..bJ..
ercised to give preference to ..D ~...)j ~\ ~I~-'I ~I 4.5~
through traffic to a degree that, ..:;.,)1..".) ~, uw~ L..,. - Wl.~ 6~
in addition to access connections ..,0.......,. - 4...) L.:..>-..o 'L. u J.Jo ~I JY J-II
with selected public roads, there "L. t
I .l.>-.:.." I ~ . . - I(
u r - 'I( .. ,1
'-'.,JI-..D' ) ' ) . . . ) ' ...)..;r---
may be some crossing at grade and • ~w...J\
( some private driveway connections.
\,
45
Partial Noise Abatement - Measures c.l • I ...p.")' I - r:: ",,,,,,, I I u!-j-:oo-JI J ,,' Ii". "
taken to reduce noise impact, but ~ ~,., ~I y' ~,..j,~,:.v;.;,.~'~~ 6~1
not to a level below the design • I' ,: .~", 1\ l5~ Lr" l5~ ~l
.r-...)'
level. (
Passenger Car - A self-propelled '';.5~1 ~I ~ 6.,)L...- - ,-;-L.5.,) '.,)L.."..

vehicle designed for the transpor u I .,)y>'-A 6...) ~ LrJ,., I ...,.,L>..:. )' I JL..J ~
tation of people, usually having .c.I.,)LbI L...,..,)1,.,
two axles and four tires.
Passenger Car Equivalent - The num c.1.,)t....".... ...)...)s - ,-;-LS..rI1 ..:..I.,)L..,.- J...)L...u
ber of passenger cars displaced in 'il.5..» ~...l..::. ~ Ly-6..... J;.....::. ~I ,-;-L.5..r11
the traffic stream by a truck or 4:u. c...u...::.,., .~""..:.,." ,.,' ~L:. .,),.,~I
bus. This displacement is caused c..~..>- ~ d~' ~ 4>.1,))'1
by the difference between truck or c.I.,)L...- c.~...>-,., ~""..:.,.,)'I ,.,' 4..:.>.~1
bus speeds, and passenger car I 'il...)s L.o-li c. I y b....:• ....J 1 ~ '-;- L.5..rI I
speeds on up-grades, and by the c. L.> L..::.....U . .<)' I

..r- l...>->.5U r, '~
, . ,.,
larger sizes of trucks and buses c..1.,)L.."..... C" 'L.,)L:i....JL..,.. c.L......"...,.""..:.,.,)'I,.,
compared to passenger cars. .e,,-L.5..r1 1
Passing Opportunity - A section of l5~ ~.,) ~~ Lr" 'y. - .,),.,~I ~~

~,.,~I ~.:,.,) UL-.a ~ ~ ~.,)~
•
two-lane highway where the clear
~assing sight distance allows a •u Lo L,. ,),., 4-::- 'il.,),., L:....o r L.o..::. L..,.. 'il->-i> I Y 1
safe passing maneuver to be per
formed.
Passing Sight Distance - Minimum ~':'..rI' 'oUL-.a - .,),.,~I ..."..:,.,) UL-.
sight distance that must be avail

able to enable the driver of one
~ .,;3y::.::-
l5'-p-1 'il.,)L.."..... ,),.,~ Lr"
u'
~ ..,.::..J I L.."...;.j.J I
'il.,)L.."..... ~L....
vehicle to pass another safely and ~...>- ~ J..;....l..::..J1 u,.,...) L~.,)I,., uLoL"
comfortably, without interfering A.a~a 1\ ~~L..,.. ~ d..o...)w 'il.,)L..".....
with the speed of an oncoming ve 'il.,),., L:....o • .l.,- ~ ~':'..rI I J G-o cJ.;....) I ~,
hicle traveling at the design speed .,),., 4-=--J 1
should it come into view after the
overtaking maneuver is started.
Passive Pressure on Walls - The .h.Ju,.Jl - u\ .,)~ I ~ ~, .b.A.;.j I

horizontal pressure exerted on the .,)'.h.J ."...-Lo)'l eb.-J' ~ '~Iy\ ~)'I
front of a wall by the earth load, U l.>. ~ I' Lo.J I ,., 1 ...,0.,))' I J.....>. Lr"
or water, if present. Passive .h.Ju,.JI ~ ~I .h.Ju,.J I ,., • 4...)Y ,.,
ryressure opposes active pressure. ,. • l?"'" 4-,,-)' 1
Pavement Design - The arrangement ...)lyo-ll ~y - ~y6.J1 ~.,)t ~

(
of materials in depth to best ac U~\ J •.".'" I ~y6.J' ~ ~
commodate the anticipated loading. . y-.:- J.A-91 ~ 4...JUy....J 1
Pavement Markings - Devices placed ~ ~~ 'il,);-:'"1 - ..;........rI' ..:..L..j.s
on the roadway to mark pavement for ,.__ I....5 ... ", I I ,L...L...JI
..,,- '"" .. :..r-'
~.,)
"
~
,.
I st';.j .L...L.. 11
'-' .. ...r--
vehicular and pedestrian traffic • 'ilL:....a.J',., c.1.,)~' 'il.5..»
control.
Pavement Structure - The combina ~I ...,...'--)'1 c.~ ~..rI' -L:....,. -

tion of subbase, base course, and ' " l.T'""'"
~..>--
J,.-J 1 'U..-b
.. 11 c-' . -' ...,... L. )' I '.LLb
, ,.,
surface course placed on a subgrade ~"~.A-U 4..".-0",61\ 4."....i>.,)~1 ~
to support the traffic load and ...,...'--1 u...,..b ~ ~,)""..:.,., .,),.,~I 'U."..........
distribute it to the roadbed. .~I ~~.J,
Peak-hour Factor (phf) - A ratio of '~ - (phf) .,.,.,)~I 'L.& '-- J,...~
the volume occurring during the ~I 'il,.,.,)~, ~ '-- J)l;. c.~ l?~1 ~I
peak hour to the maximum rate of '~,) 6~ J)l;. ~...l..::..J.J ~~\ J..l...sl.a...J1
flow during a given time period
within the peak hour.
• 'il,.,.,)~1 ~ L. .~, ~ (
46
Peat - A fibrous mass of organic ~ '~~ '6,j L..a 0-" '~ u.::.5 - ~I
matter in various stages of decom • '6 i 1",,;,, c J-b-:;, J>- I .r"
/' position.
I,
Pedestrian - A person on foot. • 6..,,-o..D ~ ~ ~ - ~G
Pedestrian Crossing (Crosswalk) - An ...6 "C - (..)~ ~) .L:......JI ..)~

area reserved and clearly marked for ~ "6L.:....c.JI ..)..,..,......-' r.yy l...o-L.st.o.J ~
the passage of pedestrians at street ,loS? 'i I .:,5G'i I .J i u 1..,..:.-" ..::- Lsrbu...:.
junctions or other locations where 0~L.....J1 ,jj~ 0 i w.~ ~.J
drivers must yield the right-of-way 0-" r-y-:...".~ "L:........D ..).J~I oJ>- I~.J
by stopping to enable pedestrians ·0L....,~ ..)~I
to cross safely.
Pedestrian Overpass (Underpass) - A

";"';.r" - • L.:........lJ (c,rU- ~) ~~ j+J'A
facility introduced as a safety r~I ..)~ ~ o....JL-.1J ~'?L$ J>-,j\
measure when pedestrian crossing l?~ l?.".LJl ~?-JI tY.J ·6L.:....c.Jl ..)~
volumes, type of highway to be "6..).J4-c-J' ..)y--s<J\ ..::-~ ~,y'.J ,6..)~
crossed, location of adjacent cross 0-:' .".LJ' ..,.,G..,;, 'i I ..) ~ CJ "6..l.!, L.....J I c...s.J 1.J
ing facilities, and predominating • ~L.:.-:,'il 1~ ·....."wl ,~~I 0,y' I";" - ..
type and age of persons who will "LZ....o-II ..r' Ut.c 0.5 L..a , ..l."....I..>-.:. ~.J
t,
utilize the facility, justifies the
structure. Pedestrian undercross
ing or subways should be so placed
6.."..)..) ~~ ~ J~'il
. . . 1\
...r-:-
..
~.r-
.1-..
0-"
1. -~L..Z...o
~
~
.JI ~1
'6
~
• r,jL.iJl
.•
that continuous visibility is pro

vided when viewed from the approach
walkway.
Perception Time - The time required .;.!-L.....J rj)lJl uJ.J-'1 - ~ I..),j'i I u--)
by a driver to perceive that he must ~ ~ ~i <!J..)~ 6..)L..".
~
change speed or stop. .,jj~1 .Ji ·4..>o,..,.-J1
Permeability - The property of soils ~, 'b..."..r:--JI 6..."..::>L>- - ju':''il ~Lj

which permits the passage of any ~ ~ ,jj~.J J..!.l- l?' ..).J~ ~
fluid and depends on grain size, ~ tl~1 ~.J 'b..."..r:--JI ..::-~
void ratio, shape and arrangement • ~..r.J rL-....Jl ~.J rL-c..J\
of pores.
Permissible Maximum Weight - The 0j.".JI ...... r..J--.. ._JI ~'i , W.".J I
maximum weight of a laden vehicle ~JJG ~ ,,~ "..)~ ~'il
('
declared by the authorities regis
tering the vehicle.
• "6..)L....".......JI ~ ~, ..::-Lb-l-JI
Permissible Velocity - In stream ..) L."...::. ..;...; ~ ~ - L.r.- r.."..-......J I As y-J'

flow, the greatest velocity that l.).,!.lj I~ c.~ 'i As.,.>- ~\ ,'Lc.J1
will not cause excessive erosion. • -b...J1 .r
Permissive Movement - A traffic ..).J~1 ".5Y - L.r.- r.."..-......J' 6S~ t

movement that is allowed by a per ~ 'r.L- "6..)~1 ~.J..l;>....,- ~ ~I
missive signal indication to take ..,....L- ~ 'b..."..)w..:...... "::-L$~ C- 0 1.J
place, even though conflicting move .c.J.J-' I
ments may be allowed at the same
time.
Pervious - A layer of material, <!J~ , ",j L.. 0-" 'u...,..b - • .:u...:....... '4....4b
through which water will move under .h..R.A.J I Jb ~ ·L.....-Jl u~
ordinary hydrostatic pressure. • l?,j L..".j 1 -T' L..::.....J..)..l.".-t-' I
47
pH - A scale of numbers from 0 - 14 ..)1-ll)'1 .r -r~ - ~-,..)~I r-i.."J1
that indicate the acidity or alka i."...,....u -,' ~ r:!>~ If ~I ~ .r
linity of a solution. Numbers be
low seven indicate acidity and num
V .r 1.7.:s~ I
~I V .r ~dl
rU..)~ I ~-' • G J."....t:......
rU..))'I-, "iI •• ;, .... II ~I
(
bers above seven alkalinity. · ~.rLU1
Phase - A part of a signal cycle J.=.,.::. ..)-,jA 6..) ~ 1 ".I..)-,..).r '.R- - A...J..,. jA
during which a specific traffic c. L5 ..r---J I -' ) ~ ..)-,jA d.$Y L;-J)l>
movement (and concurrent noncon ,j> ~ ( "6..,-..)w...:.........J1 ~ ....ijl..r......ll
flicting movements) receives the ..) ...: ;..... II c.l ~ J,....:..::.-' • ..)-,..r......ll
right-of-way. It includes the 6~ 6 10"'.11 ii .. ·..: .• 11 c.L>-...LII.)
change and clearance intervals as •c. L5 ..r---J I
sociated with those movements.
Photoelectric Device - Where detec ..\.<>.."JI ~ c...,p. - ~Y' ~L,.~ .)~
tion is accomplished by the vehicle 'Y' ..)~ ~ 6..)L".......Jl ..).)jA ...;..".~ .r
passing between a source of light ..)..Y-.) ~ .)-.:.: 1 L..r-.)-:" ~y

0". )~.)
and a photocell that is capable of • '.."..o-J I ..)..y-.) r-ll .) f

distinguishing between light and
lack of light.
.(lotogrammetric Mapping - A method

of mapping topography whereby the
ground is photographed from the air
and the information obtained is
translated to maps by the use of
stereoplotting instruments.
.h!.1 ~
..)~
~I
~
II
....
~
r-.."J
c.L...o~I
d..L.
..h.".b..:....::..J I
I- 'I
.. ..,r-- 6j
~~ - l§~~ .h.!.1,?-
, (L.-....
......) t...D..::.)
"i""""
I . . ,-
~
·0.)'1"?' I
~I'
r"?"~.) ,~I .r ,"",..))'1

JI. _n It
..
:.r-----'
..
~
rI ~ L."
_I
y.)-:"~
.~\
r-..)
.b.!.1 /
•
Pickup - A two-axle freight vehicle ,(r.t..)~ ~ • ..)L."... - o~ ~L.:.
with a total of four tires. In '4.!....iJI 6~~.) .c.I..)LbI L..."..)t.)
general, this classification in ~ L$ '1.)- 6~\ c. L...:.>. L.::..J I ~ j5..:...,. r
cludes pickups, panels, and other • ' .. '';' II c.l ..) L...,..-J I.) ·u...L..... .), ~~
light two-axle vehicles with single ·o..),.ri-o c.l.J Lbl ~ (r.t..)~' c.l j <.5/)' I
tires on the rear axle designed for JJ..:..J ~.) ,~I .J~I ~
carrying freight. · t.!. L..D...,..J \

Pigment - Any substance used to im ,uY 'L..i.D~ r~ ·O..)G ':51 - '-:"~
part color; specifically, an insol ~ 'u4--J1 (r.t~1 ".I..)G 6..0~ ~.)
uable, dry coloring matter that, ~ •)l.b-ll ~ ~I u L.".) j"J.J u.." LU I
when mixed with a suitable medium, •'--- L:....o .h.".....)-:" L'1"?'j-o

Jrms a paint.
(
Pile - Relatively slender struc c.~ L."....,...-.. ~..) ~ ..)~ - d.)')G.
tural element composed of wood, J~ ,~I .)1 LL..~I .), ~I 0"'"
concrete, or steel that is driven .), ~t..) r>..) ~y '""'~ "6..,-~1 c,r9
into the soil for the purpose of .~L..;>-
providing vertical or lateral sup
port.
Pipe, Clay - Pipe made of shale and ,'U~ ~ 6..).)-G - ~..)w.J o..).)-L.
fire clay, unglazed, or glazed and .), J;.I ~ 6..J..,y ,~j-o.) u."..:;..a... .)t
vitrified, with or without bell, 'O .. I .... 11 J..) ~ r~ , L..r:-.)..L,.

used for field drains, edge drains, J~\-, c.I..)L.,..-sWl.) y,.rb-ll J..)L.,:,.......J\.)
culverts, sewers, etc. ·cJl .. ~I
Pipe., Concrete - Modified bell and LL.:.Y U..lJt..o •.J.)- G - ~ L..,?- • ..).>- L.
spigot pipe made of concrete, i."...)LstJI LL..~' .r ...J,..",j.) -rt ..) J;.I ~
plain, or reinforced with steel, ,c.l.JL..,.....s>.J.J r~.) ,-:".J.o...JL." ".I .. I 'I .) f

0
used for culverts, sewers, etc. ·cJI ,~I J.."..,..J'.)

(
48
Pipe, Corrugated Metal - Pipe fab "J.>- L.o - l;:.,...-J' u..1..a..o..J I u- • '6J.>- L.o
ricated from corrugated steel r:..,..........Jl ~I L'.,..JI 0-" u~
sheets, used for culverts.
( .0I J L,...sU-J r~
Pipe, Perforated - Pipe with holes '-;-'~ Ly.,- '6J'>- L.o - L,.~ • '6J'>- L.o
on one-half of the periphery, used r~ IT."JL.>...JI L~.b_, ... o ~ ~
to drain off water trapped in the 6...J..:;..S ...,. l J . -,. 0 1\ ~L......J' J.".~
soil mass. • 6...,...r:.-J'
Pit - A natural deposit of gravel -,' ~I 0-" ~ eJ..,..::..--o - ~
or other type of soil that has 4-:--'~1 r.?~ -S?~\ 6...,-..r-JI elyT
been, or may be, excavated. • 4-:--1~1 ~-,I
Plane Coordinate System or Grid r u..:. -' I i.."...,...:..-J 1 ..:- L..,? I .b. ':i I r u..:.
System - A cartographic projection J~ - ~ ~? h.i.-.o - ~l
that, by accepting small varia J..,-, - r--rJI orL.,.;.--i...o ."..... ~ ~1~
tions of scale, permits describing r I ..h..:.- L..,. ~J ~ 1 ch-
~ .b L.i.:- ~Y
the position of points on the sur ch- ~ A..".~I 4-=-~1 J..:>.I
face of the earth by their plane . ~, if'-,...P-o -,' tT' I ,.,.b- I
coordinates on a cylindrical or
conical surface •
• Planimetrics - All features both

manmade and natural of significant
value to the design of a proposed
highway.
~
YL:...>.JI
Ci...oLA.
r-!w......JI
~
~
L.rJ ~I ".: 0.:.611-,
'L~ ~J ~yh ~
- .::..1 ... 6 • 11
Plans (Drawings) - The approved u l 6b 0 II - (.::..L.o.>--rJ1)

plans (drawings), profiles, typical ·~4-l1 uL.o.>--rJ I -' (u L.o.>--rJ , )
cross sections, working drawings, uL.o.>--rJ'-' 0_6.'.11 ~yt-ll ~u.....JI-,
and supplemental drawings, or exact ,t..y...:..... ..J,.", ~ I ~ JY" -' , "" I .. 0 S", 11
reproductions thereof that show the ..::- LA...-' t:?y J~-' ,w~ ;;, 0 ", su..J 1-'
location, character, dimensions, • ~ 1 ~ L.i..::,-' J '-"-:-1 -'
and details of the Work.
Plant Mix - A term describing the J I..,......J\ hJ.:;. ~ LJl.b..o' - ~ I 4k..l>

mixing of mineral aggregate and .b)G. ~ -:.....U- ~ \ u ~-' ;;..,...... LS-rJ I
asphal tic products in a mechanical ~1·· J-4 dJ~ .L«..,.-, ,~~
mixer, after which the finished mix -
r-"'""-'
... L"
• ~.r---'
_1-._
c- I,'
l.r"""
.. 'I
t:"-"'"-' 'T'• I.,...........
is transported and laid on the JI..,......J' ..::-L:--,.s.... ':"-~."..... u~ ~I
i( road. The proportioning of aggre

gate constituents and asphalt is
closely controlled, and the aggre
~ L.o
.ILI"
~
6J u -'
1~.·"
l",)-,o'-" ~- '
,o.::.J.i... ~ \ -'
"
~ LS-rJ I
i....oLS'I 1-<"11
~ u--'-'-'
gate is usually dried and heated

before mixing.
Plant Mixed Bituminous Base - A or L..I - ...,. j,.,...l>-o r.?J U

~I v-I...- I
base consisting of mineral aggre 6 J L.o-' 6.."....0 LSJ J.,::.5 0-" J.Jj-o
A.."...:...lJLo
gate and bituminous material, mixed .
t:'-""'-' .s
'?,) ~ ~ l:r3
' ..h.J>......" l-i
" , ~J
in a central plant, laid and com -,I J-.i-~I ..,....L..~l ~ ~L.. y-, ~~-'
pacted while hot, on subbase or ~yh-l (6 .. °.:.611 ~J~I) '6~Li.JI
subgrade, to support a surface • '6. f ,. 6..-1 I 4....i.,.h..J I ~ J-I ...;Y"j ' "
course.
Plant Mixed Bituminous Surface - ~I ...,. U..,...l>-o A.".J U i."..>..b.- ll.,.b

Course - A combination of mineral 6 J L.o-' '0.."...:. ~ ~ LSJ J-:.5 0-" ~.Y'
aggregate and bituminous material .
t'"-""'-' .s~
,r.?,):..ro . l:r3'..b...h...-" , -~J l-i
mixed in a central plant, laid, and • Li..L ..lJLo ..,....L..I ~ ~L.. y-, ~~-'
compacted while hot, on a pre
viously prepared base.
~.
49
'4..<: ~ - ~I ~.h...h.:. u.)lJ 6..\L...
Plant Mixed Seal - A combination of
4.."....I w 'O.:IL.-, ~~I rL.$.;Jl Lr"
mineral aggregate and bituminous
.bY.:>-AJt t""~-' . ~.).$.,.r" ~ ~ .:"L.hJ..;..;.
material mixed in
laid and compacted
a central plant,
while hot. This Lr" C~I
J.5..:. ~
I ~-' • L...:..>.L... J'.)-,:-~ .,Yb-, <!.l.i.,,--,
'O..\ I-.;; ~ t"" ·U.) WtJ I • .:1 LA..J I
(
type of seal is usually laid in
•I ~ ~...I..::-L.i..,.b
very thin layers.
• ~.:I~ - ~r...l
Plumb - Vertical.
~I 0-" ~? ~t ":-y-l::. - ~..,J.=.Jl
Pollution - Contamination of any
component of the total environment
~I-,...I -,t ..::-Iy>'
-,t -,r . .:11..."......... ·A..oLaJI
-' '.~~1
u 6.......-..J.
.. 0-" 11"··
I.J-'-"'-'
'Owl:.L...:.....
...I ...r
by harmful substances, sounds,
L.y-,. ~ -' I lS"-p- ~ 1 ~I ..::- L:..!, L.5.J I
smells, or sights degrading or in
• ...I~I
jurious to humans and other living
organisms.
.:".5.......". • '• .i.,,-~ 'O~..::-~ 0..,. - ~L.-
Porous - Having many small open • j.!.1 y-JI 4J)l> ~ .:,,1
ings, through which liquids may
pass.
_ ...I-,~1 ~ ~ ... - II "Ii·,-,. 6...1L:.\
•
Portable Traffic Control Signal - A
~~ 1 ~1 • ..l>-,.$ Ly..ll.:..J .~ •...1 L:.l
'gnal that is designed to be moved J..I L::..::.) .'O .:I .~. 'O...;, I ~ 1 ;'. ".
dS a unit to the site and be oper
-' .i:>--o .....I...r--- .. -'
ated for a limited time. (It nor

4..,-.$....r" '6...., .»)U I d ...I ~ ~ , 6>-, t 0-" • .:II-.;;
• '• .$~ ~Iyl:- ~ 'O~, J~

mally consists of the necessary
.~ L..,....I~ I <!.lJl- ~ \ -' • r~ 'O..l>-'-'
signal faces on poles attached to

.(u Lh..LJ ...I..\.t>..o-' ........»)U \
moveable bases, a control unit, the

necessary electrical cables, and a
power supply.)
0-" J..I ~ ~ LA ~ 1-..\.,;,)1..:....1.>-:' ..:....:.....-1
Portland Cement - A hydraulic
cement consisting of compounds of
L..:...,;...oy~I-' .. •~I-, I.: 11 ..::-L..,..$.,.r" .'.$..
r--~I 1 ~ ~-' • (r~y~1 .:J.,,-.$')
silica, lime, and alumina; so
~ t:" ~ L.~ .:",.,..J.J 1 ~ 0,..." ~
called from its resemblance in col . I ." '-'1 .~ ..\.,;,Jl::,
or, when set, to the Portland stone ~ '" ...I~
of England.
Lr" .:I~ ~I - ... S •• I, 4....a-..JI
Possible Capacity - The maximum
~ ~ ~ .:,,1 .:"s......". ..::-I...I~\
number of vehicles that can pass a
gi ven point on a lane or roadway u-i 'O..l> 1-' OJ: L... J)l> '"'""~ -,' •...It..... ~-"
• .. ~L...JI ...I-,~I ,",",,~I ....;-'..):> Jb
-,I
:ring 1 hour under the prevailing
roadway and traffic conditions
regardless of their effect in de
~
•
..
.L
...1-'
L......J\
~
. L.Jb
.
~
.L:,
..
~ r-t-'-::'?
....cl:.. II
v-...r----
~.
.... -' ~
....;
"'L-...JI
..r='-:' (
laying drivers and restricting
their freedom to maneuver.
·•...IL.Z.l IJ"'...I - ..\~ uJ.s ~...r" 6...1 L:. \
Post-Mounted Signal - A signal head
-,I o~ ~~I .:I.,.,..........Jl 'O...a...:O~ CY.Y'
that is set on the top of its sup
'lS...ILD -,t .:I~ ~4- ~1 ~
porting post or is attached to the
side of the post or pole.
0-" j.:9 , ~ 1..\ .:,,-,.$.::, - A.. I •• II 4....a-..J ,
Practical Capacity - Always less
u-i ~L..O.JI c..JYI ~ ........ l....::..A.J1 4....-.J1
than the available capacity, due to

~LS.... ~ .•...1 L.".-.JI JL.>.:II d...l-' L...A
time wasted in parking and un
.:Iy.>-:' J~I-, • L..o Lp-I"-p-I-, ...I~~1
parking maneuvers, and the lack of
......I L.".-.J I ...I ~~ J L;. .:" LS....
knowledge that a free space is
available.
.....I...Is.::........J1 ..::-L...L"..:iJ1 ....;~1 - u..\J\ ..h..,....b
Precision - The variance of re •..::- L... L"..:iJ I 0 ~ ..::- Lh....~ .r LA 6.."..0 L.>..J
peated measurements of a charac
teristic from their average. ~.
50
Prestressed COncrete (Pretensioned) - (..b...a..U I u..,. L.. ) J ~ ~ll u...,. L.. i.:. L..?
Reinforced concrete in which ~ I ..,J.J' L.y."J cl-o...::, b-.J.-. i.:. L....P
(-~ base, wires, or cables are held in 'L.:.:.1 J~ UG ~ 0JL,.LS.J1-, ~)L~,-,
a stretched condition during plac ~ , "
'-' '-T-'II L~JLJ'
..". i.:.L...':'''
..r--- '
t'"-'
ing of the plastic concrete until .y ~t UI.)I 'L.:.:.' ~ • LL..AJI
the concrete has hardened. Then as • LL....,>_JI ~ .r .. I ", II ~..h
the tension on the reinforcing
steel is released, it compresses
the concrete.
Prestressed COncrete (Post-ten - (~, o...:b.1) j~11 u..,.L.. 'i..:.L..?

sioned) - Reinforced concrete in -' , ~)L , L.y."J b-.J.-.~y L L..?
which the prestressing wires or J-,...:O ~~i J>.I J ~I ~I .)L.::.-,t
tendons are placed in tubes before i.:.L..AJ1 ~01 ~-,.LL.~I ~
the concrete is cast. After the .h....U> '4."..)J ~I ..JL:;.-,~' -,i ~)L1' .b......:;,
concrete has hardened the wires or .h.,.r ~ t U r i " I ~ L,. L.i.J... 0J..l>-o
tendons are stretched to a prede .h.......l...o. '<~ L..5. t"'.:r
. ." I.:u, IT.) , L.::. L
.. ~ -'.'
termined tension by jacking and are •.h..R..i>-J I 'ju,-' u.....J '~ ',G""......" ~ ~ OJ ,
wedged in this position. The tubes
may also be pressure-grouted.
& Pre timed Signal - A type of traffic

control signal where the cycle,
phasing, intervals, and indications
- (~L..y-,1)
,.)-,.r-l' ~
L...LI
~ 1 01.) L; I
i..:.."..Jy 0.)1-;1
J>. I.r-ll -' 'O.)-,...u I Li.J... ~ J-b-:',.

0-'" t y
are predetermined and do not vary. ~-' .0' .)I-;~ 1-, o.."....:....oj-JI J..:.1.rU'-'
They are repeated until changed ~~ 01 ~t .)~ Jh-::.-, .~
manually or by a control mechanism ',.. r--
v---..o
. <~ ". .)' I~
. _.
-' , ~..L
. 'J.. WI.~ ' ..
such as a clock or master control .~j5r r~ jLp -,' '~ L..
ler.
Primary Highway - A highway usually ..l>

, -'""" ~.)
• ,.1.
~..r- u- L..1 ~..J
- • - .. 1.
~..r-
found in urban areas having popula j~ ~ ~I 0J..A..Ji' ~~ ~ oJu
tions of 100,000 or greater. It -', ( , •• .J' •• ) ~...ui 'C...., L;-:. LS...
provides a service to all inter ..;;..)I...,YI ~ ...... ..)..;.. ~~-' .~t
national connections and to all A..".~...JI c,1..:....:......1 ~ ~I-' W-,...ul
maj or military installations. It c- ~ 0-" ~ L>- 0-'~-' .'~.,rJ I
is free from weather induced clo ~-' •..,....:;.b...JI Jly' .y ~L:...J' ~1'
sures. The access and egress are .L....o C-,~I-, y ' Jy....ul ~ ~I
controlled legally and physically. .)-,.r-l ' oS? 0-'.5.::.-, • L..".J L.-' L.."...:.y L j
Traffic movement is paramount. .ii~~ ~
F:
:
( .... Prime COat - The application of a 4.",.) U ii J L. 0-" ii..i.,..b ~-' - ..,..L..1 6...i.,.b
low viscosity liquid bituminous • (,T" L...... ch- ~ ~-,jJJ I ;; " • ;,..:..... U!. L..
material to an absorbent surface, -,t ~ ..,o~ 'U:>1 ~~ ~~ 1 ~~
preparatory to any subsequent ~ .. , d-Lo-::..JI 'oJ~' . .)-' J,~
c:- It .. ..7 . -
'L....i.::.
treatment, for the purpose of hard . u~ ~-'""" ~:.Lli '~I ~-'
ening or toughening the surface
and promoting adhesion between it
and the superimposed construction.
Productivity - The number of man -,t J-?..)/c,u L....JI J~ - 4~)'1

hours or equipment hours expended oJ.>--' J5.J i\ • ;.' • II ,01 JJ..o/c,u L....J I
per work unit. .~
Productivity Rate - The number of -,1 ,J-?..)/0uL....J1 J~ - 4L..:....:.)'1 J..3...AA

manhours or equipment hours ex ~ ... ~ .'il..;". II 01 JJ..o/c,u L....JI
pended divided by the accomplish .~IJ.,.........JI
ment.
Profile - A longitudinal section of

a highway, drainage course, etc.
~.;-b 0-" ~.,b
·cJl
t LhJ
'..
-
.\J...,;'.,.rt"--' lS""p.-" -'
~4
, . ~.)
~
51
Profile Grade - The trace of a ver lS~ e.b... ...>~1 - ~4 eLh.:i C...>.l..:.
tical plane intersecting the top eb---lJ ~~I ch--J' L' tlo u:..... ~~~
surface of the proposed wearing .h>. '41 j L.>......,. '4 ~ G ";"..J.s......J ,u...::....> c:~ 1
surface, usually along the longitu

dinal centerline of the roadbed.
~.)
..J1
.~.."..b-J'
t LU ~..,hJl .h...~'
t L..i.:-...>' LA' ~4--.l1 e Lb-iJ1 C...>.l..:.
Profile grade means either eleva ...:;~, '-:"'-> r~' I ~ J.:..... ...>'~'
tion or gradient of such trace
according to the context.
Progressive Signal System - A traf rLb...:. - (I.?""L,..-.:.I) l:?"'".ll:. .::.I.,)L.:.I rLb...:.

fic signal system where the suc ~I...>L.:.)" 4"y"..J ~ ~ ...>')j'" ~I...>~l
~ J _I. I. . _ j', .~ <~ -. ". .. II
cessive signal faces controlling C.,) y-- ~ ...>..J...r--- 'i: r--
A
l;r-'
traffic along a street gives "GO" J..J~ L.i.,.b .~ ~I~ cl...>~1 LA
indications in accordance with a ~ J.)~l 1~..J • LU- .LJ>..a ~.)
prearranged time schedule. This ~ ...> I ~ ~ ( .,;" LS.....)' I ...>.u....,. ) c: L.>......J.j
schedule is des igned to allow (as C"'> ~I J.."b ~ cl.,)L.."..-.I1 0-" cG ~
nearly as possible) the continuous •.hh.;....., 'Os...r J~
operation of groups of vehicles

along the street at a planned rate
of speed.
•
n~"Iject - An undertaking to con 0-" ~ ~? ~ L....,...,. ~~ - e..Jr
~'uct a particular portion of a .~...>..:;..".~
highway.
Project Plans - Drawings depicting J......,ou..::..Jl .,)~ cL...,.,...,.,) - U.,r.....JI .hh>

the engineering and construction .~ U~ '~L:....:,)".) '~..)..;,,..Jl
details of a particular project.
Protected Movement - A traffic ~y-::. )' ...>..J.r '4.5? - ~ 6.5?

movement during which there is no • L-r-"-" ..,0.,) L.....::...::. ...>..J.r '4.5? l..lb ~ ~ f
traffic movement that conflicts
with the protected movement.
PS&E - Abbreviation for Plans, '4...>~ ...>L..:>...::.>-l - .~1..)..;,1 v- l I.?""

•c 1J"'t..Li.:..J I..J ~ L...i.<> I y-ll.) c 1 bb:,. II
Specifications, and Estimate. 0
-Q-
Quarry - A place from which stone • '6.,) L>->..J,

. <L....o
c~
"'''.
I,)
L.S..o ~
~ ~ excavated, as by blasting, for • ~ L:...,..J I ...,o'.,ri ~ ,~c.i...-..:..J ~

~nstruction purposes. (
Queue Discharge - The study of sev ~I~ J>.'.r 'o~ ·4....I...>~ - J..:..,.,.JI ~~
eral green phases of signalized c- L.....b L.i::. ~ . . . 1,--. c: LA.....-J1 ~ , ...> L.:.l)
(...r---
intersections to obtain the parame ~ J~ .,).).r c-1...>~1 ~ ..:;~

ters needed to estimate capacity in ~ ·u..-JI J"'t..Li.:..J ·O""'.)JUI c~L"...,..J1
special cases. • ~ L>. c-)' L:>.
-R-
~. ~, -.1. LA.:. ".1.
Radial Highway - An arterial high lS ..J-:1 ...> '-'""'..r- - «Y' ~...> ~~
way leading to or from an urban .. • ~~ P.r"..,JI ..J1 0-"

center.
I •• .~.),.) - ..... .l."o.b d.S- .,;"Li.J..)-o .......J I.)
Railroad Crossing Angle - The angle

of lOOG or less where a railroad •
~...>
.... 1.
'-'""'..r- L.bLi.:......,.. ~
0
v-"
1"1 ..J 1 .~...> ~
and a highway intersect. • .1.."....\>. '4.5.,., .h>. t-"
Railroad Grade Crossing - The area ~l '4;6' 0 " ..."...h- .l."o.b • .5.,., .,;"Li.J..)-o
';"'.b- '6.5.,., ;.. I. l..lb~ • l-. L...i..:.-..
where a highway and a railroad .. t-" ~...> '-'""'..r- L" (
I cross at the same level. .<.S~l ..,-.L ~
I 52
Ramp - A short roadway, usually one I~ 0-"5.". oj u ~ ~~ - ~
way, to accomplish transfer move J>,I j J ~ I ,.5? J .. ;;"" -..J • -l>-I -' d ~ I
( ments within an interchange from .:;.."..,.,h-J I -' , j j I ..,.,..J I .:;.."..,.,h-J I 0-" ~ Li.::..J I
'\"
the arterial highway or expressway • ~ Li..:...o.J I .:;.."..,.,h-J I ~ I t-':'...-J I
to the crossroad.
Ramp Terminal - The general area ~, ·..... w.Jl '• • 6'.• II - ~I dJ.b
where a ramp connects with a road 'j.,. I • L...c - L. . . _.. II Wb~ ~.. 1
~ ~ ~ ~
way. Ramps have both entrance and J~ .b..,..::.~-, ·O?-' Jyj ~~ ~
exit terminals. The entrance ter ~ ....'-'~ I <;: L...c~ I ct_o-' L.,. J>,...l..<>.J I
minal relates to a merging condi ..........:...: e.. w -' L,- <;:-,.,.,.>-J' J ~ .h.,...;....>-:'
tion; the exit terminal relates to • ..)-,~I
a diverging condition.
Rate of Flow - The hourly represen j..u.J • ·il..<: L....JL.,. '~ - ~.1..:..J1 J.1..JL.o
tation of the number of vehicles 0-" ~ e..Lbj ..;~ ~ ~I ..::..1..)L.".......J1
passing over a given section of a .:Y
I~ . . .~ .
~ .. ..)
'. ... ~ 1
...r----
".L.
~~ -'
1 .d..) w..
lane or roadway for some period ~-' .~Uj r -,' ~ ~ . '~L...
less than 1 hour, such as 5 or 10 J~ ..::..I..)L."......J\ j~ '-;-'~ ~ J~I
minutes. I t is obtained by multi , • . •...,.......:.. ~ o·'.:S<oI1 '~j-ll '.,.r=J-J1
.'
plying the number of vehicles dur L..r-l~ ~~ ~\ ~U..LII j~ ~I
ing the specified time period by .";"';...l..:..J1
the ratio of 60 to the number of
minutes during which the flow oc
curred.
Reaction Time - The time required .>-' I

...::,.j - (,-:- 4-=- ~ I) J,...u.JI j..) 0-"j
for a driver to apply foot pressure h...S..A.J I '•..) L.".- ~ L... ('jJlJ 1 <.J"'..) L..o.". ~
to the brake after he perceived 01 ~ 0' ~..)~ 0' ...u...,. ,''''-..1A"ri-l\ ~
that he must stop. .....u~
Rebars or Reinforcing Bars - Steel ~I 0-" 0~ c: _ J - II 0L..,...O...:i

bars used as reinforcement in con ~ ( ~.i.::..J' ) (.: 1 ". J I ('~
crete. • 'O..:-L.....P-JI
Reclamation - The restoration of j' ~, -' j I ..Lo'1' ...rb- '. j u I - (JL.o..=.-I

borrow and aggregate pits to a nat .)...i-, '\.?" ... 6 II ~ ~I ·o.."...LS,.rJI
ural form that may include replace ·o..."rJI 0-" .)...jj L...c ~~ dJ~ ~
ment of topsoil and vegetation . (..)-,.L ..)~) ..::..L:.L.,..:..J'-, L.."...J...s..\
(seeding).
t·..'"
I. .
Recurrence Interval - Floods vary
greatly in magnitude. Small floods
can occur each year. The larger
L.::.-' u.::. J~ 1 ..::..-' ~ - ..) I p..J I ".,.,..:J
~..l>-.:'.. j-i-' . ~ ~ I ~
..::.. L..:. L..A.",...U'
"..,..,...s91 J~l _.>~-' . ('U J.S" '....h~-.R.c._lI
floods have recurrence intervals of -,' '~ •.!.....-' •..::..I~ r ~ ~
10 to 100 or more years. .~1
Refuge Island - An island in a wide ~L:i.:. .h--, ~ '.~? - ~~ •..J""!?

intersection to provide refuge for •
w...-1
.. -'
.. ~ GJ.."
.•
',." I '
,~...r--- ~...r
... L.
'-'~
pedestrians. Also, a place for .h.."...,.y-II -' j ~ ..::.. L-."....,..>-=- ~ 1 '-;-' LS,.rJ 0 LS....o
transit passengers to load and un •..::.. L-."....,.~ '11 0-"
load from a bus.
Regional Factor - A numerical fac ~ ~ \Sj~ j...,u - ~I j...,Ls

tor expressed as a summation of the ~ ',j~\ ~l E.~ L:.L,
values assigned for precipitation, j..., w.J I I.:u. r ~-' . J y,...JI -' e.. Li.::...) '11 -'
elevation, and drainage. This fac • ~y-II r-i.rl1 J..",~
tor is used to adjust the struc
tural number.
~.
53
Reinforced Concrete - Concrete ~'..l..,. ~~ LL.,J-';' - t..:....l.-.... LL...,>.
where steel reinforcement is em ..l."...l.>-....I' ~ c..."........." ~ ..l."...u.
•
bedded so that the steel and con o ,j~~1 i..o-,Li..a ~ L....o Ll-?-JI-,
crete act together in resisting
stress.
Representative - Typical of a larg 0-" .r:--5 i ,j..l...stJ 'eLi..,. Lh.... ~ l> I .. ' .
er number of items or quantity. o..r.-S' ~-,' '~~I
Residential Area - That portion of -', 4..,....LL,. 0-" • ~ 1 ..: .U.) - ~ 7L.i..b..:....
a municipality, or an area within oJ-,-s.". • 4..,....l...1.,..J I 6.k...l- J-;.. I ,j lUi.h...:....,
the influence of a municipality in • L:.....J
. . .0
...,~
(" ~~...r-
I... < .
r 1 ~ ~1 I,
which the dominant land use is res ..
'-' GI..-c L..o......'
.. ~ . . .... .jJ I.' < I
~-"\.T"'
, <L.....o
idential development, but where 4..,....)G...::.-J1 J~.su ',i~

small business areas may be in
cluded.
Rest Area - A roadside area with ~4 ~ ii...ih...:...o - b. , ..;=-1 7L.i..b..:....

parking facilities separated from •..::- 1..) L.".-J I -'
~~ . <La'
\.T"'
1.. "l...-.JI
--r- ~..r~
the roadway providing motorists ,-,L>..D~ .. .. .. l...-.JI U'
~ .~~ "PO ~-'
with opportunities to stop and rest b.tJ.:....,.~I-' ....;Jy::..J\ ..i..o...,.... ..::-'-,~,
•
r ~ short periods. .',i~..::-I~
Resurfacing - The placing of one or -,' ',i..l.".~ u..,.b ~-' - C-b -It o,jul
more new courses on an existing o ~-.Ll L.,. , jyo~ eb-
~ ~f
surface.
Reverse Curve - A curve consisting ~~ 0-" c.i.JL:..", L:r~--"':""" - ~ ~

of two arcs of the same or dif • ~J.::...;....., ~~ -,' f-.LlI" ~ La-y-J
ferent radii curving in opposite L.;-J-' ~,j L..D..:...... ~ G....::.' u-' 0 l-~-'
directions and having a common tan ..:J~ J~I ~ -,' ~~ ..,....~
gent or transition curve at their • La~ w..::..J I '4.h...i..:....L.J:
point of junction.
Right-of-Way (ROW) - (1) Land gen oJ-,.s..:. uO-,' (I) - (ROW) ~..,h-JI r?
erally publicly owned, acquired .~~, ~-' ·U-,..LlJ .".5~ il,ju
for and devoted to transportation J-i-:..-ll uO' ..ri ~ 1,..." 0';" "'-' ~
purposes. (2) The privilege of the LS-'~' r I ~ ~ 1 cY- ( r) o..::-.JL." 1yo-! '-'
immediate use of the highway. The ..J""" u -' , ',i-' ~ cY- • ~.r'1 ..j..,,-,b-.J-.J
right of one vehicle or pedestrian u.".~ 0 ~ ('''~' ;hi ) ..j..,,~
•
proceed in a lawful manner in -' , lS..;->.1 ',i..) ~ ~ ."-.".y-' L.,. .~.>-'-' u
rL~ference to another vehicle or 0..;->.1 ..j..,,~ ..J"""u
pedestrian.
Right-Turn Lane - An auxiliary lane ',i-' G ~, oJl..)-,.LIl 6..)~ ~,

or designated lane provided at ~ ~~ ~ ',i-,G -,' ·.l..u L.....o
grade intersections for right-turn • ~ oJ'-,-,..LlJ lS~l ..::-Ls,b~
movements.
Ring Road - An arterial highway for ..LOt..) ~..) ~~ - (LS~l,j) ~~..,..b

carrying traffic around an urban • j> -,' 'L.."...L. 'Uh.:...o J y" -,-,r-l1 ~
area or portion thereof. • Ly..:.....
Riprap - A protective covering of ..::-1,) ',i-,~' 0-" ~I-, .~ - 6.$,j

graded stones, with or without mor .b~ 0-'..l..,. -,' .bJLo..,. " 4..".-, L.-.:......J 1 r 4-> ~ 1
tar, to prevent erosion. . J.s1...:..J' ~
Road (Highway) - A general term de ~ ru CJ\..b..oI ( ~..) ~..,..b) ~..,..b

noting a public way for purposes of L.......... ..::-1 -,..
L....-JI ~ :', . ~ La u
..;0 Y
L..L... ~l...
•
vehicular travel including the en J Lb..:. ~ U>. 1 ..L! 1 i.J.h..:......J I J.5 ill.) ~
tire area within the right-of-way. o~~-.JI r.?
54
Road Approaches - Rural and subur .~..) 'y~ -::.-~.>-=- - ,-:,,1,.r::J~1 ~.}:>
ban minor connections to a highway ~.}:> -,1 ~..) ~.}:> ~I t.r'..,..o.Jl 0-"
/" or frontage road from adjoining -::.-1 < I" • nil" 0-" .• ~" • ~L.o1
I
properties. These can be private, ·.5.rLo-o ~.}:> 0~ 0 1 ~-' .6..)-,4-o.-J 1
public, or commercial. • '6.."...)4-=- -,1 6...oW- -,1 ....,L..:;.. .~
Roadbed - The graded portion of a "..x---'

- 'I - ~I
. - ..
1.
~..;- II V" L-f u....h
.
road or highway, usually considered • ".1. 1 .. I. . ..)· __ '1
• ~..) """"..r- -' ~..r- 0-'" ~
as the area between the intersec ~L..i.;, ~ "~L-..oJI .. ..)w- ~-'
t ion of top and side slopes, upon ~, • ·.~4-Jl-, L."....L.J' -::.-I..)~I
which the base course, surface ~,
. -,..·6......-,L..~1 ·"-i....b..J1
. I.
~
I.
~
.
course, shoulders, and median are · "-".b-Y 1 .. ~~, -' 0 ~ w..J 1-' ....,p-b...J I
constructed. The top of the sub '~.b.J' ·Y..)~1 0-" ~~I '~I
grade. . (6~L.iJl)
Road Mix - A method of combining ..)1..>-" (..J-o 'o...i."..}:> - dJh.J1 e,;,-Is .J:...l>.
surfacing materials, such as min .~ ..) La (:-" ~~I r L$...".J I J-:.-., ~...".J I
eral aggregate combined with li ~ ..) I ~, L~.b...b...:; • 'u~ L.. '6.."...) L j
quid bituminous material, in which -::.-UL>.· 1 1.:i1 r 1 ~L...."""".,r--
" . 1 . 1\
the materials are mixed on the road

by means of discs, harrows, blades,
~?'
..)
. -'
.J.."....-' 1.;?1
~ ..r-
-,' cl ~ -,f ..1..".~
...-.J.,.,...,.......
&
or other approved means.
Roadside - That portion of the '0.> l-.o 0-" • j.?---ll dJ ~ - ~."J:>-J 1 ~ '-'?
right-of-way outside the roadway. .-::.-'..)L."........JI ..)-'...r" &"..}:> (..)L..:;.. &".~l r..r
Roadside Barrier - A longitudinal ~y rLh..:- - ~?-JI ~'-'?- e,;,-Is R'->
system used to shield vehicles from .}:> l.:>...AJ I 0-" -::.-1..) L"..-J I .•..." La..,....j r~
hazards on the roadside. .~~I ~4- ~
Roadside Development (Roadside En ~I yo ~) ~?-JI ~I yo ...r--y...:.

hancement) - Treatment of the road J.>1 0-" J~' e.,--:.l yo '~Gu. - (dJh.J1
side to conserve, enhance, and ef • jib' n I I '? ".: .. 6 1\ JL.....;o-JI ~ ·.J:...j~1
fectively display the natural beau ~...".J' ~JhJl ~ ~ ~,
ty of the landscape through which ill~-, . ·uL.U 'o...i.".~ o..Dy-, o....:..~ ......~-'
the highway passes; as well as pro '.,,0"01'-, 0La~1 ~.>-=- J.>f 0-"
vide safety, utility, economy, and • ji ) a". a .~...,,~y -::.-~-' • ..)l...A.::..J~'-'
highway-related recreation facili '-:-'-~, ..)L.."...::...;.~l r' ~L." .~~L."
ties by means of proper location, Lt 0.. 0"-'-' ·~...".JI J~' C-:O'~
design, construction, and main • Ly.::....:- L..."..o-' ~ ~-'
(
tenance of highways.
Roadside Hazards - Embankments; J."J:>-J' ..)~ - ~."J:>-J I ~ 1yo ? L>-a

ditches; fixed objects such as ..)~~, J-:.-., ·O":':"""~1 '~~'-' .~I-,
trees, boulders, and poles; side J~' c L...b L.i.::,-' .'~...uJ: )7 , -' ....) ~, -'
road intersections; and narrow me • 'u."..o.J I ...."...b- y , ..)~ I -' ....."....,...:. 4--J I
dians are all potential roadside J~I '~'y- ~.}:>L.:>....a ~ J5.:....:;.
hazards for out-of-contro1 vehi .~ ~
.1.. 'I ~ ~..)..
- 11 cl L-.-..1.J '~L...
. .
cles. .~
Roadway - (1) The portion of a 0-" .~, dJ~ (1) - .:..I..)L..,...-JI ~?

highway, including shoulders, for .JL.::..S~ I 6."J La....,. • ~...".JI ~~,
vehicular use. A divided highway .. I.
..,.."...r- (,.)
I •
-::.-1 L.-Jl
..)_
6..a~ .~.i.J'
'"
has two or more roadways. (2) Dur -,1 ..).>'-, -::.-I..)L"..- ~.}:> ....,. r~ ~..)
ing construction, the portion of a 0-" • j.?---l1 dJ ~ . ' L...,....J I • L..:-:. f • ? f
highway within the limits of con J~f ..)-'~ ~ C-:O'yl ~...".JI ~~,
struction. • ·L...,....JI
\"
55
Roadway Connection - Provision for ..b w..:..J J.;.~ ~.,.,.::- - .::..1..; L..".- ~..;..b u....."
entrance to view points, safety ....}-"Wr.... • ·~~I ·G.>l..,r=.-":Jl ~L...:.....o.." ·o..".j..rll
•
rest areas; ramps constructed to ~
Gt..o...J, t:"" ~• - - ~ L..R.. c.;--> ~ .
standards commensurate with the .c-I..;L"......Jl ~..;..b .~ ·~y~1
standards established for the road
way.
Root - Part of the plant that de ~.." .h..,.,..... c-L,...:..JI 0-" ' ? - J~I
scends and fixes itself in the .o.::.-L.,...:...11 .o..".~.." c-~ ..,o..;~l ~ ~
earth to anchor and nourish the

rest of the plant.
Rotary Interchange - A multi-leg .~I J..l.Jo..:...o ~Li..:. - ~.rl,,) ~u.:.

interchange where one highway is ~ .:.r L"..,....b.- ~..; ~..;..b J..,.....i,., ~
grade separated from a rotary on c-LSy ~ ~~ l,?..;..!.1 J ~..;..b
which all turning movements and ~~I ·uLS 0-" Jy.ul.J 0'..;.J.u1
through movements of all other '15?~1 .~..rl'
highways are accommodated.
Roughness Coefficient - A coef ~ ('~ J-.o L.t..o- "..;Y' yl J,... Lc...

ficient used in Manning's formula c..jy'..J"""...u..:..J Manning' s ~w,.o...i."..o
too estimate the time i t will take
;: rainwater to flow overland to
the nearest watercourse. A low
roughness coefficient for a water
shed results in a rapid concentra
tion of water from that watershed.
~ J--i...l..:.-..U ~I
. .r-w, 15~ ""'.."..Jl
'w, ..... ~ 15.:lJl
~I
dJj Lr" .L....JJ~.r ~y ~1 l,?,,)~

..,o..;~1 ..
• w, c...9J'"" ..,0yo- • ..;Y.J J-.o w..... ..,o~ I .J
e:b
• ..,0..".,...JI
•
Rounding - The removal of the angle L.\"L.:i.::..::. l.r-'
- 1\ ......... '.J I ~
·Ul·' . II
..; - J-:!.J ~I
where cut and fill slopes intersect rh--JI i:-a (' J..rl I .J ~ I J..,,-.... LA...i..:&
the natural ground, and the substi .J~ ~..;..).:;, JLi::....:,\ JJl>.l.J ..,o..;5U u " ... b II
tution of a gradual transition, or .. • L.y.-b.... ..;'; ~ e:b
rounded surface.
Route - A line or direction of tra ~ •..;-::o---J 1 6 .J 1 .b> -

w..::.l ..; L.-...J I
vel, a selected or regularly tra ~~ (' ~L.... ill........ 1
. . . J . . ; L.::..>....o
versed passage between two distant .~~~

points.
Rumble Strip - A rough textured ~ ..r.J eb- - .. .. 6 II .::..I.)..".,.,.....JI
•
~"rface, constructed for the pur uy •..;L.o..JI c-I..;L".-JI c-1..;Lbl ~
ke of causing the tires of a 0y..!.L....J1 \ ~ po •• c-I.)'~I 0~
motor vehicle driven over it to •..J""".:v...::...J I J..!. L-.J 0-" .•.J.".....J5
vibrate audibly as a warning to the
drivers.
Runoff - The surface discharge or ch--ll ~ .L.o..J\ ~..).:;, - ~I J~I

rate of discharge after a rainfall. •..; L.h.o ~ I ..b""";"" ..wr..,. c...9~ I J .1.-Jl.o .J f
Running Speed - The speed of a ve tLbj ~ •..;L".-Jl .•.>-..;- - ~I "is..>

hicle over a specified section of ~ ~ • ~..; ~..;..b 0-" J..l>-A
highway is determined by dividing J ~ ..h-~ • ..;-::o---JI .:r.) ~ .0...0 L-..o..J ,
the distance by the running time. t~ .4..O......J J,ot.> Y" c-'..;~I
The average speed for a number of •..;-::o---J' 0-".) t~ ~ c- L j L-..o..J I

vehicles is the summation of dis
tances divided by the summation of
running times.
56
•
-s
(' Safety Rest Area - See Rest Area. 'Uh.:..... yh.:- 1 - .....~ "i> I-.r-I ~
\
. ·•.>1..r-~'
Safety Zone - Th<.' area officially rL...i..:. ~I ·.'b·." II .....~ ~
established within a roadway for rI.~ ~ ...,.->...::...) J-,:-~ J>\..) L."..........)
the exclusive use of pedestrians, ~~ ..)1 .•~ 0~") b..:i..i ·.~I
protected or so ~~rked or indicated .•~..) L" 0").5w ~ J~ cL.)!.> ~

as to be plainly visible at all .cU..)~1 ~ ~ LY..>-' 0~
times.
Sag Vertical Curve - A vertical ..)~ ~1..) ~ - J ~ ~f..) ~

curve having a e(lncave shape in ~4- 0-'" J~l ~
profile.
Sample - A portion of material or a 0-'" '~~..)1 .• ..)L. 0-'" •y ~

group of units t~~en in such a way .• ..)L, J.;.......:. ~ ~b . cl...l>.YI
as to represent a material. .·o~
Sand - A fine gr :lnular material, ..::...::....i.\ .Y ~ .• ~ L, c ~ - J,.....)
~ which results fron the natural dis .~ '2 0

•••
bll
integration of ro~k.
Saudi Riyal (SR) - Basic monetary J,...L.sw.J1 .• ...l>...) ~..)..,....-J 1 J L..-.rI 1

unit of Saudi Arat'iil. ·•...".....,.~I .~I ~ '.~.rI'
... ,:?..u:...J1
~..)~,
Scour - Removal ,)f bed material ·O"""SI ~I .}\ ~lo..J'..,)1 - . ; ... 1;" -.1\
around bridge abutments and piers r' ~L" yL.::.51..) ..)~, cL.u.} Jy
by high-velocity ~~ter flow. . •L."...o.J.J ~.r-..ll ~~,
Screening - Th~ use of trees, c'~' ..)1 ..)~~I r' ~I - ~I

shrubs, fences, or other materials . " -
~..)
1 ~ ..).L..o ~ ~ ..)'.>-~' ..)f
to obscure an obj~ctionable view or • ~\ .o>..).}
to reduce an obje~tionable sound.
Screen Planting - Trees and shrubs c'~'..) ..)~~l - ...r=-I ."..-.J I 6s 1..)..,)
used for screenin~;. .~I .~ ~ ........ '.;.-. "II
'( Seal Coat - A hituminous coating

with aggregate applied to the sur
";Y'~I
.~
'-' ••
~
.'. A
eb-..3' .•..".b....R..::
J
-
rL.SJ. -11' ' ' ) ' ' ) Li..J I
~L.
.
0-'"
~
..u....b....,
.,
face of a pavement for the purpose ..) 1 , c:--:-
_b~JI ",jJ.;j~, ..)
l.r'-"
.~1
..
of waterproofing lind preserving the J."...LL. ..) 1 ,..) L...U I 0-'" ~..LO ch... ...l.,; ~
surface, relivening a previous bi .........)u...... ~..".::-..)1 ''';Y'~l eb--l' .~
tuminous surface, altering the sur . ..)..)~\ ·.s? ~ J-S1-::..Jl
face texture of the pavement, or
providing resis tnnce to traffic
abrasion.
I
\
57
Secondary Highway - A highway of ~? - (r::o 4- .J' ~ '-='..r) ~~ L:. J-,t~
less national significance than a

Primary road, but a highway that is
intended to mOve large volumes of
~.."hJ' .r
d".y--=. ...;..),...::.-...
..:.. W ..r-:' ").J~I
'6.."...o.,.:u'
..,.",?
'oS?
~.J
.J-4
~f
~~ 1
'0~ .o...".......s
J.-j..::.
·f·· ·
. :'
traffic at high speeds between pop 'o~ ~I ..:p' ~ I 0--:t-:' L......,...; ·o.."..Jw
ulation centers of 50,000 or more. .Jf .0.........-:, c..iJ'
~ u,..)\ ~ ~ ~,
International connections, military J L..a..::.)' I .b L..i..:. u-l I J.>"" I ~.J • .y ..:;.:..sf
installations, and seaports not o~ I ..,........J I .J '4..".~I c-L..:...:......- I.J ·O.."..J.J..LII
served by a Primary highway are ·o..h...,1 ..J-! ~..) ... .1. I , -..h.-)' .. 'I
~..r- -yo-.. Lr'-'
reached via Secondary highways. ").J~I oS? 0' r::o.J ."4.."...,..:- L..:..J I ~~ I
Traffic movement is the primary o.:>.Jl, ~ 0f )'1 ,J.J)rl ..)L.,...;...<:)'L..,. ~
consideration, but this type high
way may also provide some land ser
~ ~y 0' ~ ~.."hJ1 .J-4
• ~ I..)5u c L...ti-J I
0~~1
vice function.
Sedimentation - The action or pro "::"~j.:> ~ .~ .J 1 'oS? - ",:,-:,-.,.,.:.J I

cess of depositing particles of ~?)rl ..)I..,......JI .J f ~I .J 1 ·0....,..,.,..:.J1
waterborne or windborne soil, rock, L~..).;:. .Jf oL..."...o.JI L, J 0>.-. ~I
or other materials. ·LL..".~'
Selected Material - Native material .~ 'o..)L. .1 i-' • II o.,)l-JI

obtained from a specified source,
eh as a particular roadway cut or
borrow area, and having specified
characteristics.
Semitrailer - Any trailer designed

"""'? ~ ~
...,a-!-L..:..;...,..~
~ .~
..)..).:>...0
, ..) I
•..)~ ,:?f -
..L,'
..)..)......,
.u.h..:.....o.J f
'..)~
.J-4 ~
~
• '• ..)..).:>...0
~
•
to be coupled to a motor vehicle in Ly-:...o I oj.:>- ~ .0..3-"'..)"6....,, .•..)L".- ~ .h...,.~
such a way that part of it rests on .•..) L.."..-JI ~.J ,'0..) L.."..-J I ~Y .D..H
the motor vehicle and a substantial 0,).J.J 0..)~1 0,).J .J-4 ~)r, o..P-J1
part of its weiRht and the weight • L;-::.-J."........,..
of its load is borne by the motor

vehicle.
Separator - An area or a device .. ..r '.~'6...1.....-

L.....J.1.. .. :.J.J f'~ - ~ . ~I
located longitudinally between two ").J~I oS? ~ J,.:....LU ~? 0--:t-:'
roadways so as to separate traffic o~1 .J f oh- I .J 0 ~1 ..".JoJ.j..).;...o"J I
flOWing in the same or opposite di . •.. 'o..i...-.I... .~ ".. ", <
~ .....r-"'"" \,T~.J''''-'
rections, and so designed as to ..::..I..)L>- ..)~ .J-4 ~ .Jl cl..)~l
discourage or prevent passage by ~I j.:>-L.:...JI ~4 oh-f .J-4 ~.."hJ'
.?~I ~4-.JI
•
"ohic1es from the traffic lanes on
,e side of the separator to those
on the other.
Serviceability - A concept where 0....1)1>. .J-4 ~ r.J-y-i..o - L. L.:.....J I ~..).,)

pavements are judged on their abil oS? .O"""..ti- u-L: "';.>""~I ~l ·0..).D
ity to serve traffic. Longitudi .J-4 ~ ·W.J.b.JI 'o-,,'~' '0...;...)..).J ''').J~'
nal smoothness is a primary factor • ('.: .. ii" II ,.:u,.".-i '~..rJ' J..ol..".....JI
in this judgment.
Service Road - A road, generally L..i..>..) J.>""...r ~ ~? - .... ..ti- d-a-~

unimproved, used to transport per ..)\~)r, .J..i..:.. ~ r~ '{W ~..J-! ! ~
sonnel, materials, or equipment for .Jf ~ ..:..! ~l .J ..)1..,......Jl .Jf
the operation or maintenance of ~y, r? ~ ·o......u....Jl .}-i1~1 ~L."..:>
utilities located on a highway • L.
right-of-way.
58
•
Service Volume - Service Volume is ..i>.J 1 y" ....... ..ti..J I ~.~ ·........ti..JI ~
the maximum number of vehicles that 0' ~ ...,.:.-JI c.l...)L"..-JI .)~ ~~I
(
can pass over a given section of a ~~I J1 ::...)G..JI 0-" Le GLbJ ~
lane or roadway in one direction on .)~ ~..)o ~ ..l>I _~ 64-=-' ~
a multilane highway (or in both 0-" ..:;.,.,..):> ~ ~4-=-~1 ".- J') ..:.-1...)WI
directions on two-lane highways) F J .".)..b-o .~.) ;)..r::-- J)l>. (.:.,.."....:,...) ~
during a specified time period. JJl::.> L...,. ~J c. G L-J L..,. ...,..~ ....... ..ti..J I
Service volume is an hourly volume . ·...... .l>..JI \S~
and varies according to the level
of service.
Sequence - The order in which the J1 ..:.-1...) ~I ...)J;Jb J-J.-:. - J- I - It

signal indications or phases ap • ...)J.."........J I J>.' ..r"
pear.
Shoulder - The portion of roadway J Yy ..:;.,.,...):>.J' ~ 4- ~ J,,"",y - ...;..:.s.JI

contiguous with the traveled way L.A5 • '15...)' yh-JI ..L& ~ ..:.-1 ...) L;,...-.J \
for accommodation of stopped ve ..:;.,.,..A-U ~4--I1 ~...LJ\ ~ r~
hicles for emergency use, and for . • ~J ~..rJ\
lateral support of base and surface
courses.
~
Shrub - A small woody, multistemmed
plant.
.)...u..::..... ..J..,,~ ~ "-\~ _ .~
•0 L.<..".-J 1
Sidewalk - That portion of a street J1 C...)~I 0-" ~\ I~ - ~...)
or highway between the curb line or ...... t.> J1 y~'1' .b. ~. ,,., ~I ~..):>.JI
edge of the roadway, and the adja •...)J4---o-J1 ...)J.."........JI .b. ,~~...,..J .~...)hJl
cent right-of-way line constructed • ·0L:....a..J1 1'" ~'1 L.,~ ('~ ~.i.JI
specifically for pedestrians.
Sight Distance - The length of 6\...h' \S~I ~..):>.JI JY' .......,j..rJ1 uL-....
roadway ahead, visible to the dri •• • 6..e~~
0...) L."..-JI ...).!,Lj
ver.
Signal Face - That part of a signal ...,....'...) 0-" '.)->-ll I~ • ...)I-.:.~I ~J

head which contains the indications ~, c-'...)~'11 ~ ~~...... ~.i.J' •...)~'11
for controlling a single traffic • '• . h I J ...)Jj-" ,'.$? ~ ~
movement.
t Signal Head - An assembly of one or

more signal faces, housings, hard
ware, and accessories. It may be
. h I J
~IJ
~
0-" '0...:,J~
..:.-1...) ~'1'
• 'yW'11
.• ~ ~
6y_"
r
-
Il J
0-"
.....) I-.:.'.II
...,.::.51 J'
":'-IJ.)~'J
V"'f ...)
termed "one way," "two way," etc., ... ..l>I J 64-=-1" j.5.: L~ u,.)1 ~,
dependent on the number of faces 6yy' .)~ ~ . ll\ "Ou4-=-' "
and the di rection(s) in which they • u~ ·•...,._... -,.01 c.u4-=-'1'J
are aimed.
Signal System - A system of visual ·4...".~1 ..:.-l...)~)lJ ('Lb..:.. ..••...)1-.:.'11 rL.J:....;.

signals used to control the move ~ •...)J.."........J, '• .5? 1""""'1~...::. 0 r~
ment of traffic, usually on city • ·O.)L.r o~l C...)'y.

streets.
Silt - Material passing the 0.075 J L...,.~ 0-" ~ .• .) L.. - (",-.h.J I) 0-='..,..aJ I
mm (No. 200) sieve that is non c.......,.J • (T r-J...)) ~L ....." ...)oVO ..,....Li..c
plastic or very slightly plastic,
and exhibits little or no strength
0-"
00
~ ...)-U ~ L'••.::...>-..::. 6...::'...LJ

'1 J' •...).5:.L. 'oy L.rJ c-,...a - ~J • ·o...:,J...LJ...Jl
J'
when air dried. t, ;'.: ;,?" " .)...;& • .jJlb '11 \.,.~ Ly-l ~
• " Jy-l L..,.
59
Single-Axle Load - The total load
4..Jy»-l' - I?...)..ri-J I ..),Y-J I 'LI~
transflitted by all wheels, the cen
c-~1 ~ L; );;, u ~, W~~,
ter of which may be includerl be
tween two parallel transverse ver
tical planes 1. 0 m apart, extend
~
·
~
- L
~
.
1o,',:.'
u'<\
..r- J-"
~ ~~
..,r"
~ U
. ..s........... ~..)
~L..i
.. It
(
• oJ.S '•..) L.."..-.JI ,""",...r"-:" ~ ,...».1..)
ing across the full width of the
vehicle.
Single-Unit Truck - A freight ve

• ';"':'~ -,' ~..)~ J,:L '•..)L..".-. - ~L.:.
hicle of two or three axles, larger
than a pickup.
• (,:-,LS.".......J 1) J,:L ~ '•..) L.."......J I LJ-O ..,.}-:'5f
Site - The lands and other places ~, lS?~' 05~~'J I.?""'..)~I r?..,
provided by the Ministry for the I .•..) I ..)...r-
. _ "
execution of the \vork.
• I __ 11
~
" ,. ; . ". u...rJ."..:.
Site Map - A large scale map of a ii;;6' 01 -.~<.A.b.....

uy - ~..,- Ah.".....P
specific small area, such as a
bridge site.
.~ e?y j.:..... .• ...)..l.:>-.o ..

~
Skew - Oblique, not at right an

• o........:,w ~ ~L.., L".1..),) - ..... 1~1
I
alns.
Skew angle - The complement of the

·• ..)L:>..JI 4.."...)1.:;.J1 ~ - uy-:... ......J',)
acute angle he tween two center
• L..,~,)5J-" ~ ~ u.::..... ~ ~
lines that cross.
Slip Ramp - An angular connection
4.."...)1,) J~ ~ ~ - l:r:'~1 ..)~

between an expressway and a paral .6-.. ~
,) I y .. L
~..r'..) ."
~..r- "-L"
~...r---- ~
lel frontage road. .....J
Sliver Fill - An emhankment slope

'-5.,)' ~ ..)~ ..)..l.:>....:..A ...l.. - L.,..U1.:.Jl rJ 5
that is roughly parallel to the ..LJ-, . JJL...JI ~,~ u 0 .. ,6 11 ..), ~~I
natural slope of the hillside. LLi.lJ 'L.Ju L...~1 1 5' ,.s...:.
.. .. " ('..) U..)
Sliver fills may be very high in .~ '~L.,-
proportion to the thickness.
Slope The face of an embankment

or cut section; any ground whose o ..)~ C. LhJ -,' ...l.. '.~'..) - ..)~
C'" 4.."...) 1,) L+>-h- ~ '"""'..), '-5.' .~I
surface makes an angle with the • ~ ~ I lS.."..::.-o
-lane of the horizon.
Slump - The measure of the con

(
..::....:...0-1 ~4-::- 'il.>..)") <J"'~ - .b."...-;-JI
sistency of portland cement con
• ~ .h..)...>-"-- 0 • p .. 0,"" - ' ! ~ I ..)...:.Jl::...).."..."
crete by consolidating in a slump
L L...,..,.>-1J L: L.o.-.J I ..) .h..)~ I 4..J I ,) I ~
cone, removing the cone, and al • ~ .b..R.<> ~ ..) I ~ ~ L.,
lowing the concrete to settle under
its own mass.
Soil - Sediments or other uncon <U~ c-~

c-L..,....y - i..,...,..:.J'
..),
solidated accumulation of solid ~L".~1 ~I'O..,.-l.o c-~y-.J .~
particles produced by the natural
..D ~I..) • ..)~ up .. , 6 11 ~L.."....a.."..sJI..)
physical and chemical rlisintegra ~..)1 y ~'l5""~'
:' L .. ..,r" .. ~..) i l5.. ~ - "
tion of rocks, and which mayor may
not contain organic matter.
Soil Classification - The arrange uJ \ '4...,.,.;-::..J , ~y - i..,...,..:.J I ..... _ '.p"

ment of soils into classes ac
1!JL:..Jl,..) .'~ L".~ I L;-:> I Y '-:"'-'" c- U j
cording to their physical proper . '4...,-rJl .; .. ',"") .• ..)~ ~L.....)
ties. There are several systems of
soil classifications. (
60
.~,_._. ~---".-.,.,~...: .... -2"~~~'::'~ ;:~."':~ ~. ......._
Soil Stabilization - Measures taken ~ ~I ":"I"...r?'~' - ......,.,.::..JI '-'_,'

to eliminate or minimize the ero IT-..), ~ I I.. I ii - A..,..,.,.:..J \ J.51-;, ~
( sion of soi1 t or to improve its .~
,
0
- ,. II I,
u--
.),
1 ."
~~
..).j,
~
".
~
r • .h.
supporting capacity.
Spacing - (1) The distance between '.~ L..c-- J$ 0-='-:' 'OJ L-.o.J I (I) - J,...I ~ I
consecutive vehic1es t measured ........ ..l--i.,., ~I .•~ L"...... ....... ..l..i.o 0-" ..rLi.::. lS? r.)
front to front. (2) For roadway '.'w,~ '.~L.

. ,
( ..I ) • lSy')11 L....-JI
ii~"
lighting the distance between suc .• 'w,\ ..)~ J$ ~ ·OjL-.....Jl ~ .13,..,h-J1
cessive lighting units t measured . c~ ~ I ,)5.ro .• I ~ L:..........,. ';'u.::. ? 1 .)
along the centerline of the street.
Spacing to Mounting Height Ratio CU=.JI ~I 6...L.Li.J1 UL-....II ~
The ratio of the distance between 0-='-:' 'OJ L-..o.J I .~

.. • L.i>~ I ..)~
luminaires to the mounting height. . 4s Li.::.~1 ~l .• 'LD~1 ·.~r
Spa11ing - Chipping along the ~ L....J...:...o ..;1 y--Il .•~..,,-.::. _ ,":,,-::,~I

edges t as at joints in concrete .;.~~~, ~ &Jl yiJl .~..,,-.::. ~ JL.:>..JI
pavement and structures. ...::.1 '~~I.) .•..."..;.L.....P--l'
Special Specifications - Addit ions ~ ..:.,J1~...lJz.:,.) ..:.,UWI - ..... ~ .::..L.J...,I >-
~.
and revisions to the General and
Supplemental Specifications cov
~. I ... s- 11.)
• 0.:. I ~ t.J~
·....... LstJI ..:.,L.i.,,'~l
.•~ U.),.):>
ering conditions peculiar to an
individual project.
Specifications - The formal direc ..:.,1 , 16" 0 ".) ..:.,LA .. I~" 'I - .::..L.J...,I >-
tions t provisions t and requirements r-J L.v.o ..) ~ ~\
.b.).,r:.J I .) '0...".......-,.,r-J\
that outline the work to be done t '~,..,h-JI
.) , • 4,) L~ \ '-:-' I ~I .".J.b...o.J
the way it is to be done t the char ..)I~I ..,a!-~ .), .L~ ~ ~I
acter of materials and mixtures to ~
<~I , ..l.~ ~
"1\.)·r
" " ,
~.)
: '" ...
be used t or the results to be ob . ~ J.r=-J' ~ ~I
tained.
Specified Completion Date - The ..l.c ~ I - J L.....S..:..-JU ..).h...LJ I b~ L.:..J I

date on which the Work is specified • ~I .:ro 'L-y-::...:,JU ..)~ 1,5.:.01
to be completed.
Speed - The rate of movement of a ~ • Lo ·.-A,;-....Sy J..iJl..4 - 'O.s.,;--J I

vehicle t generally expressed in • '~L....JI ~ .,;-::.....~L..,.. • ..)L> ~
( kilometers per hour.
Speed Change Lane - An auxiliary ~ 'o."..J W,I '.~ L>. - 'O.s.,;--J I ~ ..~ t...:..
lane including tapered areas pri .• ..) L.".,) ~ L.. L.., r ~ 'o..:;..l.:..-..a ~ L:...o
marily for the acceleration or de .) , 'o.J.:;..'..\.J 1 c L..,...5.,;-..a-J I '.~ .r- ~ .) r
celeration of vehicles entering or

leaving the through-traffic lanes.
. .~,.,r-J I ~.).,;-..a-J 'e' ~ L>. 0-" 'O.?-~ L.:i-J I
Spillway - A surface apron or ,j.."...,.J ~ ..,ay- .)1 ").)-b-I -"';jP 'L:J

trough for conducting water down a ~ ~~ 13~ .~~ 4--J \ 4 L."...a.J ,
relatively steep slope. .~
Split - The division of the cycle '.00';" n II '.~.)..\.J' J.J6 rL.-i..:-1 - :'~I
length that is allocated to each of .~ .• ..) L> L..£ ~) '.--1>,..)-'" J.S.J
the phases (normally expressed in . ( '.~.Y-o
percent).
I
\,.
61
Spur Dike - An earth embankment J"i- 1.--, ('L..:i.a ~J ~ -
-~L:, ~l...>.
projecting into the flood plain to
•
~ ~ • L.c..J I \S..p,-" ~~ .:> LA"....iJ \
guide water flow into a bridge cl..l..=. ~~ ",u-, . oJL,.& -,' ~\ ~
opening or cuI vert. Dikes may be Lr" L.y..::...".Lc>..J .~~ c.L5~ ~, ~l
armored by riprap to protect them .~I
from scour.
Stabilization - Modification of (' LS..".JI -,' ·6...,-..,.:..JI j.,...1...JL:. - ,-. a I A -. II

soils or aggregates by incorpor
ating materials that will increase
~ L..y.:.J"'u Lr" ~y:- ~ j' yo C"'" ~
J.o I .,......J 4-=--0-' L..:i.a-' • J L..>. '1 , "':-' L....."...:.- I
load-bearing capacity, firmness, .bl.)'1' -,' ..,...ihJI
and resistance to weathering or
displacement.
Stage Construction - The construc J>I J"'" ~ ~~I 'L..,. - ~J"'" -L..:....,.
tion of a highway by stages or in .,5...» ~Iy:- ~ 'o~lj-=o-o - c:.-I~ -,'
crements as traffic develops. A .,5...» ,-:-,-,L.:..."..J ~..;hJ' ~ .J-'.."......J,
highway is designed to be adequate ..lJ L.I ~ .J. g-. • 11 ~ J-'.."......J'
for future traffic, but initially 'u.......,. "O..."..!.~\ ~~I ~ LY 0""" ...., "
to save expense, some of the final .~LS..::....JI ~ I jL..,:,..::..jl d.J~-' ·o-"..!.~
•
features may be omitted.
Standard - Something having re ~ J~ ~ ~ .~ - 'rL..,....i

cognized and usually permanent -,' l...>.~~ ~-' ·•.A-!.I j .:>,.,.s...::. L" ·.jW
values and established as a model '\J~
or criteria.
Standard Drawings - Drawings issued oJI.)-, uJ~ c:.-L...J-J - 4-L..,....i c.L.o">-J

by the Ministry of Communications . ~I..l>.=....\ JI ~ rJ"'-"-' c:.-~I..,......JI
and approved for repetitive use. ~, u-i ·.jJI-, c.L...J-..".Jl o~-'
These are contained in Volume 4 of J~ \ ~ J-"..J j Lr" ~ ' ..".J I
the Highway Design Manual. . ·~..".JI
Station - (1) A measure of distance u-i

.. ('
~ "j..b-,a ...... L-.o (,) - ~
used for highways and railroads. ~ o.b.:-.J I • ·....".~.l>....J1 dS......J I-' J..;hJ I
In Saudi Arabia a station is equal JjLs...:;, ·....".j~1 '~~I .• ~\
to 1 km. (2) A precise location ...\>. I ~ j.l>--o c?yo ('l') . ...\>. I -' ...r=--o,.,..J-"S
along a survey line. .~I.b~
~tockpass - A culvert of a size ~ ~ ",:-,Ij...r c.L:,I~1 ~
•
-
lrge enough for the passage of ,. • '~.-. II ·6..L..J'11 cL:..l . - 11
:..r-- -' - ~
domestic and wild animals.
Stone - Rock material produced from \S' .?~\ ~ .~~ '.jL" - ~

a quarry, i.e., nongravel mater " .~I 0-""::"'-""'" ~\
ial.
Stop Line - A white line, placed ~ r-.,.r.f '"'"~ ~, .b..;. - J.j~l .b..;.
transversely on the pavement, at an ,,-I "L.II .l..L..i.;,...\...:"J: ''11
l:r-' ~ lJ.r- L '-"'J
intersection, to indicate where the .:>' ·oJL.."..-JI ~ ~ ~~I .:>L.5.....J1
vehicle must stop when obeying a ·oJ~'1u..l.!.Lj ~ ~ O..L...>: ....u~
traffic signal or stop sign. .-.jj..,..:. .6....0JU -,' '~y J-'J"'"
Stopping Sight Distance - The dis ..... l.-..A.J I - J""";."..u .Jy:..:....J I u '--...J I
tance required by a driver of a ~ ~I 0J~I ..l.!.Lj 0-" ......,,~\
vehicle, traveling at a given ~ U..L...>: 0..::.J L.".- .....u-'"'" .:>1 L... .~~
speed, to bring his vehicle to a .~~I ~ L... r----?" o....oL...1 J~ .:>'
stop after an object on the roadway .~, '~~I ·..... L-....JI d.J~ ~-'
becomes visible. It includes the '.j,..,,-, ~I I ~ j..J-:"Y 051 J j\
•
jJ
distance traveled during the per It", ph i ~I ·..... l.-..A.JI .:.r )l...;...i • o-L..J
ception and reaction times, as well . ·u......riJl • ~, 'oJ L.."..-J I
as the vehicle braking distance.
62
--------.--
.. ·~·.,..~_~ __Ki"
Storm Drain - A system of catch c-Wo..,JWI IJ-O .~ - .~ ..;~

basins and underground conduits t ... a
:---.
I ..,o..)~'
~ ·6...0L.i..o.Jl ely..i.J'-,
( collecting, concentrating,
veying water to a disposal
and con
point.
...;? 'o..b...:i..:. ~ 1 6 L"...A.J I J.j..;.-' ~~-'
Stratigraphy - The study of rock o.::..L:i.,.hJ' ·~I..).) - 'i.."..j1~1r-~1

strata, generally by analyzing rock 0.::.. I ~~ J., \.,. -, ~ .• .) W: ill J-' ..P--J I
• ........
outcrops or drill cores. • 6..-b
.. - ' ,.:.
"J 'I . . r
- - - -II c-~
, •• .. -' , ~
,.:. - 11
Stream Modification Widening, '6..JL>.'-

~-' ,~~- - ',_ - I
f.S..;-:--1 I
u-:t.l.a:.
changing the slope or bank condi ~U lS..)-?'-O J-,i.:.. -,' ,~, -' , ..) ~ I
tions, or relocating an existing • .,.»1 0LS... ~I
stream.
Street or Highway - A public way rL.I I:~ rW: ..) L-..o - ~.."b -,' C..) L:.
that is open to the movement of ve J-,i.:....JI-, " L.::......JI-, ,el..) L.".......JI ..)-'..r" '.5.,.»
hicular traffic, pedestrians, and ~ ~ ·UL-..o..JI ..,of .lS.,.»' ~L.-,"""
transportation by other means or .•,-,~I ~ ~ I:~' ~I .b."..b
conveyances. The entire width be ..)-,~I '.5.,.» rL.l I:~ .J...,ty" ~, ~
tween the right-of-way lines of any . ·..... w.JI
•
way open to public traffic •
Street Lighting Luminaire - A com '.J.o LS .• ~ w> 1 c- L.,...".5~ - C..) I y:.J I •..) L:.I
plete lighting device consisting of I: L.,...a...-' .• ~ W>1 ..)..lA..o 0-" c.iJ L
a light source and ballast. where '•.P-J I .J::..o .•..r L.."......J , L.-r-'4' I ~-'
appropriate together with its di .•~-, ·6....s<.:.~1 ..r- LS-, ..rS~'-' '.~L>.j-J'
rect appurtenances such as globe. '~ ..b..,...rJI e'-,.)'-, ",..:.!." II
reflector. refractor, housing. and J-,.L>...JI -,I .)~, ~ ~-' ...... _' ... fl
such support as is integral with • '..) L.:. ~ I IJ-O , ~j:?- ..) L...:..-.J I -' I
the housing. The pole. post. or
bracket is not considered part of
the lunimaire.
Strength Coefficient - A factor ..).' .... - I ) r~ J-,.W: - •.."...ul J,...L&..

used for expressing the relative '~..)..,...J' .6....o.."...iJ, -,I .~, ·.,..,...ul .:.r
strength, or substitution value. of d>1~~ .lS.,.»~1 ~I '• .hI..,J' ,el '.611
layers, one to the other. for con .";y~1 ~~, .•..,....:...,. ~ ~,y-::.JI
version purposes in a pavement
structure.
Stress - The force per unit area J>.I..) ~ '• .h-' J.S ,.,.,... .)4-:?-~ I
,'I·",,','
'-, .-,... acting within a mass. • '•..J.::..S.J 1
Stress-Strain Diagram - A diagram J.:.--::. ~L"....,. r-..) - ..)4-:?-~ 1-, ~I 0L.,....,.

where corresponding values of the ..),-r-:---'
- ' I ·IJ-O <i ,I:.L:....o..JI
1<'" 1
u--'-'..r- .~,
.. <L..,j
"
stress and strain are plotted. '..)~~'-'
Structural Section - The planned ..), ~ .•..)..ri-o-JI e L:i.,.hJ I - t.T- ~ I CLhj

layers of specified materials. nor ~ L. c- L.:i,..b IJ-O '.),,) W: c.iJ L -' ,'.)..)..b-...o
mally consisting of subbase. base. J.J-" ~~-' e6-J I 'u..,.,b-' , .rL.- ~ , , .rL. ~ t
and surface course placed over the . '• .u Lll, u..,.b
subgrade.
Subbase - The layer or layers of .• .) La c- L.:i,..b -' , 'u..,.,b - ~ ',,),s U

specified or selected material of JY ~~ ~ ~ '.~ -,I '•..)~
designed thickness placed on a sub 1"'"" .LI Li.o..) J-,..:; ~.,}oJJ '. ...,... -. II 'U-,...b.J I
grade to support a base course. • .rL.- ~ I u..,.b
(
63
Subgrade - (1) The top 30 cm layer ·o...i...,.hJl ( ,) - ~~ • ..3s LiJI ~
of embankments or excavated areas I J -.... -. '. ",. ~ L...i.:.J 1 ~ o..".."...L.J'
on which the pavement structure
including shoulders is constructed.
~.J ..rb-JI
ill.:l ~ L.....,.
&>L..:.....
Jy~1 J~'
.J1 ·4-0..)-r-J1
Yyi
.r
(
(2) The top of a roadbed upon which .rL.J ."u-o I?~I '~I (T) .JL.=..$)' I
the pavement structure and shoul Jy~1 cLJl uyi ~ J-,:-.."hJ1
ders are constructed. •J L.=..$)' , .J
Substructure - All of that part of ·L..:....:.)'I "?' ~ - ~ .~I

the structure below the bearings of '''b.."..-,.J I J~ I J,.... L:>-.o ~ ."..)y .".....J I
simple and continuous spans, skew ·"...l.!.L....J1 c-l.)..s...:.~I.J
,'''J o '' ° 1l.J
backs of arches and tops of foot c-L..L..I 0-" .......,."...w, ·'?)'I.J ,.rIy-iSU
ings of rigid frames, together with 0 1J ~ I 0-" JL.:,..; ,0...::...." ~ , J5 L.".;-J ,
the backwalls, wingwalls, and wing ....... L..>. 0~.J '~4--J'.J ''' .. t I.;. II
protection railings. • '''~4--J1
Superelevation - The elevating of ·4J w....J1 'uL>-!l ~J - ~WI cL..i.:.JI

the outside edge of a curve to par "'."...ul 0-" L.,....!-? ..,o~ L> ..... '. ° I
tially offset the centrifugal force La~ ...Ll~ ..,..::..JI ·......,j-S~I ·".,)JLh.Jl
generated when a vehicle rounds the • L"T~"" •• II J.."..... "'...,.5...r'" .J... ,,~
curve.
~perelevation Runoff -
sition distance
The tran
between normal
crown and fully superelevated road
way.
",jL-..o-!I
.... 1- II
~..r--.J..
- ~W)' I
'0........)1-<:
• 'o...L.L5 '''J..J''''-:'
CL..i.:.J )' I
'''...oJ.~
~U,I
'oJ.J")
·o.......J~)'1
..
6....UJ ,...::- I?.:LII
•
Superstructure - The entire struc , ~La 6...l5 '~)'I ~.".Js ·~I
ture except for the substructure. .~, '~)'1
Supplemental Specifications - Addi ~ c-)l.,~.J c-UU,I - • ,,' I" 05" ..:..L.i...o>I.,.,...

tions and revisions to the General ..:.J.J .,,-i J~ ~, ·~L.....JI c-w..,I~1
Specifications that are adopted • c~ \ '-;" L..:..5..J 1 J.J...l.a-I lP)'
subsequent to issuances of the
printed book.
Surface Course - One or more layers 0-" 0 L.::.J...,.b .J 1 'iU...,.b - .. /,.. b

II u..,..b..J I
of a pavement structure designed to .bJ,.p '-;"~)' ~ Jy~1 cLJl '~
accomodate the traffic load, the ........"..LJ\ '~I 0.J..s...:. 'J.J.."......JI '"s..r>
top layer of which resists skid ~ J.51...::.J 1.J , ..;-.b-.,j-=..J.J .~.J LL"
~ing, traffic abrasion, and the
1sintegrating effects of climate.
The top layer is sometimes called
~ , .. ,
L:.L.......I
..
t .. 1\
' ...,r--
J,....Iy J~1.J .J.J.."......J,
- 1811 -...:Lb..J1. ~.J ". ~
. ·" ...... 6
~L"
II J...:,-r-JI ~
(
wearing course.
Surface Treatment - An application , ., 'I

J '-"-' 0-"
'o..LJ::,"
. .r~ - _t.._ JI
C--
~
~
'L..r....
of bituminous material and cover '1"L5..r-l~ L t ..... 6 ;'''.J
aggregate.
Sustained Grade A continuous J-,:-~ ~ ..)...,,-~ - d-L....::.... ~

highway grade of appreciable length JI ~I "'-?-J..).J ,Ub...)-::'.ll;:. ~ ·ut..-.....J
and consistent, or nearly cons is- ."O..:....,.~ 0...,..:..J' .~~
tent, gradient.
- T -
Tack Coat - An application of bitu J~ JLi..J1 j

.rJ 'U."JJ 6....,..J U u..,..b
minous material to an existing sur u....b
. ~
d-L..o...::..JI ~ ,.,-- r---
" - ". I < LJ _J... ...
C
face to provide bond with a super ,·uUu.
imposed course.
(
64
Tailwater Depth - This is the flow ~ &3..)..;;.J1 ~ - ";~I ·L...JI ~
depth in the downstream channel ".
c....P-" ~ C. L U I ·L,rO..r..:.r
L..:i..."; . - II .• L..:....i
(~ measured from the invert at the • • L...J I ch- ~J .•-' L.,..-r..J ,
culvert outlet to the water sur

face.
Tandem-Axle Load - The total load ·o..J~1 - ~~'.;:..JI -'JL.-...JI '-1>-

transmitted to the highway by two ..,."...}>-II ~I L( , •.... ~I ·6..".J4~1
or more consecutive axles t the cen ,rs' JI uWL..::...::..... ul-,~ ~...r-I'
ters of which may be included bet v l ... 6 0 II 0-="-:' L,........j5j" JL.>.~i· ~
ween parallel transverse vertical ~l J 4..".j',.,..:..o-J' .~-' P- 0 II ·A..".-f...r-l'
planes spaced more than 1.0 m and .y ..).... . -
.. .,.r- 'UL-o
?
. ,
J
_b~.
c:-- tJ-:t-:' ~
, - ,
not more than 2.44 m apart t ex ~ ~ ,roT-,ii jJ4--=-=-~J ~
tending across the full width of ..•-' L"..-l.J ~I ..;0~ I
the vehicle.
Tender - The bid or offer made by a L> ...\...i..". t,? ~ 1 ..;0~ I J f • Lh.s.J I - • L.b..-e.J 1
bidder t on the prescribed form t to dJ~ "~I '.-'~~' ~ JJl..i..a.Jl
perform the work and to furnish the ~lyo-JlJ Jt............Jl ~~J ~I ~ ~
labor and materials at the prices 'r~I~~
quoted •
• Tender Documents - The approved

form on which the Ministry requires
tenders to be prepared and sub
mitted for the Work.
.• 'G-. PG II
L-r"-o'...Li.:.J
LJ..".h-o-lI
'.-'~~'
'-~ I ..ll I
~ L,.
-
..-' 1 jy 1
..... L>..J 1
.Lh........H .::..1
.b~ ~ I
c- \ • ~," .y
• 4...:U~
~
Tenderer - See Bidder. • • L.b.Jz.J I r...u..... ~I - • L.b..-e.J 1 r..u...

Tender Guarantee - The security &3-'"'" t,?~ I ~ l.::.J \ - • u........JI u '--'
furnished with a tender to guaran '~l r...u..... r~ 01 ul-.A..J .Lb....JL,.
tee that the bidder will enter into ~ J.,....::...:..J ,d j ~ J...,.J ~I J...L..J 1
contract if his tender is accepted t ~ ~-'~ ~I '.~..b-o...l' c-l-,~'i1
and includes the specified forms on ~..,.Jh.o-J \
v L...,..L-o-J 1 • Lh.s.J I r...u.....
which the contractor shall furnish J,.o....jl j ~1 ~ d..:.-,.D..J .~ L,.
required information as to his • u."...,.......::-J
ability to perform and finance the

Work.
Terminal - The destination t begin LI .' J f ·LI..)....

.. f .
. J dw....:.l 'O.b..:i.:. - ....'.1
(-
.. '-t-' ..r'
ning t or ending point of a highway. • ~-'
• .,. l
'-'..r'
Terrain - The physical features of ..;0-, f .o.....vh..i..J .•..".. p.: . b 1\ ...,a!-~1 - I.J"'"='-' L..<a.:.
a tract of land J geographic area J . • . 1.1
~J
1 'LJI . -~
.~
J
f
or territory.
Texture - Surface appearance of a ~1 -'~ I - ~-' w....JI ~.,.,..:.JI

material such as smooth t rough t t....:.....:.> , ~L uJ~ uLs L-.. '.~L...J
etc. .t-l ..
'
30th Highest Annual Hourly Volume - L".~ ~~I uL-J1 ~ ~ ~I
The hourly volume that is exceeded ~ ~y:. t,?~' ·~L-.JI ~ ~1
by 29 hourly volumes during a des '0..:..... ~ .•~ L... 0-drJ c::-::. ~ r~ 'i I
ignated year. .'~
65
Three-Leg Intersection - A roadway ~~
.
...
...,~
- ..)J
~ ~
~
.,,1. .l..L.i.:.
L
intersection with three intersec 6~ ..bo' WL5 '.:l U • LJ, LJ.:...., ..)J I,.".......
tion legs. If one of these inter ~.;-.i.:.

section legs is an approximate
prolongation of the direction of
wL5 1.:lIJ
I..) I ..)..;:,..0 I
.?~I
LJ, L....:i:..A.J I
..)~ J..,..,."..JI
..)J L>.....J 1
64-=-~ (
..)l..)..;:,..o~I ,~~ ~u..::...". ~~I ..)~I
approach of another and, if the • b..),,) "V J Ai ~ CJ I ..;-:..::. A....-J 1.) ~
third leg intersects this prolonga ~JL:..J

L.l.. Li.::...-. ..)J L:>-o I J .:l. L l.. Li.:.J 1
~
tion at an angle between 83 G and ..)JL>.....JI ..bol wL5 , .:llJ ."~" .....;?
117 G, the three-way intersection ..)y-o ~, J..,..,YJ ~.;-.i.:. 1..)1..)..;:,..0 1
is classed as a T intersection. If ~Li.:..". ~~I ..)~I wL5 '.:llJ .?1
one leg is an approximate prolonga .r ~ 6...".J ~ ..)l..)...:...o~1 I ~ CO
tion of the approach of another,

and the third leg intersects this
Ai
,~ ~ • b..),,) "V .r ~r
l.)
• Y" ~ I J" .....;..;> ~ u...:..,. ~ Li.:.J 1

J' b..)..)
prolongation at an angle less than

83 G or greater than 117 G, it is
classed as a Y intersection.
Time of Concentration - The time ~ j.J 1 4..l.A.J I - .)-:o5..r-.J I • ~
required for storm runoff to flow ~, Lr" ..) Lh.o ~ I 0 L."...o ~..)..:;..J "0..,-~ I
from the most remote point of a ..).."J iW..:...J I ~ \ .....;.,.,.....J I 4...ih..:.... ~ ~
drainage area to the point under ~I 4....i..:>U-,. 4..)~ .~.r ~J .~1
•
consideration. It is usually asso • 4 ... ".:" 0 ••• II
iated with the design storm.
T-Intersection - A three-leg inter .A.:.~ o.J ~ L...i.::. - ~ L.....:.... ~ L.i.:.

C)W,I
section in the general form of a ... T" .....;y j.S.:. ..,Js
itT".
Toe of Slope - The intersection of ..)~I ~L...i.::. - ..)~I pjA

a roadway embankment side slope I_~I -1._11 ..t...._ I
~ C-- CO~..r- ~ ~~I
with the original ground surface. •l.J"..)51.J
Topography - The configuration of 4.."..:..J.J1 ~..)L..,:,..:. - ......... I~.J-:'..,h-JI
~..)~'
the earth's surface, including the ~L.:..;. ~y J J5:;. ~.J.:l ~ L.....,.
shape and position of its natural . y L..:...a.J I J "'.:~ ... b.J I
and manmade features.
Topsoil - Surface soil, usually L.,., 4..)~ ~ "o"'-r - ".."b. II "O..,-..r-.JI

containing organic matter.
• 6...".~ ..)'y ~ ~~
Toxic Poisonous. • o...ol- "<l..)L... - ..... 1..
Tractive Resistance - Forces that J.,....L, ~1 L5..,...;.J' - u..,.........J1 LJu......J1
(
act to slow down or stop runaway .,;;, \ ..) L.,..-J \ .....; L...i.". , J 1 ' Lb...,- I ..,Js
vehicles such as air resistance, an • "J-r-J1 4...oJ Li..o ~ ii.. Ih· 11 0
upgrade, and the rolling resistance .(J-:;....JI ..).>-'l-") l?""'~~1 ..)I..b-...,;.~IJ
between the tires and the road sur 2'-J .,;;, I..) LJ,~, ~ wi ..)J")"')\ 4...0J Li..oJ
face. ....,."...;b-J ,
Traffic - All types of vehicles, .,;;,I..)~I C1.>-:.1 "UL5 - ..)J~I is?

together with their loads, either
singularly or as a whole, including
~ L....." 'C~ J' ' ~t
4")~ • y~~
pedestrians, using a roadway for

L... .. t...
~..r- r I .l>-.:..-l • 6 L..:...o.J 1 ill.:l
• J.j...:..J I d>~
the purpose of transportation.
Traffic Actuated Signal - A type of

CY - ..)J~I UL-J ~ J,.......:. -=-I..)UI
traffic control signal in which the

a....J.....;J..:..;.. 4.."..!.y:..J I ")J~\ .,;;, I ..) ~ , Lr"
length of most intervals and the
cycle, and in some types the se
• ~j.J1 .,;;,I..)J..)...)I J j."I..,..;.J1 F J..,.b
.....;J!..=.>L..,. .-,IJ..)~\ J-...1...=. cly~1 ~ ~J
quence of phasing, are varied by • ..)J~\ "<loS..;>";;' I .' Ih n ••
the demands of traffic.

(
66
Traffic Analysis Period - A common ~ 0~ - .,)J........-J I J..:.-.b,...:. "..,.,..:...J
analysis period (usually 20 years) o 1"~ (·o..)w....Jl ~ L.u T·) 4..A!.~
(- used in geometric design. .'r~~1 1',,,0"",11
Traffic Barriers - Roadside bar ~1.Y'" ~ ?'y- - .,)J........-JI ?'y

riers, median barriers, crash cush ..l!, L...JJ , J.,;hJ I k....J ~ ? I y-J , J.,;hJ ,
ions, and bridge parapets intended ~I .,)~l .,)I..>-'J'· ,c,L....~1 ~
to guide or protect traffic from ")J~' oS? ~L..",.. J' ..)L:..,)1 ...;..)~
roadside hazards, including colli dJ~ ~ L.........,. J?-JI ~Iy .,)Lh>.l v-o
sion with other vehicles. .. • LS.,?- ~ I c, I .,) L.".-.J L..." r'...lh.." ~ I
c,L::...j~
Traffic Control Devices - Signs, .,)J....-J I '0.$? ..h..,...; ..)-r.>- I
signals, markings, and devices ~ c, ~1J ,\J L.~J ,i."..!.Y \J I .,) ~ I J
placed or erected by proper author "';..)T'" 4 ......... a " c,Lh...L..J1 ~ Jt
ity having jurisdiction, for the 'oS? ..)L:. I

.,) J
1 J'-.f
.:u...::. J
t .I.:.. .....
r-=- 0
purpose of regulating, warning, or ''')J~I

guiding traffic.
Traffic Control Signal - An elec ~ )~ - ")J~I 'O.$?..h..,...; ".,)~I

J..) L..,...::....J L..." d;>.~J ~ L...".,);-S.J L..."
..
trically operated device by which 'oS?
traffic is alternately directed to , ~ I ...; L.:..!..::..-' J "';,.,.JY I ~ ")J~ I
stop and permitted to proceed by • ~ 1yA>-J ~ I ~J ~ 1...)-"'-"" ~, y I .j.,,-.,;-b L.Y
the display of red, yellow, and
green light indications.
Traffic Generators - Industrial , ~l..A..o.Jl '0.$..".-u J.."o...I,.,.:. w.s L.... t

plants, shopping centers, markets, ,JI..>-~IJ , ~.,)~' )SI ~IJ
universities, hospitals, holy 0SL....~ 'J \JI to .., • 'I J ,\JL....oL~_J1J
shrines, etc. • t-ll .. 'i.. ..D......J I
Traffic Island - An island provided k....J 1" LJ...::, 0J'-.f? - .,)J........-J I .....r-'?
in the roadway to separate or di , ")J~ 1 'oS? ~~ J' .j.,,-~ .j.,,-.,;hJ 1
rect streams of traffic; includes ...>...,,- ~J ,"." .", " ..;:-J'-.f? ,yo Jl5 ~J
both divisional and channelizing •\J 1.,) L>-..l1
islands.
Traffic Lane - That portion of the ~.,;-b..J 1 ,yo ~..:P.-..J' <!J..J ~ - ")J~ , ...,) L>
traveled way for the movement of a •\J I .,) L..,...-J , ,yo ...l> I J J..:> ~ ~ L5..i.J I
single line of vehicles.
Traffic Markings - A traffic con oS? r..

b·,'" I ~L...J - .,)J~' uL....~
( trol device consisting of lines,
patterns, words, symbols, or colors
J I J ~I J , 'L:...::. .,)J..r--'
_t..~ ,yo.........,
" ' .b..:r---
~ L..>-...r" 0 I ..,..J , J 1 , )y.,) J I ,\J L......J.s
. - 'I
on the pavement, or adjacent to the • O.,)'.Y'" ."J I J ' .j.,,-.,;hJ I ch...

roadway.
0~ .. 1\ ~'} I - ' . II . ~1
Traffic Noise Impacts - Impacts ~.,) .,)J...r-- ~.,)
that occur when the predicted ......:0 • ", - 1\
L.;r---'
- .~,;, 1\
~
d"
u~
,-,...::....:L.
. ,.,---~
L....~
-~
.~,;, 11 .. L..J---A . w....::.......
traffic noise levels approach or '-' .,"
.,),) . .. J I . - I I
.,)J..r----
exceed the design noise levels, or ..::.-~."..::..-... ...>...,,-y L....~ Jt , L..>-~I
when the predicted traffic noise LY 'O.b..rL o..)~) o.......J~, ~,
levels substantially exceed the • i...o.!. L...i.J I ..::.- ~."..::.-.....J I
existing noise levels.
Traffic Sign - A traffic control ~ I J-. L> J..,..J ~SY 4.::;.j ~ - .,)J..r" 4.::;.j ~
device mounted on a support above .~ UL....,) ~ ,.j.,,-.,;hJ' LS""'::"-'" v-o
the level of the roadway that con .) y .,;..J 1 J I ..::.- L...o....15..J L..,.
veys a specific message by means of
words or symbols.
\,
67
Traffic Volume - The number of ve ~ , ..::- , .,) L."...-.J' "').i< - .,)-,.,.r-e-II 'i.j~
hicles passing a given point during Lr" '~ '6? 0 L..:.\ L.o lb....i...:,
~
"
a specific period of time. • Lr"..:rJ I
(
Transition - A section of variable J >'"..T" ~...;b Lr" t.. LJ:,j J Li.:...:.1 Ub-:....
pavement width required when chang Lr" JLL::...:,'1' ~ t'~ ..,o~1 ~
ing from one width of traveled way ~, -,' J-.jl IS""';-' 6.,)l.> ~, 6.,)l.>
to a greater or lesser width. .LDy:
Transitional Lighting - The grad ~.,)...)..,;:,.JI 6 oLD'll - 4JLi.:...:.'11 •• LD'11

uated lighting in the transition 6'~ ~ Lr" A."..J~'11 ;;'b'oll ~
zone from a brightly lighted area .'~ ~ ~I 6~ 6.,)~L...,.
to darkness.
Transition Curve (Spiral) - A curve -,j ~ - (~.,.J) JLi.:...:.'11 ~

of variable radius intended to ef ~
" ~~~~..r-~
......) .. '- .1...'.
fect a smooth transition from tan .,) L.....o ~I ...) L:.-Il J , ~ '11 Lr" J LL::...:, '11
gent to curved alignment. .~
Transpiration - The emission or "

.,)~
" ~
·,'11..'1 -' '"L..s.-...:.I
'-'. -.11
L..r-'
exhalation of watery vapor from the
•
-' ' ~I 0 .,)-' I ch-' Lr" ~ La-ll
rfaces of leaves or other parts •..::- L::. L,..:..J I-' .,) '~ '1 , Lr" IS""';- '1 , 0 I .)-?- '1 ,
UL trees and plants. Transpiration Lr" .,) Lh.... '1 , 6 L"...o ~~ 0~ I J--1.i.".-,
reduces the runoff of rainwater • 6~1 L;bL.......J1
from vegetated areas.
Transverse - At right angle to the 6w....::,'11 (':-" ·~u 4.".-,1.) ~ - ..,o~

longitudinal direction. • ~yb-11
Traveled Way - The portion of the ~...AJ' Lr" 0 ~, illj - ...,.,...-J I .k>
roadway for the movement of vehi o L..:....:...::. L...,. ..::- , .,) L."...-.J I 6.$ r-I ~I
cles, exclusive of shoulders and • y.;--UI ..::-1.,) L:.-II-, ~4--l1
auxiliary lanes.
Travel Speed - The average speed J..,b ~ '6.>- ...-J 1 J.l..A..o -.;---II 6s ..r
along a section of street. It is L...-j J.., l.> Y -' . t...,) L:..J I Lr" t.. Lb.J
computed by dividing distance by .~I Lr".) ~ -UL......a.J1
travel time.
Travel Time - The total elapsed L.o...,. •~I ~.)-11 Y

...::.J I -...,.,...-J I Lr".)
~me of travel, including stops and
aelays, for a vehicle to travel
over a prescribed course and a spe
~
~...;b
LS~I
~ ~
'~'-'
• '6 ~ L....J 1 ...u...,....J I J

Lh>
Jy-iyl
L.
-'?
6.,) L"....
JJ:, ~ ~
~-1j ~
uJl..;. (
cified route under prevailing traf
fic conditions.
Travel Time Delay - The difference Lr"..:rJ' ~ 0...r"--l ' - ...,.,...-J I ? l.:. Lr".)
between actual travel time and .,r:-lJ ~ L2....o.J I Lr"..:rJ 1-' .,r:-lJ ~ I
ideal travel time under uncongested ~ t-.,. , ~ ~ .,)-'..T" "6.$? Jb ~
conditions, including deceleration ,'", t.....r-
.Jl-A-J'
, '1 I -' oLh...'11
' '--'---'
," IL -" 'I
v=->'-'-'
<!.LJj
and acceleration delays as well as .J-'"""y, ~ y.WI .y
stopped delay.
Traverse - In surveying, a series Lr" U-..L Y ,'4.>. L......a.J I ~ - .) ~ '1 ,

of interconnected straight lines. V"'Li.::.-' • d.h..,. I ~ I "6 •.! • ., • 11 ..b~,
The lengths of the lines and the ~ J I ~ '1 , L".I -'.)-' ..b.".h>-J I J 1yb ,
angles of deviation between them .,c'L.-..::..>'11

':'!.,) ",
_~.ll
c--.,)~
_1..- L.......j
..
are measured as the traverse devel
ops.
Trees - Large woody plants, usually o...)u 6~ ~ ..::-L::.L.,...:. - .,)~'11 (

with a single stem. . -l>.' -' t..:». L..rJ 0-'.$..". L.o
68
Triaxial Shear Test - A test in .)J~I ~)l:.J1 ~I .)~I
which a cylindrical specimen of ..:ro .• ~' -,h- I ..:;.. ~ .u.)l;. ~~ .) L.,...:.>.'
( soil, encased in an impervious mem

brane, is subjected to a confining
..b...St.D.J ,~
- . ". <
• ..)~
~ L..:.i . ---'
\"T"""
~ L",.)."..,..... j.......;....::
.u...w..., ........ .. II
• .....,.-
~ ~
pressure and then loaded axially to

failure.
Truck - A motor vehicle designed -,T J-,i...:...J .~ '•.) L"..- - 'L.:.. L:.
for the transportation of goods or
t-'--J'
'YL.> ~-' L-r=-.)-' ~j-,1-, • J I ~,
..:ro
material whose unladen weight ex . r'?~ 10" .r 'o..J~'
ceeds 3,500 kg.
Truck Combination - A truck tractor • '•.)~ ~-' ~ . ) ' ? - .,?U 'L.:..L:.

and a semitrailer, either with or • '• .)~ 0Y~ -' T ...J..., LS .•.)-,b....i........, Lo I
without full trailer, or a truck .~\ -,' ·u...LS '•.)~ '~L:. -,I
with one or more full trailers.
Trumpet Interchange An inter <.:- w.b L:i:.:..J, '-'- ~ ~b U.:; - ~.>-t ~ L.i.:,
change suitable for T-intersec T "-r" ~y ~ ~
tions.
~
Turning Lanes - Auxiliary lanes .
~ rLL::. Y~ <.:-'.)L> - ";Lb.£.;:l1 ..::..I.)L>
.. provided at erade intersections for JLk..sw), I ~ r..)';'- .. I LS~l <.:-L..bLi.:.
right- and left- turning movements. ..)L......"..J,-' ~l ~l
Turning Movement The traffic .•.)~ ....J...'~\ JLb.J...:.1 - ..;Lb.A:..I .Sy

making a designated turn at an .<.:-w.b Li.::.-ll ..1..>-\ ~ .• ~
intersection.
Turning Path - The path of a desig o.5...J....::. LS.:u' ..b...J , ..;Lb.A:..I ~

nated point on a vehicle making a r~ .~ '.b..L ~ '•.) L.".-.J I
specified turn. • J.l.:>..o ~ Lb....s...:. L"
Turning Roadway - A connecting .)-'~ J,a.Y' """',? - ..; Lb.A:..I ~,?

roadway for traffic turning between .cb Li.:. -.?.J."..,..... ~ ~ \
two intersection legs.
Turning Track Width - The radial 'u L......o.J \ - 0-::'-0' '•.) L,..-..J 1 ~..Y
l.>-::'.) Lb'11
distance between the turning paths ~..J-'>-U 0\.)-'.l..J' LS.}-?"-" ~ ....".~ ~ \
of the outside of the outer front ~~'-' .~L..o)'1 .)Lb'11 0-" Lr.'.JL>-J1
( tire and the outside of the rear

tire that is nearest the center of
the turn.
~\ ...,...,..,....)'\ ~I .)Lb'1\ ..:ro Lr.'.)L>-J\
• 0' .)-,.l..J \ .),5,yo
Typical Cross Section - A trans """,,,.,h-J ~~ t L.bJ - !.?..) L& ~

verse section of a proposed highway '~4-J' JL.....,.'11 .)~ L~ ~.J
showing the lateral dimensions and '~.).b.J..J '~~'1'-' '~yl J.A..:... -..JI-,
functional and structural elements
of the highway.
-U-
Underdrain - Porous or perforated ..~ -,t .o.".....L......... ·•.).>-Lo - ~.)I ..;~

pipe, or graded aggregate installed -,' ~I """'..}> ~ ~~ • J~ rLS.J -,f
under a roadway or shoulder to pro J ~ .- " .• ' J\ L.~
. . . : . t .. '..s....::..J "1... '\
0-::'.,.r-- c..i.:...S
vide subsurface drainage. 'r\~
Underpass - A grade separation ~ e...."..:,.. .)~ J,aU - ~ ~

where the highway passes under an -' 1 c-
.l..LJ..::....o ".1..
,-,",=,..,.,....
I ~ I
~ ~..r-
•. 'i, .. .1...
,-,",=,.,.r--
Il
I intersecting highway or railroad. • ·...... ~.h.Jl dS-.Ll.b..;..
\,
69
Undisturbed Sample - A sample that ~ J~I ,..::- ~ - 'L..,.....l- ~
has been obtained by methods in c.lJ:,~'1\ 4..jL5 ~ c..i>....:.1 ~l-."...."
which every precaution has been
taken to minimize disturbances to

the sample.
• Ly.y..".y:...::. 0-" ..b- ~ ..:11 ~I J... I;; - I I
(
Uniformity of Illuminance - The ~..)'11 ..h.J1 "il....,.-.:- - "4 -W'11 dL-.:.I
ratio of either the minimum illumi

..JI .(ll,:>?") "4'w'1l J..u..... ~I 6'wJlJ
nance to the average illuminance ..h.JI ~I 6'wV ~..)'11 ..h.JI "il....,.-.:
(Gl)' or the minimum illuminance to
.c:,Y'...JA ~f dY (Tl,:>?") 6'wV ~)f,
the maximum illuminance (G Z ) on the
pavement area.
Uniformly Graded - Material with a

~..)x. ~..)~ 6..)L. - ~, l::"""..)~1
uniform gradation from coarse to
• ~ L:..J 1 ~ I ~ 1 0-" L.i-...:.-.o
fine.
Uninterrupted Flow - A condition in

,-:-,.J.b.", '1 ~, 'U L>-J 1 - ~ '":' L.,,-.:.. I
which a vehicle traversing a sec 'il..) L>.J I 0-" u LhJ .) ~ ;;..) L".... 0-" L,..."..J
tion of a lane or roadway is not
..r ~..) L>. '-;-'-:<- '5.~ ~ ,) • ~...,.hJ 1 ..J I
requi red to s top by any cause ex
•
ternal to the traffic stream al
0~ A...:, I 0-" r-i
..r-l l ~ , ..)..J~ I 6.5...»
j>1..) 0-" "il....J<...,.L.. '-:-'L,.....~ c.1..)~1 c:,U-",1
tlgh vehicles may be stopped by
• ")..J~1 6.5...»
causes internal to the traffic
stream.
Unit Cost - The direct cost, in

direct cost, or total cost for a
..J \ ..r
6 ~ I 6...i...J.$..::.1 - 6..b-.rJ' ...i.".J LS..:.
'W~'11 ·il;' IS·. 1\ ..JI • 6y.L,...o...JI ~
specific service, product, or ac ~ ~ .b~..J1 6...P...J..,..J1 ....... ..b-J
tivity divided by a measure of c.l ..b- y -"J L..o.>. '11 ..)..\...9.J I ~ ")..l; ~
quantity such as total work units ••.)~' ,..::- '5.~1 J,....-....jl
completed.
Untreated Base Course - The layer

4.:...J 6...i-b
..J , 'U-,b
. - . L.A.A..l1 ~. ..r l.- '1 I .
or layers of base course without ~~ I ~ 1 0..J...L,. ..rl- '11 u..,..b c. L.:4b
mineral filler or asphaltic binder. .. • ~'11 rG-U1 ..JT
-V-
Vehicle - Every device, in, upon,
..J 1 ~ '5. 1 ~ 6..J1 '5.' - A...,..S...JA
"r by which any person or property
, or may be, transported or drawn
upon a highway (except devices used
..J \
~..) ~f
dY
L.y.J.>.1..)
'11 r~
.~
~
'1
~f 0-"
~,
L......"..) ..J 1 c.l S \-.••
c.'1'l1
..JI
I..l;
Yy
L.)
(
exclusively upon rails or tracks). • ( ...."...)."...h.J \ I.!.15.-J.J 0 L..,....D.J
Vented Dip - A stream crossing ~ .~ lS..»-" - r.:r.~t ..)1 ~I

formed by partially lowering the
"".,~·11
-:" .....r- ........ ·1..11
1"",T"'• ....r--
_h ...
C-- ~ i~,.
u..
.I.S·

highway grade for floods and pro 6..)~ ~~..J c.L..~1 .L".... Jt....,....:i.:.'1
viding a culvert for low water • 60;'';'' • 1\ .t..."......J1 .;...i~
flow.
Vertical Alignment See Profile • ~4-Jl ..)1 ~'11 pi - ~t..) ..)L-..

Grade.
Vertical Curve - A curve on the ~L>-JI ~ ~ - ~t..) ~

longitudinal profile of a road to '.. I . . . l ; L-......J . l . . 11 Ll.. 'I
~ ~ ..~..r-' 0-" IT..:r-
provide for change of gradient.
. J".....J' ~y l
(
70
Visibility - The quality or state '.oiIbL:..o.Jl 'L! ~ -,'
.•~.,.,..:- - '6..,..,j.,rJl lS..I..o
of being perceivable by the eye. ..l."...l...stJ1 ~ '6..,..,j..r-l'
lS...Lo ..)~-' o~L..,.
( In many outdoor applications, visi "-,;--1' ~ '!?~ ~I c-I 'i.! .. 6 -. II 0-"

bility is defined in terms of the L.o,~ ~ ~I 'u l-...A.J L..,. • .:;-.J.b.J I
distance at which an object can be o •• ..)~ , ~ L." Lo j""?" .• oiIb ~
just perceived by the eye.
Vista - A distant view seen from a .r oiIbL.:...". ..,..b...:..... - ~ J4--- ~ ~

highway. Moving Vista - a view ,.jb
..r"
cl---'I
:...r---- ~ -'
..).A .. II
~..J &<!...r
0 . . . L.
observed from a moving vehicle. o .. 05~ ....J L.."..... .r oiIb L.:..". LS:LJ I ~ I
Stationary Vista - a view seen from oiIbL.:...". ,!?:LJl ~I .J-'b ..::......,.~I ..)~'-'
a fixed place or location; such as -,' 6.>'~1 ~..::......,.L:. e:JY -,I 0L.S..o 0-"
from a rest area or scenic over o ~ ..,..b...:..... ~ Jh.". 0 L.S..o
look.
-W-
Wadi - A stream or watercourse that U4 0-'.$..". ~Lo LS...P'-" -,' J-,~ - ~..)1-,
is dry except during periods of ..b:i....::. ~
.. I c-\..,r::.-iJ I 1..).s; l....o (' L...s.J \ J' ,.,.b
rainfall. o ..J L.h...o ~ , L~
~
Waste - Excess earth, rock, vegeta -,' ..J~I -,' .~~~, - '6..,..L.L
tion, or other materials resulting J~I 0-" .•-.U>....::...o ..), Y '!?, -' I c- L.::. L,...:..J'
from highway construction. o .J..):>-J 1 • L..:...,
Water-Cement Ratio - The ratio of .•-".....$ ."-,..-..;. - ..::....:...0.-'11 ~I ·La...l1

'0....,..-..;.
the amount of water, exclusive only • (,L.5.,rJI L-y--,'~ ~l \..).s; Lo •• ~,
of that absorbed by the aggregates, -,I 'o.."...:.L.....,p-~.r ~~, o..".......s~,
to the amount of cement in a con l$.r ,.r-S-<; L;-,:--Jl .•..J L::. ~ , ~-' • .•..".,6)L,
crete or mortar mixture; prefer
.'.~
ably stated as a decimal by mass.
Water Table - The top of the zone 6...,...r=--J I -' • La...l1 ~ f,J"L..a..::...J I e::b
of permanent soil saturation. The L~ 0-'~ .•...ih:....o .r '!?.rW I •~,
water table may rise or fall sea ~~ .D-, . ("-,...LJI ~ .~ .•....,-y:.:...J\
sonally, or it may be drawn down by • L."....o.....Y ~ -,' '-:"~ crLo..::...JI ch-
removal of water by drainage struc oJ? ,~L:.' ~~ 0-" ~ ~..J -,'
tures.
Wearing Course (Surface Course) L"....l....Jl 'o...i-,.b-J I " _'" b 1\ 6...i,..b....J I
·,f The top layer of a pavement.
Weathering - The decomposition of ~ I-' •..J,y.-J I J-L",.::, -

.J.."...,.,.,......J,
'6..,..~ I
~..".b-lJ
J.,. , y
rock, shale, etc., because of the . ·6..,..y-J1 <J-.'..,.......Jl ~ c-J' .00 ~I
action of the weather.
Weaving - The crossing of traffic ~ ~, ..J-,.,.,......J' '.05.,.» ~ - c.~1

streams moving in the same general ~ ~ ,!?:LJl (''-'<JI .~~I ~ ~
direction accomplished by merging o •• ..).s;~I-' '•.J..:;..\~' -.;:,W~,
and diverging.
Weaving Sections - Highway segments ~..):>-J' .r c-u Lh...; - . c.,.,.......:-JI <.:.oLs u...;
where the pattern of traffic en ..J-'~ I '.o5.,.».b..o..:. '!?..)~ ..:....".... ~..r-l'
tering and leaving at contiguous ..) l...S..::. .h L.i..:.. ~ .~..J L>-.J, -' .0....1.;., ...LJ I
points of access results in vehicle ~ ('y ~I .c-W.,.,......J, ~ <.r-"~
paths crossing each other. -.;:,I..JL.."..... ('Lol ~..):>-J! ~ c-I..JL."..-JI
'LS..,p-t
Weephole - A hole through an abut -' I ~ ~ .~ - t.rL:..:...J I J-:t~ ~

ment or retaining wall to relieve ~',.,.....J' .b...i.D .r ,;,.! • .;. -. ) I ~..) ..J I ~
i\ hydrostatic pressure. o ( '0.."..::. L.::....-'..J ..l.".~.-J' )
71
Well Graded - Aggregate material of c-~ .r ·~LS..> 4..)Lo - J..:...:>.J\ 4~
varying particle sizes that pro .r ..>..).j ~, ~ rL>->-'11 ~

duce maximum density when mixed. '~j-o ~ u~1
C",I ", II ..l...,...l>.'

., ( ) -~
", L..S...I-
-
.. u......:
.
(
Wire Mesh - A network of wires used
as distributed reinforcement in . ~L-.?-l' 'i".~ IT" r~
concrete.
Working Drawings - Stress sheets, c-Lo..>-..> •..)-r-:--J I ~ I ..>J I - ~I .:;. L..>-..>

shop drawings, erection plans,
~,
..b.b.> • \.." ." II ..b.b.> • .r..>."..J ,
falsework plans, framework plans,
'J\...os 1 ..b.b.> • 4..::...:j~1 ~L.:....:.'11
cofferdam plans, bending diagrams ~ 4...::...i~, ..)J..l-JI ..b.b.> • ...,..J'..,....ul
..1..,....l>. ~ ~L.....,. ~~ • ~~,
for reinforcing steel, or any other
supplementary plans or similar data c-~~ 'J' 4" J" .S", .hb. I?, I J' ~1
~I ~-'..i.::. JJ Li......J1 .r ,:-,."..Jh... 4~ L....o
that the O:>ntractor is required to
submit to the Engineer for approv •~ iU..i'~ ~~1
al.
..,...~ r..)';''' • II ..>..l-UI - ~\ • ..l>.J
Work Unit - A quantity used as a
• ..)..b-o .b L.Z....:.-I ~
measure of work for a specific ac
ti vity.
-Y
Yield (Concrete) - The ratio of the

volume of a mixture produced to
that which theoretically should be
~~ ~ '6..,.......:.- (~L-?) ~
.~ 01 ~ I?,.:.ul ~I ~ ~I
()-"
• '~~I d."...>.L..:...J\
•
produced.
Y-Intersection - A three-leg inter - Y "I?, 1J" J y JS;. ~ ~.)> ~ L..i.:.

section in the general form of a ~ rL.st.J I .u..s...:...>J L>-o '~~ .r ~ Li..::.
lIy". • "1?,'J"...;y ~
(
72
Section 1.01 General
( \
Part 1 of Volume 2 describes the various design Section 1.12 Traffic Control Plans
elements that constitute the total roadway Section 1.13 Control of Traffic Through
composition. The elements discussed in this Construction
part are as follows: Section 1.14 Roadside Development
Section 1.02 Design Speed Section 1.15 Traffic Barriers
Section 1.03 Highway Capacity and Level Section 1.16 Sand Dune Control
of Service Section 1.17 Tunnel Design
Section 1.04 Access Control The purpose of Part 1 is to provide uniformity
Section 1.05 Geometric and Structure in the various classes of roadways in the King
Standards dom, giving the road user a consistent expec
Section 1.06 Geometric Cross Section tancy in operation. The various sections dis
Section 1.07 Grade Intersections cuss design element selection and provide
Section 1.08 Interchanges design standards to assure the required uni
Section 1.09 Structural Design of Flexible formity. Adherence to these standards along
Pavements with sound engineering judgment will provide
Section 1.10 Hydraulic Design
,
a safe, fast, and economical facility compatible
Section 1.11 Highway Lighting with its environment.
.A":;-;"
f'J
':t.
(
f
\
73
1.02 )
Section 1.02 Design Speed
(
A. Selection The running speed is the speed of a vehicle
over a specified section of highway, being the
1. Speed
distance traveled divided by the running time
The value of a transportation facility in carry (the time the vehicle is in motion). One means
ing people and goods is judged by its conven of obtaining an equivalent average running
ience and economy, which are directly related speed on an existing facility where flow is rea
to its speed. The speed of vehicles depends, in sonably continuous is to measure the spot
addition to capabilities of the drivers and their speed.
vehicles, upon four general conditions: (1) the
physical characteristics of the highway and its The average spot speed is the arithmetic mean
roadsides, (2) the weather, (3) the presence of of the speeds of all traffic at a specified point.
other vehicles, and (4) the speed limitations For short sections of highway where speed
(either legal or because of control devices). Al characteristics do not vary that much, the av
though anyone of these may govern, the ef erage spot speed may be considered as being
fects of these conditions are usually combined. representative of the average running speed.
On longer stretches of rural highway, spot
The aim in design of the roadway is to satisfy speeds measured at several points, where each
the demands for service in the safest and most represents the speed characteristics pertinent
economical manner. In applying this principle
c
to a selected segment of highway, may be aver
to the design of highways, with particular ref aged (taking relative lengths into account) to
erence to speed demands, provision should be represent the average running speed.
made for a speed that satisfies nearly all
drivers. Only a small percentage of drivers After measuring average running speeds at
travel at extremely high speed, and it is not various locations along a section of roadway,
economically feasible to design for them. They the designer can identify those locations in
can use the highway, of course, but must travel similar terrain where speeds are not uniform
at speeds somewhat less than they consider with the rest of the section and make decisions
desirable. On the other hand, the speed, !-Josen for improvements. The average running speed
for design should not be so low that most may be converted to design speed from the
drivers would tend to exceed the speed and following Table 1.02.1.
involve themselves in unsafe situations. Table 1.02.1
Speeds should be consistent with driver expec Relation Between Design Speed and Average
tations. Speeds for similar types of highways Running Speed
are generally lower in rugged terrain and Design Speed Average Running Speed
densely developed urban areas than in open km/hr km/hr
terrain and sparse development. Drivers can 50 45
recognize the logic of this from the appearance 60 53
of the terrain and development along the 70 61
route. They generally will adjust their speeds 80 68

to the character of the alignment and the fea 90 75
tures of the area, if the design is appropriate to 100 81
the area and the design features are consistent. 110 88
Where the design speed is high, the design is 120 94
usually reasonably consistent over the length 130 100
of the section to which the design speed ap 140 106
plies. With lower design speeds there can be a
substantial problem if portions of the align A study of the apparent design speeds of vari
ment are suitable for speeds that are signifi ous locations along the section of roadway will
cantly higher than the design speed of the allow the designer to select the one design
highway. speed for uniform improvements that best
meets the economic and environmental
2. Running Speed constraints applicable to that section of road
Many existing highways have been designed way.
and constructed over a number of years with a
3. Design Speed
considerable range of speeds. Programs to up
grade these highways will require the designer Design speed is the maximum safe speed that
to study the existing running speeds, and from can be maintained over a specified section of
these running speeds, select appropriate design highway when conditions are so favorable that
(
speeds that will improve the highway through the design features of the highway govern. The
assumed design speed should be a logical one
uniform standards.
75
1.02 B
with respect to the topography, the adjacent curves that change the design speed by 10 km
land use, and the class of highway. Except for per hour through 800 m.
urban, local streets where speed controls are

frequently included intentionally, every effort
should be made to use the desirable design
Where it is necessary to reduce design speed,
many drivers may not perceive the lower speed
condition ahead, and it is important that they
speeds shown in Tables 1.02.2 and 1.02.3 to

be warned well in advance. The changing con
attain a desired degree of safety, mobility, and

dition should be indicated by such controls as
efficiency while under the constraints of envi

speed-zone signs and curve-speed signs. On ur
ronmental quality, economics, aesthetics, and

ban arterial streets the design speed control
social or political impacts.

applies to a lesser degree than on other high
Once selected, all of the pertinent features of type highways. On rural highways or on high
the highway should be related to the design type urban facilities, a certain percentage of
speed to obtain a balanced design. Desirable vehicles are able to travel at or near the safe
design values should always be selected unless speed determined by geometric design ele
the MaC approves lesser values. Some fea ments, but on arterial streets the top speeds for
tures, such as curvature, superelevation, and several hours of the day are limited or regu
sight distance are directly related to, and vary lated to that at which the recurring peak
appreciably with, design speed. Other features, volumes can be handled.
such as widths of pavements and shoulders,

Speeds are governed by the presence of other
are not directly related to design speed, but

vehicles traveling en masse, both in and across,
•
they affect vehicle speed, and higher standards
the through lanes and by control devices
;d be accorded these features for the

rather than by the physical characteristics of
higher design speeds. Thus, when a change is

the street. During periods of low-to-moderate
made in design speed, nearly all design ele

volume, speeds are governed primarily by
ments of the highway are subject to change.
speed limits and control devices. When arterial
Although the selected design speed automati street improvements are being planned, the de
cally establishes the maximum degree of curva sign speed should be considered with factors
ture and minimum sight distance necessary for such as speed limits, physical and economic
safe operation, there should be no restriction constraints, and the likely running speeds that
on the use of flatter horizontal curves or can be attained during off-peak hours.
greater sight distances where such improve
ments can be provided as a part of economic B. Design Speed Standards
design. Even in rugged terrain, an occasional The standards in Tables 1.02.2 and 1.02.3 re
tangent or flat curve may be proper. These late to the design classes in HDM-I-2.02. The
would not necessarily encourage drivers to in designer must select the appropriate design
crease their speed, but if a succession of them speed based on his knowledge of the class of
were introduced, drivers would naturally re highway planned, the character of terrain, traf
sort to higher speeds. A substantial length of
•
fic volumes, and economic considerations.
tangent between sections of curved alignment
is apt to encourage high-speed operation. Geometric design features should be consistent :,
_.,.:se situations should be avoided since with a design speed selected as appropriate for
drivers will then tend to overdrive the section environmental and terrain conditions. Low de ',-.
of roadway. Therefore, the alignment must be sign speeds are generally applicable to high
generally compatible with the selected design ways with winding alignment in rolling or
speed to allow for consistency of driver expect mountainous terrain, or where environmental
ancy. conditions dictate. High design speeds are gen
erally applicable to highways in level terrain,
A pertinent consideration in selecting design or where other environmental conditions are
speeds is the average trip length. The longer favorable.
the trip, the greater the desire for expeditious

movement. In design of a substantial length of In the typical street grid for urban locals and
highway, it is desirable, \... here feasible, to collectors, closely spaced intersections usually
assume a constant design speed. Changes in limit vehicular speeds and thus design speeds
terrain and other physical controls may dictate have little significance. Nevertheless, the
a change in design speed on certain sections. If longer sight distances and curve radii commen
so, the lower or higher design speed should not surate with the desirable design speed result in
be introduced abruptly but should be effected safer highways and shall be used to the extent
practical.
•
over sufficient distance to permit drivers to
change speed gradually before reaching this Rural arterials are designed primarily for fast
section of highway. A rule of thumb for reduc and safe movement of high volumes of traffic. '
ing or increasing design speed is to introduce To provide this service, desirable design speeds .- .,
76
1.02 B
are required. Since portions of the arterial *To provide a general basis of reference be
system pass through villages and small cities, tween terrain and geometric design, three
minimum standards may be necessary to fit classifications of terrain have been established,
local conditions. as defined below.
Because of varying situations that the designer • Flat: Level to moderately rolling. This ter
faces in the design of urban arterials, he must rain offers few or no obstacles to the con
determine the degree of interruption that can struction of a highway having continuously
be expected before selecting the proper design unrestricted horizontal and vertical align
speed. Table 1.02.3 contains the design speeds ment.
applicable for three separate conditions for ur • Rolling: Hills and foothills. Slopes rise and
ban arterials. The three conditions are as fol fall gently but occasional steep slopes may
lows: offer some restriction to horizontal and ver
• Outlying sections that approach rural condi tical alignment.
tions. • Mountainous: Rugged foothills, high steep
• Areas with minimal interruptions or con drainage divides, and mountain ranges.
trolled access. Terrain classification pertains to the general
• Areas of high volumes and considerable character of the specific route corridor. Roads
interruptions, such as found in downtown in valleys or passes of mountainous areas may
areas. have all the characteristics of roads traversing
flat or rolling terrain and should be classified
The highest type of highway is the expressway.
~
\
Essential expressway elements include
as flat or rolling rather than mountainous. Re
gardless of topographic features, different ter
medians, grade separations at cross streets,
rain type classifications shall not be introduced
ramp connections for entrance to and exit
more often than every 15 km.
from the travel lanes (for interchange of traf
fic), and (in some cases) frontage highways. Table 1.02.3
Design Speed for Urban Highways (km/hr)
As a general rule, the design speed of urban

expressways should reflect the desired safe op Class Desirable Minimum
erating speed during non peak hours. But the 50 30
Local
speed should not be so high that it exceeds the
Collector 60 50
limits of prudent construction, right-of-way,
and socioeconomic costs, because a large pro Arterial
portion of vehicles are accommodated during Outlying 100 80
periods of peak flows when lower speeds are Minimal Interruption 90 70
necessary. Considerable
Interruption 60 50
Tables 1.02.2 and 1.02.3 depict design speeds 120 90
Expressway
for the various classes of urban and rural high
ways. Both desirable and minimum speeds are
shown .
.-1" Table 1.02.2
-t, Design Speed for Rural Highways (km/hr)
Class ·Terrain Type Desirable Minimum
Local Flat 90 70
Rolling 80 60
Mountainous 60 30
Collector Flat 90 80
(ADT (20) Rolling 80 60
Less Than
2,000) Mountainous 60 50
Collector Flat 100 80
(ADT (20) Rolling 90 80
2,000-4,000) Mountainous 70 60
Arterial Flat 120 100
Rolling 120 100
Mountainous 100 70
Expressway Flat 140 110
Rolling 130 110
\,
Mountainous 100 80
77
1.03 A
Section 1.03 Highway Capacity and

Level of Service
( A. Design Elements used for design. Table 1.03.2 should be used as
a guide for selecting a level of service.
The relationship of the type of highway, loca
tion, traffic characteristics, and level of service Once a level of service has been selected for a
is summarized in Table 1.03.1. The highest fea facility, it is essential that all elements of the
sible level of service should be selected and roadway are consistently designed to this level.
Table 1.03.1
Level of Service Characteristics by Highway Type
Level of Multilane Rural
Controlled Access Highway Two Lanes Urban and Suburban Arterials
Service Without Access Control
Free flow. Operaling speeds at Operating speed 95 km/h or great- Operating speeds of95 km/h Average overalilravel speed of
or greater than 95 km/h. Service er. Under ideal conditions, vol- ar higher. 75 percent of 50 km/h or more. Free flowing
volume of 1,400 vph on two lanes, ume is limited h\!>OO vph or 30 passing maneuvers can be with volumelcapacity ratio of
A one direction. Each additional percent of capacity. Average made with little or no 0.60. Load factor al intersec-
Jane serves volume of 1,00'J vph speeds are likely to be influ- delay. Under ideal conditions near the limit of the 0.0
lane. enced by speed limits. tions, a servIce volume range. Peak-hour factor at about
i of 400 vph, two-way, 070.
:"'"
~
Higher speed range of stable
flow. Operating speed at great-
er than 90 km/h. Service volume
Beginningofstable flow area.
Volume at which actions ofpre-
ceding vehicle will have some
can be achieved.
OperatIng speeds of80 km/h
or higher. Volumes may
reach 45 percent of capacity
Average overall speeds drop due
to intersection delay and inter-
vehicular conflicls, but remain
on two lanes in one direction influence on following vehicles. with continuous passing at 40 km/h or above. Delay is
B not greater than 2.00'J vph. Volume will not exceed 50 per- sighl distance. Volumes of not unreasonable. Volumes at 70
Each additional lane above cent of capacity of I,OO'J vph 900 vph, two-way, can be percent of capacity and peak-hour
two in one direction can serve at a 90 km/h operaling speed carried under ideal conditions. factor approximately 0.80. Load
1,500 vph. under ideal conditions. factor at intersections approxi-
mately 0.1.
Operation still stable, but be- Stable flow to a volume not Flow still stable. Operating Service volumes about 0.8D of
coming more critical. Operating exceeding 75 percent of capacity speeds of 65 km/h or above capacity. Average overall
speed of 80 km/h and service flow of 1,500 vph, under ideal with total volume under ideal travel speeds oflO km/h. Operat-
on two lanes in one direction at conditions maintaining at least conditions equal to 70 per- ing conditions at most interscc-
C 75 percent of capacity or not a 70 km/h operating speed. cenl of capacity with cantin- tions approximate load factor
more than 5 min. flow rate of uous passing sight distance, of 0.1. Peak-hour factor approx-
3,OO'Jvph. Under ideal or 1,400 vph. two-way imately 0.85. Traffic flow still
conditions each additional slable with acceptable delays.
lane above 11"0 in one direction
would serve 1.800 vph.
Lower speed range of stable flow. Approaching unstable flow at Approaching unstable flow. Beginning to tax capabilities of
Operation approaches instability volume up t090 percent of Operating speeds approxi. street section. Approaching
and is susceptible to changing cap~city of 1,800 vph at an mately 55 km/h. Volumes, unstable flow. Service volumes
conditions. Operating speeds I operating speed of about 55 km/h two-direction, at 85 percent approach 90 percent ofcapacity.
0 approx. 65 km/h and service flow under ideal conditions. of capacity with continuous Average overall speeds down to
rates at 90 percent of capacity. passing opportunity, or 25 km/h. Delays at intersections
Peak 5 min. flow under ideal 1,700 vph under ideal conditions. may become extensive with some
.~~ condition cannot exceed 3,600 cars waiting two or mare cycles.
vph for two-lanes, one direction; Peak-hour factor approximately
I ,ROO vph for each added lane. 0.90; load factor of 0.7.
Unstable flow. Overall operating Flow at 100 percent of capacity Operating speeds in neighbor- Service volumes at capacity.
speeds ofSO-55 km/h. Volumes at or 2,00'J vph under ideal hood of SO km/h but may vary Average overall traffic varia-
capacity of2,00'J vph lane under conditions. Operating speeds considerably. Volumes under ble. but in area of25 km/h. Un-
E ideal conditions. Traffic flow of about 50 km/h or less. ideal conditions, two-way, stable flow. Continuous backup
metered by design constructions equal to 2,00'J vph. on approaches to intersections.
and bottlenecks, but long backups Level E may never be attained Load factor at intersections in
do not normally develop upstream Operations may go directly range between 0.7 and 1.0. Peak-
from Level D to Level F. hour factor likely to beO.95.
Forced flow. Expressway acts as Forced flow, congested condition Forced, congested flow with Forced flow. Average overall
a storage for vehicles backed up with widely varying volume char- unpredictable characteris- traffic speed below 25 km/h. All
from downstream bottleneck. acteristics. Operating speeds tics. Operating speeds less intersections handling traffic in
F Operating speeds range from ofIess than 50 km/h. I than 50 km/h. Volumes under excess of capacity with storage
near 50 km/h to stop-and-go 2,00'J vph. two-way. distributed throughout the sec-
operation. tion. Vehicular backups extend
back from signalized intersec-
tions, through unsignalized
intersections.
<
79
1.03 B
General operating conditions for levels of Values for ~ for undivided highways are
service: c
taken from Table 1.03.4. Values for T are the
A-Free flow; low volumes and high speeds.
B-Stable flow; speeds beginning to be re
same as for expressways and are given in Ta
bles 1.03.3 and 1.03.5. Values for W depend on
(
stricted by traffic conditions. whether the highway is divided or undivided.
c- Unstable flow zone; most drivers re For undivided highways, these are given in Ta
stricted in freedom to select their own ble 1.03.6 and for divided highways in Table
speed. 1.03.7.
D-Approaches unstable flow; drivers have
little freedom to maneuver. Example
E- Flow is unstable; may be short Find the number of lanes required at level of
stoppages. service C in the uphill direction of an
undivided rural highway at the end of a 1.0 km
Table 1.03.2
long, 3-percent grade. The average highway
Guide for Selection of Design
speed is 100 km/h, lane width is 3.65 m and
Levels of Service
trucks constitute 7 percent of the one-way de
Type of Area and
sign hour volume (DHV) of 2,000 vehicles per
Highway
Appropriate Level of Service
hour (v/h). There is a 1.0 m wall located 1.5 m
Type from the edge of the traveled way.
Rural Rural Rural Urban and
Level Rolling Mountainous Suburban Solution
~,.mary
Secondary
Feeder
B
C
D
C
D
B
B. Multilane Rural Highways

C
C
D
C
C
D
SV = 2,000 N ( ~) T W
c
Since the service volume is dependent on the
number of lanes, the procedure adopted is to
assume a ,value for N, solve for SV, and com
pare with the given DHV.
•
Multilane rural highways (those with four or Assume N = 2
more lanes) mayor may not have full control
of access and may be divided or undivided. v
- = 0.60 (Table 1.03.4)
The analysis of these highways differs from c
that for urban expressways in that the peak T = 0.70 (Tables 1.03.3, 1.03.5)
hour factor (PHF) is not considered as a varia W = 0.99 (Table 1.03.6)
ble, and the service volumes per lane are some SV = 2,000 x 2 x 0.60 x 0.70 x 0.99 = 1,663 v/h
what lower for each level of service in the case This is less than the demand volume of 2,000
of undivided highways. Divided multilane vehicles per hour (v/h). Therefore, the service
rural highways, including expressways, are an volume must be recalculated using a higher
alyzed in accordance with the procedures de value for N.
scribed for expressways, 2-1.03D.
Assume N = 3
~
service volume (SV) of all multilane high
-cv
ways is given by
SV = 2,000 N ( ~) T W
c T
= 0.60 (Table 1.03.4)
= 0.70 (Tables 1.03.3,1.03.5)
(
where SV = Service volume (one direction) W = 0.99 (Table 1.03.6)
for a given level of service SV = 2,000 x 3 x 0.60 x 0.70 x 0.99 = 2,495 v/h
N = Number of lanes in each direc This is greater than the demand volume.'
tion Therefore, three lanes are required in the up
~ = Service volume to capacity ratio hill direction to provide the required level of
c
T = Adjustment for trucks on grades service.
(truck adjustment factor)
W = Adjustment for width and lateral
clearance
80
Table 1.03.3
Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks and/or Buses on Multilane Highways,
( On Specific Individual Subsections or Grades
Grade Length of Passenger Car Equivalent Levels of Service A Through C

(%) Grade (km) 3% Trucks 5% Trucks 10% Trucks 15% Trucks 20% Trucks
0-1 All 2 2 2 2 2
2 0.5 4 4 4 3 3
1.0 6 5 5 4 4
1.5 7 5 5 4 5
2.0 7 5 5 5 6
3.0 7 6 6 6 6
4.0 7 7 7 7 7
5.0 7 7 8 8 8
6.0 7 7 8 8 8
3 0.5 10 8 5 4 3
1.0 10 8 5 5 4
1.5 10 8 6 5 6
2.0 10 9 7 6 6
3.0 10 9 8 7 8
&c
4*
4.0
5.0
0.5
10
10
12
10
10
9
9
10
5
9
10
4
9
10
4
1.0 12 9 6 6 6
1.5 12 10 7 7 8
2.0 12 10 9 9 9
3.0 12 11 11 11 11
4.0 12 11 12 12 12
5.0 12 12 13 13 13
6.0 12 13 15 15 14
5** 0.5 13 10 6 5 4
1.0 13 tl 8 7 8
1.5 13 12 9 9 10
2.0 13 13 11 11 11
3.0 13 14 14 14 13
4.0 13 15 16 IS IS
* Values with dot (-). add 1 for service levels D and E.
** For 6-percent grade. add 1 (upprox.) to E, values for 5-percent grade.
(\
81
Table 1.03.4
Levels of Service and Maximum Service Volumes for Multilane Highways,
Undivided and/or Without Access Control, Under Uninterrupted Flow Conditions
(Normally Representative of Rural Operations) (
Maximum Service Volume Under

Traffic Flow Conditions Service Volume/Capacity ( ! ) Ratio
c Ideal Conditions, Including
120 km/h AHS (Total Passenger
Basic Approximate Working Cars Per Hour, One Direction)
Limiting Value for Restricted
Level
Operating Value i AHSof Four·Lane Hwy. Six-Lane Hwy. Each
Of Speed; For AHS (Two Lanes, (Three Lanes, Additional
Service Description km/h of 120 km/h 100 km/h 80 km/h One Direction) One Direction) Lane
A Free Flow ;" 100 ""o.30 - ii - ii 1,200 1,800 600
B Stable Flow
(Upper Speed
Range) ;,,90 ""0.50 ""0.20 - ii

2,000 3,000 1,000
C Stable Flow ;,,70 ""0.80 ""o.60 ""0.30 3,200 4,800 1,600
D Approaching
Unstable Flow
;" 55 ""0.95 ""0.90 ""0.70 3,800 5,700 1,900
Eiii Unstable Flow 50iv "" 1.00 4,000 6,000 2,000
F Forced Flow ",,50 iv Not Meaningful V
Widely Variable (0 to Capacity)
~perating speed and basic ~ ratio are independent measures of level of service: both limits must be satisfied in any
aeterminatiOIl of level. C
;; Operating speed required for this level is Ilot attainable even at low volumes.
iii Capacity.
i' Approximately.
v Demand ~ ratio may well exceed 1.00. indicating overloading.
c
•
Table 1.03.5
Adjustment Factors for Trucks and Buses on Individual Roadway Subsections or Grades
On Multilane Highways
Passenger Truck Adjustment Factor T

Car
Percentage of Trucks, P T or of Buses, P B of
Equivalent,
E T or En 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
2 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.83
3 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71
4 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63
5 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.56
6
7
0.96
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.91
0.89
0.87
0.85
0.83
0.81
0.80
0.77
0.77
0.74
0.74
0.70
0.71
0.68
0.69
0.65
0.67
0.63
0.63
0.58
0.59
0.54
0.56
0.51
0.58
0.53
0.48
0.50
0.45
(
8 0.93 0.88 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42
9 0.93 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38
10 0.92 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.69 0.65 0.61 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36
11 0.91 0.83 0.77 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.38 0.36 0.33
12 0.90 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.31
13 0.89 0.81 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.41 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.29
14 0.88 0.79 0.72 0.66 0.61 0.56 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28
15 0.88 0.78 0.70 0.64 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.26
{
\
82
Table 1.03.6
Combined Effect of I~ane Width and Restricted Lateral Clearance on Capacity and
Service Volumes of Undivided i Multilane Highways with Uninterrupted Flow
Adjustment Factorii, W, for Lateral Clearance and Lane Width

Obstruction on Right Side Only
Of One·Direction Traveled Way
Distance
(Includes Allowance for Obstructions on Both Sides of
From Edge Opposing Traffic on Left) One-Direction Traveled Wayiii,iv
Traveled
War (m) Lane
Width
3.65 3.50 3.25 3.65 3.50 3.25
(m)
Four-Lane Undivided Highway, One Direction of Travel
2.0 1.00 0.98 0.94 NA NA NA
1.5 0.99 0.97 0.92 NA NA NA
1.0 0.97 0.95 0.91 NA NA NA
0.5 0.94 0.91 0.88 0.93 0.90 0.87
0 0.89 0.87 0.84 0.81 0.80 0.77
Six-Lane Undivided Highway, One Direction of Travel
•
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
1.00
1.00
0.99
0.97
0.95
0.98
0.97
0.96
0.94
0.92
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.90
0.88
NA
NA
NA
0.96
0.91
NA
NA
NA
0.93
0.89
NA
NA
NA
0.88
0.85
; Divided highways. one directio'l of travel. use adjustment factors from Table 1.03.12.
ii Same adjustments for capacity and all levels of service.
iij Appropriate for use only where normally undivided roadway is temporarily separated into two roadways by
obstruCfions such as median barriers. bridge s'tructural clements. piers, and the like, which are closer than would he
the opposing traffic.
J' .\'.4 is "not applicable." Use adjustment of obstruction all rig/It side only. [n these cases clearance is lemporarily
greater than the usual separation from opposing Traffic but adjustment for this temporary improvement is not feasible.
Table 1.03.7
Combined Effect of I~ane Width and Restricted Lateral Clearance on Capacity and
Service Volumes of Divided Multilane Highways with Uninterrupted Flow
~
\e~- ..
Adjustment Factor i , W, for Lane Width and Lateral Clearance
Obstruction on One Side of Obstructions on Both Sides of
Distance One-Direction Roadway One·Direction Roadway
From Traffic
Lane Edge
3.65 m 3.50 m 3.25 m 3.65 m 3.50 m 3.25 m
To Obstruction.
(m)
Four-Lane Divided Highwar, One Direction of Travel
2.0 1.00 0.99 0.96 1.00 0.99 0.96
1.5 1.00 0.98 0.95 0.99 0.98 0.94
1.0 0.98 0.97 0.93 0.97 0.93 0.91
0.5 0.96 0.94 0.90 0.92 0.90 0.87
0 0.91 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.80 0.78
Six· and Eight-Lane Divided Highway, One Direction of Travel
2.0 1.00 0.99 0.95 1.00 0.94 0.89
1.5 1.00 0.98 0.93 0.99 0.93 0.87
1.0 0.99 0.96 0.92 0.98 0.91 0.85
0.5 0.97 0.94 0.91 0.96 0.89 0.83
0 0.94 0.93 0.90 0.92 0.85 0.81
;Same adjustments for capacity and all levels of service.
\.
83
1.03 C
C. Two-Lane Highways • Capacity
1. General SV = 2,000 ( ~) T W
Service volumes and capacities for two-lane
highways are always both directions without
v
- = 1.0 (Table 1.03.8)
(
c
regard to the distribution of volume by direc
T = 0.56 (Table 1.03.9)
tion.
W = 0.67 (Table 1.03.12)
The procedure for the analysis of two-lane Capacity SV = 2,000 X 1.0 X 0.56 x 0.67
highway is expressed in the basic equation: = 750 v/h total both directions
SV = 2,000 ( ~ ) T W
2. Passing Opportunity
For purpose of capacity analysis it is assumed
where SV = Service volume in vehicles per that passing opportunities (PO) may occur
hour (total for both directions) only when the passing sight distance (SD) is
greater than 450 m. This distance is measured
~ = Service volume to capacity ratio
from height of driver's eye (1.05 m above pave
T = Adjustment for trucks on grades ment surface) to the height of object (1.36 m).
(truck adjustment factor)
W = Adjustment for width and lateral Availability of PO is expressed as a percentage
clearance of the length of highway in which the SD is
450 m or more. It is important to remember
•
'T'1,~ value ~ depends on average highway that the 450 m from driver's eye to pavement
c surface, past which the SD becomes less than
s1!eed, level of service, and percentage of avail 450 m, should not be included in the length of
able passing opportunity greater than 450 m. roadway on which PO is available. (See Figure
1.03.1 ).
Values for the ~ ratio are given in Table

c Ordinarily, the SD along a highway will vary
1.03.8. Values T for various percentages of continually. Where the SD remains 450 m con
trucks and character of terrain are given in tinuously along an extended length of road
Table 1.03.9. These are generalized adjustment way, as across the inside of a long horizontal
factors for the use in the analysis of extended curve in a cut section, the percentage of availa
lengths of a two-lane highways that may in ble PO would effectively be less than 100 per
clude a number of different grades. cent because some of the drivers would not
For the analysis of an individual subsection of take advantage of opportunities to pass. It is
a two-lane highway having a specific grade and considered that all drivers will take advantage
length of grade, the passenger car equivalent is of passing opportunities only when the contin
found from Table 1.03.10 and used to find T uous SD reaches approximately 600 m. The
from Table 1.03.11. numbers in Table 1.03.13 suggest a rational
basis for determining the effective percentage
Values of W for levels of service Band E are of available passing opportunities where the
Al,tained directly from Table 1.03.12. Values SD is limited continuously to one valve.
other levels of service are found by

interpolation. The value for percentage of available SD (
greater than 450 m as used in capacity analyses
Example in the average of the percentages for each di
Determine the service volume at level of serv rection. On sufficiently long sections, however,
ice C and the capacity of a section of a two the available passing opportunities will be
lane highway, AHS=80 km/h with 50 percent nearly the same in either direction and averag
PO available. The traveled way is 6.0 m with a ing is seldom necessary.
0.5 m lateral clearance on each side. The sec 3. Climbing Lane Sections
tion is in rolling terrain and trucks constitute
20 percent of the traffic. Sections of a two-lane highway that include an
uphill climbing lane may be analyzed in the
• Solution
same manner as ordinary two-lane sections,
Level of Service C
with some modification of the procedures for
SV = 2,000 ( ~) T W
determining the percentage of available pass
ing opportunities and the truck adjustment
v factor T.
- = 0.38 (Table 1.03.8)
c
Trucks in the uphill climbing lane have no
T = 0.56 (Table 1.03.9)
effect on the capacity of the free uphill lane
W = 0.62 (Table 1.03.12 interpolated)
SV = 2,000 X 0.38 X 0.56 X 0.62
and may be disregarded when determining the

truck adjustment factor. Generally, it is suffi (
264 v/h total both directions
84
Table 1.03.8
Levels of Service and Maximum Service Volumes for Two-Lane Highways,
( Under Uninterrupted Flow Conditions
(Normally Representative of Rural Operation)
Service VOlume/Capacit y( ~) Ratio Maximum Service

Volume Under Ideal
Working Value for
Basic Conditions Including
Traffic Flow Conditions Restricted Average
Limiting 120 km/h AHS.
Highway Speed ii of
Level Operating Passing Value!>" for Passenger Cars, Total,
Of Speed i , Opportunity AHS of 100 80 70 60 Both Directions, Per
Service Description km/h 450 m, % 120 km/h kmlh km/h km/h km/h Hour
A Free Flow :s:; 100 100 0.17 - - - - 340
80 0.16 - - - -
60 0.13 - - - -
40 0.12 - - - -
20 0.09 - - - -
0 0.07 - - - -
B Stable ::::;80 100 0.47 0,42 - - - 920
Flow 80 0.45 0.37 - - -
(Upper 60 0.42 0.30 - - -
a. Speed
Range)
40
20
0
0.39
0.36
0.30
0.27
0.24
0.18
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
C Stable ::::; 65 100 0.73 0.68 0.56 0.48 - 1,460

Flow 80 0.71 0.63 0.53 0.43 -
60 0.69 0.58 0.47 0.36 -
40 0.68 0.54 0.38 0.27 -
20 0.66 0.49 0.28 0.17 -
0 0.62 0.43 0.18 0.09 -
0 Approach- ::::; 55 100 0.91 0.88 0.78 0.67 0.57 1,820
ing Un- 80 0.90 0.87 0.75 0.62 0.55
stable 60 0.89 0.85 0.74 0.59 0.53
Flow 40 0.88 0.83 0.72 0.55 0.47
20 0.87 0.79 0.69 0.47 0.30
0 0.86 0.78 0.67 0.10 0.17
Eiii Unstable 50 Not Ap- 1.00 - - - - 2,000
Flow plicablev
F Forced 50 Not Ap- Not Widely Variable o to Capacity
,f Flow plicablev Meaningful'i
" " V
'Operating speed and basic - ratio are independent measures oj level oj service. Both limits must be satisfied in any determi
nation oj level. c
;, Where no entry appears, opcraling speed required Jar this level is unatwinable even at low volumes.
iii Capacity.
;, Approxima tely.
"No Passing.
'"; Demand volume capacity ratio may well exceed 1.00 indicating overloading.
J
~,
85
Table 1.03.9
Average Generalized Adjustment Factors for Trucks i on Two-Lane Highways,
Over Extended Section Lengths

Truck Adjustment Factor, T
(
Level Terrain Rolling Terrain Mountainous Terrain
Level of Level of Level of Level of Level of Level of Level of Level of Level of
Percentage Service Service Service Service Service Service Service Service Service
of Trucks, P T A Band C D and E H A Band C D and Eii A Band C D and Eii
I 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.90
2 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.82
3 0.94 0.96 0.97 0.92 0.89 0.89 0.85 0.79 0.75
4 0.93 0.95 0.96 0.89 0.86 0.86 0.81 0.74 0.69
5 0.91 0.93 0.95 0.87 0.83 0.83 0.77 0.69 0.65
6 0.89 0.92 0.94 0.85 0.81 0.81 0.74 0.65 0.60
7 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.83 0.78 0.78 0.70 0.61 0.57
8 0.86 0.90 0.93 0.81 0.76 0.76 0.68 0.58 0.53
9 0.85 0.89 0.92 0.79 0.74 0.74 0.65 0.55 0.50
10 0.83 0.87 0.91 0.77 0.71 0.71 0.63 0.53 0.48
12 0.81 0.85 0.89 0.74 0.68 0.68 0.58 0.48 0.43
14 0.78 0.83 0.88 0.70 0.64 0.64 0.54 0.44 0.39
•
16 0.76 0.81 0.86 0.68 0.61 0.61 0.51 0.41 0.36
18 0.74 0.80 0.85 0.65 0.58 0.58 0.48 0.38 0.34
I 20 0.71 0.77 0.83 0.63 0.56 0.56 0.45 0.36 0.31
j Applicable to buses under most conditio/Is.
i! Capacity.
Table 1.03.10
Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks on Two-Lane Highways,
On Specific Individual Subsections or Grades
Passenger Car Passenger Car
Equivalent, E T for All Equivalent, E T for All
Percentages of Trucks Percentages of Trucks
Length Level of Length Level of
Of Level of Level of Service Of Level of Level of Service
Grade, Grade, Service Service D and E Grade, Grade,. Service Service D and E
Percent km A and B C (Capacity) Percent km A and B C (Capacity1
0-2 All 2 2 2 0-2 All 2 2 2
~ 0.5
1.0
7
12
5
13 II
3 3.0
4.0
37
38
53
55
62
65
(
1.5 16 20 18 5.0 39 56 66
2.0 18 23 24 6.0 40 57 67
3.0 21 27 28 6 0.5 28 31 34
4.0 22 29 30 1.0 36 52 60
5.0 22 30 31 1.5 40 58 69
6.0 23 31 32 2.0 43 61 73
4 0.5 9 10 7 3.0 46 64 79
1.0 19 25 26 4.0 48 67 83
1.5 25 34 37 5.0 49 69 85
2.0 28 37 42 6.0 50 70 86
3.0 30 41 46 7 0.5 33 48 56
4.0 31 43 49 1.0 48 68 80
5.0 31 44 50 1.5 52 73 88
6.0 32 45 51 2.0 55 77 93
5 0.5 15 19 19 3.0 58 81 99
1.0 27 39 43 4.0 59 83 102
1.5 32 46 52 5.0 60 85 105
2.0 35 49 57 6.0 61 87 107 (
86
Table 1.03.11
Adjustment Factors i , ii for Trucks on Individual Roadway Subsections
( Or Grades on Two-Lane Highways Incorporating Passenger Equivalent
And Percentage of Trucks
Pas-
senger Truck Adjustment Factor, T
Car
Equiv-
Percentage of Trucks, P T
alent,
~lij 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20
2 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.83
3 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.86 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71
4 0.97 0.94 0.92 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63
5 0.96 0.93 0.89 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.56
6 0.95 0.91 0.87 0.83 0.80 0.77 0.74 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50
7 0.94 0.89 0.85 0.81 0.77 0.74 0.70 0.68 0.65 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.45
8 0.93 0.88 0.83 0.78 0.74 0.70 0.67 0.64 0.61 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42
9 0.93 0.86 0.81 0.76 0.71 0.68 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38
10 0.92 0.85 0.79 0.74 0.69 0.65 0.61 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36
11 0.91 0.83 0.77 0.71 0.67 0.63 0.59 0.56 0.53 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.38 0.36 0.33
12 0.90 0.82 0.75 0.69 0.65 0.60 0.57 0.53 0.50 0.48 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.34 0.31
;~.
13 0.89 0.81 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.41 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.29
14 0.88 0.79 0.72 0.66 0.61 0.56 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28
15 0.88 0.78 0.70 0.64 0.59 0.54 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.42 0.37 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.26
16 0.87 0.77 0.69 0.63 0.57 0.53 0.49 0.45 0.43 0.40 0.36 0.32 0.29 0.27 0.25
17 0.86 0.76 0.68 0.61 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.26 0.24
18 0.85 0.75 0.66 0.60 0.54 0.49 0.46 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23
19 0.85 0.74 0.65 0.58 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.36 0.32 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.22
20 0.84 0.72 0.64 0.57 0.51 0.47 0.42 0.40 0.37 0.34 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.21
22 0.83 0.70 0.61 0.54 0.49 0.44 0.40 0.37 0.35 0.32 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.21 0.19
24 0.81 0.68 0.59 0.52 0.47 0.42 0.38 0.35 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.18
26 0.80 0.67 0.57 0.50 0.44 0.40 0.36 0.33 0.31 0.29 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.17
28 0.79 0.65 0.55 0.48 0.43 0.38 0.35 0.32 0.29 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16
30 0.78 0.63 0.53 0.46 0.41 0.36 0.33 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.15
35 0.75 0.60 0.49 0.42 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.17 0.16 0.14 0.13
40 0.72 0.56 0.46 0.39 0.34 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.22 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11
45 0.69 0.53 0.43 0.36 0.31 0.27 0.25 0.22 0.20 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.10
50 0.67 0.51 0.40 0.34 0.29 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09
55 0.65 0.48 0.38 0.32 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08
60 0.63 0.46 0.36 0.30 0.25 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08
65 0.61 0.44 0.34 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07
'f 70
75
80
0.59
0.57
0.56
0.42
0.40
0.39
0.33
0.31
0.30
0.27
0.25
0.24
0.22
0.21
0.20
0.19
0.18
0.17
0.17
0.16
0.15
0.15
0.14
0.14
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.10
0.10
0.09
0.09
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.06
90 0.53 0.36 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.16 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.05
100 0.50 0.34 0.25 0.20 0.17 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05
100
I Computed by -_.........::...=...::_-
(100 PI + EI PI)'
Ii Used to convert equivalent passenger car volumes to actual mixed traffic; use reciprocal oj these values 10 COli vert mixed
traffic to equivalent passenger cars.
iii From Table 1.03.10.
87
Table 1.03.12
Combined Effect of Lane Width and Restricted Lateral Clearance on Capacity and Service
Volumes of Two-Lane Highways with Uninterrupted Flow
Adjustment FlIctor WI. lind We for Lateral C1ellrance and Lane Width;
(
Distance From
Obstruction un One Side Only;; Obstruction on 80th Sides;;
Traffic Lane
Edge to 3.65 m 3.50 m 3.25 m 3.65 m 3.50 m 3.25 m
Obstruction, m Level Level Lewt Level Level Level Level
Level Level Level Level Level
8 Eiii 8 E iii 8 Eiii 8 E iii 8 E iii B Eiii
2.0 1.00 1.00 o.n 0.94 0.83 0.86 1.00 1.00 0.94 0.95 0.84 0.87
1.5 1.00 1.00 O.<)() 0.91 0.81 0.84 1.00 1.00 0.88 0.90 0.79 0.83
1.0 0.98 1.00 0.8h 0.87 0.77 0.81 0.93 0.95 0.80 0.85 0.72 0.78
0.5 0.95 1.00 0.82 0.84 0.74 0.78 0.84 0.88 0.72 0.78 0.66 0.72
0 0.92 0.95 0.7S 0.81 0.70 0.75 0.75 0.81 0.64 0.70 0.58 0.65
Adjustment We given for Level E. ca!"lcity. and WI. for Level B. interpolate for others.
i
iiIncludes allowance for opposing traJ)ie.
in Capacity.
Table 1.03.13
•
Effective Passing Opportunity
Continuous Effective Available
Sight Distance (m) Passing Oportunity, Percent
450 25
500 50
520 70
550 85
'i80 95
hOO 100
ml"O
:::l
C. 0
(j)
I~
.-0 ,,~
\5'0 ,,~.;
-.\~
~ ,,<0
'? /'
--~------
~.,-.:J""~"'-------
\,\\s\ ~S~\3"\"
C
I Direction of traffic 01
I~
.........
~ \..:03'J
,,5
-:;..--:::
sa ~ \e Eo
3S\ IJ, i\\3'O, /
.-/'/ '
....--:y
• ......•.
.'
'.
ff
\. "SO '0
'" ~"D> 450 m available
\ ./
I=-----:'
Figure 1.03.1
Measun'l11cnt of Available Passing Opportunity
88
•
1.03 I
cient to use one half the actual percentage of to any other chart in order to analyze a given
trucks in the total traffic volume when select section of expressway.
( ing the truck adjustment factor in Table
1.03.10. Furthermore, since all trucks to be
The charts are based on 3.65 m lanes, full
width shoulders, and adequate clearances.
accounted for in the adjustment are operating
in the downhill direction, an equivalent of two The charts are extremely flexible and can be
passenger cars for each truck is used. used in a number of ways. The major variables
are the level of service, the number of lanes,
In general, climbing lanes shall be provided
and the expressway volume, and anyone of
where the effect of slow moving trucks is to
three can be found from the other two. Con
bring the level of service below the desired
struction lines on Figures 1.03.2, 1.03.4, and
minimum. Climbing lanes should be extended
1.03.6 present examples that demonstrate how
sufficiently far beyond the top of the grade to
the charts are used.
permit trucks to accelerate to normal speed
before merging with other traffic. Older expressways may have lower design
standards than modern expressways, including
It is important when analyzing an extended
lane widths less than 3.65 m and lateral
length of highway that the length be divided
clearances less than 2.0 m. The expressway
into sections within which the design charac
charts in Figures 1.03.2 to 1.03.6 may also be
teristics are consistent. As a guide, the design
used for the analysis of older expressways. The
speeds on the various segments within each
procedure is to find the service volume from
analysis section should not vary more than
the expressway chart and then adjust it by
20 km/h.
means of the appropriate factor for lane width
(" D. Expressways and lateral clearance from Table 1.03.7. The
factor may be applied either before entering
Figures 1.03.2 to 1.03.6 combine in one set of
the chart when the expressway volume is
simple nomographs all the procedural steps for
known or to the re~ult from the chart when the
analyzing expressways.
volume is to be determined.
The three axes of the chart represent the serv
1. Example
ice volume per lane, the percentage of trucks in
the expressway volume and the expressway Given
volume in one direction. Supplementary scales Eight-lane expressway through industrial area
for service volume per lane are indicated for
PHF = 0.90 Trucks = 420 v/h
the first axis and are used only when the lane
AHS = 110 km/h (P T = 15%)
service volumes for a given level of service and
Lane width = 3.65 m DHV = 2,800 v/h
a given peak-hour flow are required. If the
Lateral clearances = 2.0 m Grade = 4%
peak-hour flow is not known, it may be as
Length = 3 km
sumed on the basis of the metropolitan area
population. Suggested values are 0.91 for areas 2. Determine
of over a million population, 0.83 for areas Level of service on 3 km upgrade section of
between 500,000 and 1 million population, and expressway.
{ 0.77 for areas under 500,000 population. For
rural expressways, the peak-hour flow is
assumed to be 1.0.
3. Solution
Use Figure 1.03.3 for AHS of 110 km/h
Each of the five charts applies for a different Enter with Vf = 2,800 v/h
average highway speed covering the range For grade 4%, Length 3 km, and P T = 15%
from 120 km/h in Figure 1.03.2 to 80 km/h in E t = 11
Figure 1.03.6. Once the average highway speed Turn at PHF = 0.90
has been selected, no reference need be made Intersect ray for four lanes in zone for level of
service E.
89
\0
o ,
J\'\ 1\ -150
\ \ , "'1\<\ --l
~ r\ 1\ 1\ 1\ \ ~~~ 2
40 ()
\ \ \ \ 0' 1\ c.<J,~ ll>

"'"
\6' C/l
f\ 1\ 1\ '\ ""\ r-- \ ~c>
;!!.
\ \ 6' ~"\ \ 1\ ""(I)~ 30 g,
1'\/0
, '\ ro
\'\ 1'\ .~~. - x
~ ~ "tl
-:0 "- "- ~ \c.<J,~ m
C/l
C/l
Iq
"'- 20 ~
\ . 0-,,.,; _
'" '"I"
~ ll>
\" :'\.'0 ~ ~ '<
....... ""- "'- ...........- <
"~~~ I'-... r,.'
.......... ""-. r-.... i"..
""" ~ - -> -Yc:f.- -- 0
C
'" ""
k~ 8;:: ~ :::::: ........... ........... I--... I'-- I'. , ......... i'...... ""\"
"" 1 10 3
~ -.; en
::::::::: ~ ;::;.: ........::: t-- ....... ....... ""'- "
Level of service I I I I I R t::::: !'--- "-.1 ~
C/l ~"::r\.-':
c o
,2 16
-6 16 18t 20
c I , I:
0 14
u 16 18 0.20 DAD 0.60 t 0.80 1.00
co
Q)
14 I
"tl T 16 I
.- 12 14 f I
.2 12 t 14
C/l
a 10 12
;:: 10 .112
.S
.t:.
u
---c-
O> ~. ~ (J _~
c
~
~)~)&/ phi
:v
c
Ol
E
::)
"6
>
Ol
u
.~
Ol
Cf)
120 km/h I I , ,I ,I I I
2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
v V, -Expressway volume, one direction (v/h)
Figure 1.03.2
Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service,
Service Volumes, and Capacity
Average Highway Speed-l20 km/h
r--,
~ ~
•
E- Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks
on Expressways
Grade Up Trucks-Percent of Vr
% Length km 3% 5% 10% 15% 20%
0.1 all 2 2 2 2 2
0.5 4 4 4 3 3
1.0 5 5 5 4 4
1.5 7 5 5 4 5
2.0 7 5 5 6 6
2 3.0 7 6 6 6 6
4.0 7 7 7 7 7
5.0 7 7 8 8 8
6.0 7 7 8 8 8
0.5 10 8 5 4 3
1.0 10 8 5 5 4
1.5 10 8 6 5 6
3 2.0 10 9 7 6 6
3.0 10 9 8 7 I 8
--
4.0 10 10 9 9 9
5.0 10 10 10 10 10
0.5 12 9 5 4 4
1.0 12 9 6 6 6
1.5 12 10 7 7 8
2.0 12 10 9 9 9
4 30 12 11 II II II
I 4.0 12 11 12 12 12
5.0 12 12 13 13 \3
6.0 12 13 15 15 14
0.5 13 10 6 5 4
1.0 13 11 I 8 7 6
1.5 \3 12 I 9 9 10
5 2.0 13 13 0 II II II
- 3.0
4.0
13
13
14
15
I 14
16
14
IS
\3
IS-
o Add one for service levels D and E.
--For 8% grade, add one (approx.) 10 3 values for 5% grade.
E-For Extended Sections of Expressways

(average generalized equivalents)
Level terrain 2
Rolling terrain 4
Mountainous Terrain 8
f
.~ Figure 1.03.2
Average Highway Speed (Cont.)
91
\0
IV \I K \" \ I ," I"' -1 50
\ \ 1\ \ ~
\ 1\ 1\ \ \ \ \ ~ ~
\ \ \, " ' \ ~ U'C!J., 40 ~
\ 1\ 0', 1'\ <1' "'\ \ IY~ ~
\ -0 r\ ,\""?" '\ [\9'''''61 - 30 ~
\\ -;'.,.1""- " \ . I\. " , , \ Y~i - ~
,,\ ?v I'" ~ '\ " ~ I\.. I"'- '", T~., ~
." " %
- 20 '"
~~"~~l~ ~ ~ , ~~ ~ ~ ~~ - ~~
"~~ "- ;-.. . . . . . ""r-..... r---- "" 'c..., ~
~~~f:::::-r:::::: K ...... ~f': .....'t--.... "" '\ 10
0;:::-
<0 ...... --.:::::
g.3
~ I--. ........... t:::::~ ~N '\ - co
Level of service
,--- -
16
c 20 ~~-~H-~--";+---f~r-:i;;~
'" 16 118
.g 14+
'6 18 ~I- - - ,.,';"'--I-i--+++---t'fl--T';:;-:;;f oj, I III,L I II I,L I II 10L II
c 14 I 16
o
u 16
1~'00
ca 12+ 4
Q)
12
:2
.2 10+
r
12
14~-~--ft--tr~~I/f
10
oo'"
12 ~-------;1+b:4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f"'1
i ~~~i}'>
Q) phf 6
~~~~-~--Jr@~~~~~~~
c
ro
~
Q)
4
Q.
Q) 2
E
OJ
o>
.~
e -----------HtJ
(}5 110 km/h
10,000
VI -Expressway volume, one direction (v/h)
Figure 1.03.3
Average Highway Speed-lID km/h
~.
~ /'"
•
/
(

on Expressways
% Length km 3% 5% 10% 15% 20%
0.1 all 2 2 2 2 2
0.5 4 4 4 3 3
1.0 6 5 5 4 4
1.5 7 5 5 4 5
2.0 7 5 5 5 6
2 3.0 7 6 6 6 6
4.0 7 7 7 7 7
5.0 7 7 8 8 8
6.0 7 7 8 8 8
0.5 10 8 5 4 3
4
1.0
1.5
10
\0
8
8 I 5
6
5
5 6
3 2.0 10 9 7 6 6
3.0 10 9 8 7 8
4.0 10 10 9 9 9
5.0 10 10 10 10 10
0.5 12 9 5 4 4
1.0 12 l) 6 6 6
1.5 12 10 7 7 8
2.0 12 10 I 9 9 I)
4 3.0 12 11 I II 11 11
4.0 n- Il 12 12 12
5.0 12 12 13 13 13
6.0 12 13 15 15 14
0.5 13 10 6 5 4
1.0 13 Jl 8 7 8
1.5 13 12 9 9 10
.
5 2.0
30
4.0
13
13
13
13
14
15
11
14
16
11
14
IS
II
13
IS
• Add one for service levels D and E.
--For 6% grade, add one (approx.) to 3 values for 50/< grade.

Level terrain 2
Rolling terrain 4
Mountainous terrain 8
t: Figure 1.03.3
"" Nomograph for Expressway Levels of Service,
Average Highway Speed-110 kmlh (Cont.)
93
1.0
... --.--.~ -150
\1
1\ 1 \
~"\ \
~,~
1\"·_ ~ 40 9"2
LL~ \1~+~+~\d-IITv\~
1\ 1\ "I \
1\ I, -., \ rn
r\ '\ \ r-.. \ "'t<3 <J
r
1\ \ 6' 6'\ <S 1\ '" \ . " ," 9'...11l _ 30 So
<D
"\ '0 1\ "'. \ "'" i!

" '" '" '\ \. 11l
?, 20
r0: ~ " ~
~~~~~ ,
i'.. i'.. I'. I~ '. ,\~ ~~
~'~"i'..'" " " r::: ' i'.. f'.. 1" " '0, ~
..
~~"i-."t-...". . . . . \"'. . r---.... ~r'. . . ,,-.. . .1"-...." .\<' __ $ 10
1~f::::::.t:::::~,,-
o~;t,..;::
t "1-r- ~~:Io-. ~
~ ~~\
Level of service
(f)
c o
.g I I I 1
D o 020 OAO 0.60 0.80
c 1.00
o •
o
8
•i
(j)
'"
:g
6 I
.2
(f)
4 ~~~LfI--~W---1'J>-T-t--;f
o 2 L,..-4L+-+--r+----:>'l-----K
'"
c
.c 10 I-~~~-=:If*-""*'
"
o
a.
(j) 8 >-=-+4-1---I-7'--Y
c
-'"
(j; phf
a.
(])
E
::J
"0
>
(j)
o
~
(])
(J)
100 km/h
2,000
~ V, -Expressway volume, one direction (v/h)
Figure 1.03,4
Average Highway Speed-IOO km/h
/'
~
(
E-Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks

on Expressways
Grade Up Trucks-Percent of Vf
% Length km 3% 5% 10% 15% 20%
0,1 all 2 2 2 2 2
O,S 4 4 4 3 3
1.0 6 S S 4 4
1.5 7 S S 4 5
2,0 7 S S S 6
2 3,0 7 6 6 6 6
4,0 7 7 7 7 7
S,O 7 7 8 8 8
6,0 7 7 8 8 8
0,5 10 8 S 4 3
1.0 10 8 S S 4
LS 10 8 6 S 6
3 2,0 10 9 7 6 6
3,0 10 9 8 7 8
40 10 10 9 9 9
S,O 10 10 10 10 10
/ . '•
1 .
4
O,S
1.0
L5
2,0
3,0
4,0
S,O
6,0
12"
12"
12"
12"
12"
12"
12"
12"
9
9
10
10
11
11
12
13
S
6
7
9
II
12
13
IS
4
6
7
9
11
12
13
15
4
6
8
9
II
12
13
14
O,S 13" 10 6 5 4
1.0 13" 11 8 7 8
L5 13" 12" 9 9 10
S 2.0 13" 13" II" 11 11
"" 3,0 13" 14" 14" 14" 13"
4,0 13" IS" 16" IS" 1S"
" Add one for service levels D and E,
""For 6% grade, add One (approx,) to 3 values for 5% grade,

Level terram 2
Rolling terrain 4
" Figure 1.03.4
Average Highway Speed-IOO km/h (Cont.)
95
\D
0'.
\ \ 1\ \ \ - 50
'\ '\ r\ I\~
1\ r\ r\ \ ::;!
1\ 1\ '\ ~ c:
40 o
,..
'\' \ \ 1\ r\ il'~ ro
/J)
'\:\ "', 6'".s \. i\. \ \Y~ oR.
o
\ -0 '" \. I'v, \ \ ~~ 30 8
(1)
1\\ ~ I\. \ '" I\.. I'\.. if Y~i x
"0
in
/J)
i'.\ ?v, I\.. "" '" ",- f'.... i"-.. I" "', ~ /J)
20 ::E
I~M~~I~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~v~ ro
"<
."-- .....
" I'-... r'--." 1"--1' . . .' 1'-.. f'.... I"" ,,(> <
.......-::~
1~1{j
~ o
C
I""':~ t--::::: f::::- h::-t----.. i"'--..t--... f"-..-f'....t-.......... t--.... '- \'" 10 3(1)
o -..;;:...;: :::::;; E=::::: :::::: t;:::: \.
Level of service
~t-[5t:::::~t:---.l'-....1 ~ ~_
/J) ...-----,----..,--...---,----,--,-------,
c: o
g 16 f- c:- Cap city ¥
'6
16,18~20
c: ) f- () J
.: : <Z> / <Z> -; y max
o
(J
14-r r16 1 18B f ! ! ( c:- I, 0.20 0040 0.60 0.80 1.0o
Cii 14 .f-
Q) ~o-/r-, V'" / >~ IA <;:-<1>
:Q 16
12 14
E 12 :f-- #- / (' / V [7
/J)
14
(:, 10 12 ; f-- ~-L - l/J I-- ~ / / /11 IV 11/ / 1/J [~ -:% r% f/:; l;%:v~v~r/ //.. ~ t%- .~ ~ ~ V'
o I mxO/ /'00,' //r//,/'/.'/,// /
1/1'/,
10.L .L 12 ~! /~/ ~/~v:/ /':r.V
(J
! I II :/1/ ,,,/~o,~~ / '~~)J~0 ~/~~:%-~~~~ ~~~B~
0. ~ ~ ~ : .cff/ I 0/1/ /~~~~ () / //I~v:Jl0~ ~~~~ /-,/Vh~/. ?-~~
j C) C,. C). . . . .
~
~~ oj V /r/ ii~~~ ~V j/)0(;1/'r{~~ '/. ()@ ~~~ ()~~j8 ,()\)
..
Q)
0.
phf
Q)
: ~!97 'l:'<1>,p'~:%~r;;:L--'O! ;V;' ;::.~~~~~ ~ \7' \0\
E
::l ;..~ ~/ :<: / / / :<0'" t/.;::~~ ~ . 'il~W'i>
-0 ~ 0 ,.~V \.~ ~~v \\ '+
:>
Q) 2 ,~ ~ ,~C"'~ III/V; y/V ~ ~V ,,__ :'i\
() I////. /Y ,§ '/,//Y/A'//
.~
Q)
(f) I~«e~~'" //l/~~
90 km/ ,I' I~~'" III I II II II
2,000 4.000 6.000 8,000 10,000
v V, -Expressway volume, one direction (v/h)
Figure 1.03.5
Average Highway Speed-90 km/h
;-"'-""""
~ /~
•
on Expressways
Grade Up Trucks-Percent of Vf
% Length km 3% 5% 10% 15% 20%
0.1 all 2 2 2 2 2
0.5 4 4 4 3 3
1.0 6 5 5 4 4
1.5 7 5 5 4 5
2.0 7 5 5 5 6
2 3.0 7 6 6 6 6
4.0 7 7 7 7 7
5.0 7 7 8 8 8
6.0 7 7 8 8 8
0.5 10 8 5 4 3
1.0 10 8 5 5 4
1.5 10 8 6 5 5
3 2.0 10 9 7 6 6
3.0 10 9 8 7 8
4.0 10 10 9 9 9
5.0 10 10 10 10 10
t
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
12'
12'
12'
12'
9
9
10
10
5
6
7
9
4
6
7
9
4
6
8
9
4 3.0 12' II 11 11 11
4.0 12' 11 12 12 12
5.0 12' 12 13 13 13
6.0 12' 13 15 15 14
0.5 13' 10 6 5 4
1.0 13' 11 8 7 8
1.5 13' 12' 9 9 IO
5 2.0 13' 13' 11' 11 11
•• 3.0 13' 14' 14' 14' 13'
4.0 13' 15' 16' 15' 15'
• Add one for service levels D and E.
"For 8% grade, add one (approx.) to 3 values for 5% grade.

Level terrain 2
Rolling terrain 4
·f
"
Figure 1.03.5
Average Highway Speed-90 km/h (Cont.)
1\
1
1
'-0
00
\ f\ \ \ - 50
\ \ ~ \~
1\ \ \ \ 1\ \ \1 -l
40 <:
()
\\ \ \ r'\ i\«:l?,.,
l»
"
U>
\ \ '\ '\ 's \.. \ '"" ofJ(
\ '0 I\- ,,\., '\ 1\- -«:l,., I:30 Q.
\\ ~ '\.. '\ r\. I'\. 'S, \~~. <1>
x
D
\.\1'>,. '" ~" " "'" "I"- \ .~-:n iil
en
20
~10~l::"~I'" "",- "", ~ ~ 1\ 0....,-; - ~
I>J
'<
~~~~~~~ ~~~~ K ~
C5
~~~~~,,~~~~,~-~--- o c
3
--.;;::p::::: ~ ~ ~I:::::::[-... r-.. :---....:1:::'--0...... .... '" - <1>
I_eve! 01 service I-.: k ~l ---"'L---...l ....... ~......... \.
en ,----------,-,---r---.--.----r---. ....;: ~ :'-.. I'\.
C
2 16 ) ~ Cap city ~y : o
-0 16 I 18.1- 20
c tJl.~ If!.> /maxIE/ I
o .f!' to 10 /..0 L;;,.0 T
u 14
Cii 14' 16 L 18: j!V/"" 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.0o
Ql
V'" / ~,'b'
1/ >.'I>~ i
:E 12 16
14
.2 12
14~
"- t/ / ~)/ 1/
.++-----,1/
:
en
oo 10 12
101. 1 12 "- .Ii I V 1/ I~~~' /I//I//,V/V/~~~~~~'/ //.r/ r>' ~~0~~V--

!:
10 if 1/1/1/ v'~~ \l~~ / 1~~~r//t:;j,/.0~~~~~~~~ ~~~
.....r::u
a. 8 ....
Ql
c
rffI· -1:1 ~I/ / l22 ~~ " / !/ V/; ;;J~f// ~~~ ~ ~ r~t%%l;.-
~
6 -J L0/V 0-\eb%~~~V j/;1/J///'::~~~~~~~~~t::::~V
Qi phI
a.
~~~ v/ J/~~/..,(v.::/:I/~. '/.w/.
.LIIL;:'l;;,r/;;.,/ V::~Vc:::-::V~\~\o~
<D 4 V~0 //.~ '~/ ' / . I, II ' l v.... r:::::::v- ({\0
E
:J V// . ~'-0 ;:"r7/ :<," II, (I,'" rv::::l::%:v ,<~W'"
"0 2V ~<'t?'/~ ''l'V.'~ 0' v..-[./'.-- ~\ ~
>
<D
~
U ~~~@~e; j,~0'-V JI~~~~~~~ 'V~t
.~
Ql
(J) ld~e~~' /f~~~:
80 kml I I~W __ ~rr I : I I I I I I I I
2,000 4,000 6.000 8,000

10,000
v
VI -Expressway volume, one direction (v/h)
Figure 1.03.6
Average Highway Speed-80 km/h
4
• • •
(\
E-Passenger Car Equivalents of Trucks

on Expressways
% Length km 3% 5% 10% 15% 20%
0.1 all 2 2 2 2 2
0.5 4 4 4 3 3
1.0 6 5 5 4 4
1.5 7 5 5 4 5
2.0 7 5 5 5 6
2 3.0 7 6 6 6 6
4.0 7 7 7 7 7
5.0 7 7 8 8 8
6.0 7 7 8 8 8
0.5 10 8 5 4 3
1.0 10 8 5 5 4
1.5 10 8 6 5 6
3 2.0 10 9 7 6 6
3.0 10 9 8 7 8
4.0 10 10 9 9 9
5.0 10 10 10 10 10
~
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
12
12
12
12
I 9
9
10
10
5
6
7
9
4
6
7
9
4
6
8
9
4 3.0 12 II II II 11
4.0 12 II 12 12 12
5.0 12 12 13 13 13
6.0 12 13 IS IS 14
0.5 13 10 6 5 4
1.0 13 II 8 7 8
1.5 13 12 9 9 10
5 2.0 13 13 II II II
- 3.0
4.0
13
13
14
IS
14
16
14
IS
13
IS
- Add one for service levels D and E.
--For 6% grade, add one (approx.) to 3 values for 5% grade.

Level terrain 2
Rolling terrain 4
#
t Figure 1.03.6
Average Highway Speed-SO km/h (Cont.)
\,
99
1.03 E
E. Expressway Ramps and Weaving Sectiv.;; vehicles, The maximum (k = 3.0) is applicable
On urban expressways capacity constraint~ e-i> to the shorter weaving sections whose opera
usually by ramp merging and diverging r:;_ tion is represented by Curves III, IV, and V.
neuvers or by weaving maneuvers. Where the weaving section length is greater
than the minimum required, as is the case for
Traffic volumes entering and leaving the ,~,_ conditions to the right of Curve III, the ad
pressway, the distance between points of en ,", verse influence of weaving is less, hence the
and exit, and the geometric layout at h,'~ k-factor is reduced, reaching a value of 1.0 for
terminals are factors that affect operating ef; Curve I.
ciency and should be considered in any Carji;'
ity analysis. Merging and diverging traffic v Jl In the cases of two-sided weaving, such as
directly affect the operating efficiency in J;'1~ where a left-hand entrance is followed by a
one (the lane nearest the outside shoulder! ,f right-hand exit and in weaving adjoining a ma
the expressway. Checkpoint volumes in pass';i_ jor (expressway to expressway) interchange,
ger cars per hour (pc/h) for lane one pi), only use of the lower curve is permitted as a
ramp volumes for Level of Service C are I ,l~r, minimum.
through 1,550 pc/h for merge areas and L<r; Values of design capacity for ramps, generally
through 1,650 pc/h for diverge areas. M .,.~ equivalent to level of service D, are given in
detailed analysis of merging and diverging 'I> Table 1.03.15. These values are for the ramp
eration is not included because of incomr;'~.' proper. The equivalent service volumes in
status of ongoing research on this subject. merging and diverging areas are generally less.
"1
J:'
most urban expressways, multiple wea\,,,!
more common than simple weaving dm ,',
the proximity of ramp entrances and exits. } 'i,
ure 1.03.7 shows examples of simple and n" .
tiple weaving sections. Operating conditi',·<;
within weaving sections are affected by',·.,
Lenl of
Service
Table 1.03.14
Lane Service Volumes for Weaving Sections
(SV) Maximum Service Volume (Ideal
Conditions) pc/h for Number of Basic
Lanes (N b ) on Major Approach Roadway
•
length and width of the section as well Q' ',' Nb =

the volume of traffic within it.
Nb =2 Nb = 3 4 or more
The procedure for analyzing simple wea\' ~ A 700 800 850

sections is contained in Table 1.03.14 and } ~f B 1,000 I, I 50 1,250
ure 1.03.8. The Table and Figure contain ~ : C 1,250 1,350 1,400
the information required to evaluate sim;"c D 1,600 1,600 1,600
and multiple weaving sections apart from 1; ," E (Varies Between 2,000 and 1,600)*
truck adjustment factors (found in Tar,." *Lane capacities (Level E) vary
1.03.3 and 1.03.5). Table 1.03.14 conto", with the intensity (frictional ef
service volumes as well as the capacity re]"'ul fects) of weaving, as related to
to various weaving intensities. quality of flow curves. The fol
lowing relationship applies:
In analyzing weaving sections using both Tal,:,

13.14 and Figure 1.03.8, care should f,,' Weaving Intensity Capacity
.<1Ken to make sure that all volumes are t /. k Factor Curve pc/h
pressed in the correct units, either pc/h II ,r 2,000
1.0 I
weaving length or v/h for the number of l<tw:, 1,900
2.6 IJ
required. The lower table in Figure 1.03.8 illdl
3.0 III 1,800
cates the curve to use for a given level of ~(cl v 1,700
3.0 IV
ice. The lower number (and hence a lower "I" 1,600
3.0 V
value) should be selected with the upper curve
permissible as a minimum. The k-factor i', II Note:
weaving intensity factor that expands the 111 SV jbr Level C predicated on PHF 0.83. for Level D on
fluence of the smaller weaving movement up I" PHF between 0.83 and 0.91, and for Level E all PIIF
betweell 0.91 and 1.00.
a maximum of three times its actual number Ill'
100
•
Table 1.03.15
/ Design Capacity of Single Lane Ramp
Ramp Design Capacity in v/h When: V = Design Speed and
P T = Percentage of Trucks During Peak Hour
V = 30 km/h or Less V = 40 km/h V = 50 km/h or More
Upgrade in % Upgrade in % Upgrade in %
0-2 3-4 ~ 5 O' 2 3-4 ~ 5 0-2 3-4 ~ 5
or or or
Down- Down- Down-
PT grade grade grade
0 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,250 1,250 1,250 1,500 1,500 1,500
5 940 910 880 1,170 1,130 1,080 1,410 1,350 1,300
10 900 830 770 1,120 1,040 960 1,350 1,250 1,150
15 860 760 680 1,080 960 860 1,300 1,175 1,040
20 830 710 620 1,040 900 780 1,250 1,100 950
25 800 660 570 1,000 840 710 1,200 1,025 860
30 770 620 530 960 780 660 1,150 950 800
No/e:
For /wo-Ialle opera/iorl, ill crease the tabular values up to nearly double.
-
~
Simple Weave
--------
-
~
~
~ Two-S,gm'oI ~
#."t.. ,.
~.
------------ ---
~oo-s~m'oI ~
Multiple Weave
Figure 1.03.7
Examples of Typical Weaving Sections
(.
101
u.c
~
: :1 ~Y~+/I /t4~
2,500
(
~m
~a.
-",
en~
.s rl 2,000
fC(j)
Olen
~e:
-Ol
ctI'"
-",
£ ~ 1,500
lI
e:
- Ol
~Cii
>
+.~ 1,000
~Ol
•
C) 400 800 1,200 1,600 2,000 2,400
L=Length of weaving section

Merging end to approach nose (m)
1.5m 3.75m
:,~~s~:, N
- number of lanes
-larger weaving volume, v/h
W
W'
-smaller weaving volume, v/h
F, F'
-outer flows, v/h
F' - - - - F'
L V
-total volume, v/h
I' -I k
-weaving (intensity) factor
SV- service volume or capacity per lane on approach
and exit roadways, v/h
N= W + kW' + F + F' WoW' - total weaving traffic equivalent passenger cars
SV per hour
N= V + (k-1) W'
SV
(
Level of Weaving Volume-Length Relation
Service for Minimum Design Designated
Service Volume by Chart Curves
SV
See Table Expressway CoD Road &
1.03.14 Proper Interchanges
A I-II II-III
B II III
C II-III III-IV
D III-IV IV
E IV-V V
Figure 1.03.8
Design Chart for Weaving Sections
(
102
1.03 F
F. Streets and Intersections Pedestrian volumes at urban intersections are

to be considered in analyzing intersections.
I. General
('
The clearance interval for signal timing should
The capacity of an urban highway or street is be based on a pedestrian walking speed of
generally governed by the capacity of the 1 m/s at locations where the pedestrian
intersections of that street with other streets. volumes exceed 15 per signal cycle/per
Suburban arterials, where the distance between crosswalk.
signalized intersections is 2.5 km or more, may
be analyzed as multilane or two-lane highways. A sample worksheet for the analysis of inter
section capacities is shown in Figure 1.03.15.
A capacity analysis of an intersection may be
made 2. Special Conditions
• to determine the number of lanes required In the design and analysis of signalized
for either current traffic or future (10-20 intersections, a number of special conditions
year) traffic. may occur that require careful examination.
Some of these special conditions are presented
• to determine the level of service at which in the following discussions.
the intersection operates.
• to determine the signal timing required for a. Determination of Levels of Service Other
given traffic volumes and physical condi Than Those at the Designated Design Ca
.7
tions. pacity
The analysis assumes that the intersection is Table 1.03.19 contains adjustment factors
controlled by a fixed time signal system. Other that can be used to convert the design ca
types of signal systems are discussed later un pacity to a service volume for any other
der "Special Conditions." Nonsignalized level of service. Alternatively, if the ap
intersections rarely require analysis. proach width or G/C is required for any
other level of service, the volume can be
Figures 1.03.9 and 1.03.10 present graphically adjusted before entering the chart by divid
the relevant relationships for two-way streets ing by the appropriate factor. The tables
and one-way streets respectively. These charts may also be used to determine the level of
are predicated on average conditions. service at which an intersection operates by
When the analysis requires other than average first determining the design capacity, then
conditions, the design capacity (CD), used as dividing the demand volume by the design
input demand volume when approach width or capacity and comparing the ratio with the
ratio of green time to total cycle time (G/C) is factors in the tables.
unknown, must be multiplied by the appropri b. Signal Systems Other Than Fixed Time
ate factors.
The capacity charts are predicated on fixed
Table 1.03.16 gives the adjustment factors for time signal controls in which the signal
right turns and for some conditions, left turns. setting remains unchanged during the anal
Table 1.03.17 gives the adjustment factor for ysis period. Use of the G/C ratio in capacity
left turns under remaining conditions. Table analysis for fixed-time control is also appli
( 1.03.18 gives the adjustment for trucks and for
buses that do not stop at or near the intersec
cable, with some modification, to actuated
control and progressive systems.
tion. Design capacity as given in Figures 1.03.9
and 1.03.10 is representative of level of service c. Fully Actuated Control
C. For other levels of service, the adjustment For fully actuated signal control, the same
factors are given in Table 1.03.19. procedure as for fixed-time control may be
employed as a close approximation for pur
Figure 1.03.11 presents the relationships for
poses of planning and design of inter
intersections located in rural areas. The ad
sections. Since the fully actuated control is
justments described above are incorporated in
more efficient than fixed-time control, be
the chart.
cause the effect of actuation more nearly fills
Adjustment factors for buses stopping at or or loads each green interval, the method
near an intersection are found graphically in suggested for analysis is on the safe side.
Figure 1.03.12. These factors are applied as
d. Semiactuated Control
before.
The volume of traffic using the minor
Figures 1.03.13 and 1.03.14 are used to deter crossroad to some extent dictates the choice
mine the capacities and service volumes of sep of cycle length and phase lengths at an in
arate turning lanes with or without a separate tersection under semiactuated control.
signal indication. Where the left-turning vol Usually, the G/C on the minor highway ap
~.
ume is greater than 100 v/h, the left-turning proach is adjusted to a preset limit to meet
movement should always be analyzed first.
103
1.03 F
the demand on this approach, and the phase nated in advance of and beyond the intersec
length for the main highway approaches is tion for a sufficient distance, Figures 1.03.9
predicated on the remaining available G/C.

To maintain least disruption on the major
and 1.03.10 are used as if there were no
parking on the street. Required minimum (
highway approaches and to enable low G/C distances for elimination of parking to
values to be used on the minor highway ap achieve this condition are as follows:
proaches, C (cycle length) values upwards

• In advance of the stop line on the ap
to 120 s are generally used. A value of IS s

proach, a distance in meters equal to or
or so for G is then fixed on the minor high

greater than 2.5 times the green interval
way.
in seconds but not less than 80 m.
As long as there is no call from the minor • Beyond the stop line on the approach, a
approach, the green indication remains on distance in meters equal to or greater
the major facility. The minimum or preset than 3.5 times the green interval in sec
values of C are achieved only when there are onds but not less than 100 m.
two calls from the minor highway in suc
cession within the time interval of less than i. Check for Capacity of Left Turn
C. Determination of actual G and C values Any intersection approach carrying a sub
should be based on an evaluation of individ stantial volume of left-turning traffic should
ual characteristics of a given intersection. be checked for the capacity of the left-turn
Having established the G and C values, the movement, whether on a separate lane or
•
analysis is made as for a fixed-time signal not. Figure 1.03.13 is used for this check
.1ntrol. prior to the use of Figures 1.03.9, 1.03.10, or
1.03.11. If the volume of left-turning
e. Progressive Signal Systems
vehicles exceeds the possible capacity as de
In some cases, notably on one-way streets, termined in Figure 1.03.13, a separate signal
highly efficient signal progression can be indication or prohibition of peak hour left
achieved and load factors approaching 1.00 turns may be necessary.
are not uncommon. At intersections where
such load factors occur frequently, the de j. Nondeterring Turning Movements
sign and possible capacities may be in On the intersection approach of a two-way
creased by a factor of 1.05. facility where the right-turn path is reason
ably direct, and on a one-way facility where
f. Widened Approaches
either or both turning movements are direct,
Intersection capacities can be significantly the turning movement can be considered as
increased by widening the traveled way part of the through movement; in which
through the intersection. This may be ac case the percentage of turns would be zero.
complished, in conjunction with one or Such conditions are likely to occur at high
more approaches, by adding a traffic lane type, channelized intersections where turn
for a certain distance before and after the ing movements can be accommodated as ef
crossroad. On streets with parking, the addi ficiently as through movements.
. 'onal lane through the intersection can be
.iltroduced by partial elimination of park k. Left-Turn Lane on Advance Green Indi
cation
('
ing. Where the extra lane is of sufficient
length before and after the intersection, the An advance green indication for left-turning
service volumes and capacities will corre vehicles may take the form of a green direc
spond to those for the total width of ap tional arrow with the solid green indication
proach, as if the added lane were continu for the through movement. The opposing
ous. through traffic is held on red until the end of
the advance green indication, generaIly 6 to
g. Increased Width Through Intersection
12 seconds. This form of control provides
-No Parking
for considerable efficiency because of the fol
Figures 1.03.9,1.03.10, and 1.03.11 are used lowing:
in the normal manner with the approach
width including the extra lane. Required • Short advance green interval.
minimum lengths of widening are deter • No amber period at the termination of
mined in accordance with the tabulation the advance green.
and instructions in Figure 1.03.16. • Permission for the left-turning movement
to continue during the remaining green
h. Elimination of Parking Through Intersec
phase on the approach.
tion
Where parking on a street approach is elimi
(
104
1.03 F
I. Right-Turning Movement Continuous, design capacity may be found by using the

Controlled by Yield Sign, or Permitted on exit width in place of the approach width in
(
Red Signal After a Stop
Where right turns are continuous and at a
Figures 1.03.9 and 1.03.10. The through
movement only is considered, with turning
speed greater than 25 km/h on an exclusive percentages zero. Adjustments are made for
lane with an auxiliary lane on the crossroad, local buses, only if the bus stop is on the far
the design capacity of the turning lane is side.
estimated to be 1,200 pc/h. This type of n. Two-Lane Turning Movements
design is not likely to be used where pedes
Where the capacity of a right or left turn is
trians are present.
insufficient to accommodate the demand
At a somewhat lower standard of channeli volume, the use of a double-turning lane
zation, yield signs at signalized intersections should be considered. The capacity of a
often control right-turning movements on double-turning lane can be found by first
an exclusive lane with island, allowing for computing the capacity of a single-turning
this traffic to merge with crossroad traffic at lane from Figure 1.03.14. The second or
alI times. In this case, the design capacity outer lane is assumed to be able to handle 80
would be the turning capacity found from percent of this volume. Thus, the capacity of
Figure 1.03. I3 for the green interval, plus an a double-turning lane is 1.8 times that of a
additional three vehicles per cycle assumed single lane.
'.
to merge with crossroad traffic during the

o. "T" and "Y" Intersections
red interval. In this case and also in the
folIowing, significant pedestrian volumes "T" and "Y" intersections can be analyzed
may reduce the capacity of the intersection. through two methods. The first method con
siders the heavier turning movement as the
Where right turns are on an exclusive lane through movement and treats the minor
but no channelization is provided, they may turning movement as a percentage of that
or may not be permitted to make the turn "through" movment. Thus, the standard in
during the red signal indication. If not, the tersection procedures for a one-way ap
design capacity is taken directly from Fig proach could be used. In the second
ure 1.03.13. If turns are permitted on red, method, the turning movements can be ana
the design capacity is assumed to increase lyzed as separate turning movements on
by two vehicles per cycle. excl usi ve lanes. Both of these methods could
In all cases, possible capacity of the lane is be used.
1.3 times its design capacity. p. Multiple-Type Intersections
m. Capacity Controlled by Intersection Exit Although the overalI analysis of multiple
Generally, the capacity of the approaches leg intersections may be quite complex (es
controls the capacity of the intersection. At pecialIy the establishment of an efficient
some locations, however, the width of the signalization pattern), the basic procedure
traveled way beyond the intersection may be for analyzing an intersection is identical re
restricted or traffic may back up into the gardless of the number of approaches. Each
.,'~
.~~ intersection exit from the intersection approach is analyzed separately using the
ahead. The latter condition may be cor charts in the normal manner. It may be nec
rected by coordination of signals and the use essary to consider two or more operational
of lagging or leading green indications. patterns for a multiple intersection and to
Where the intersection exit is narrower than analyze each one separately before deter
the approach, either due to physical restric mining the final design.
tions or the presence of parked vehicles, the
II
I'
I
I
105
Table 1.03.16
Adjustment Factors for Right Turns on Two-Way Streets!,
Right Turns on One-Way Streets!, and Left Turns on One-Way Streets!
Adjustment Factor
With No Parking ih With Parking iV
Approach Approach Approach Approach Approach Approach
Turns ii Width Width Width Width Width Width
% <Sm 5 to 7.5 m 7.5 to 10 m <6m 6 to 9 m 6 to 12 m
0 1.20 1.050 1.025 1.20 1.050 1.025

I I.I8 1.045 1.020 I.I8 1.045 1.020
2 I.I6 1.040 1.020 I. 16 1.040 1.020
3 I.I4 1.035 1.015 I.I4 1.035 1.015

4 1.12 1.030 1.015 I. I 2 1.030 1.015
5 1.10 1.025 1.010 1.10 1.025 LOW
6
7
8
9
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.02
1.020
1.015
1.010
1.005
LOW
1.005
1.005
1.000
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.02
1.020
1.015
1.010
1.005
LOW
1.005
1.005
1.000
•
W 1.00 1.000 1.000 1.00 1.000 1.000

II 0.99 0.995 1.000 0.99 0.995 1.000
12 0.98 0.990 0.995 0.98 0.990 0.995
13 0.97 0.985 0.995 0.97 0.985 0.995
14 0.96 0.980 0.990 0.96 0.980 0.990
15 0.95 0.975 0.990 0.95 0.975 0.990

16 0.94 0.970 0.985 0.94 0.970 0.985
17 0.93 0.965 0.985 0.93 0.965 0.985
18 0.92 0.960 0.980 0.92 0.960 0.980

19 0.91 0.955 0.980 0.91 0.955 0.980
20 0.90 0.950 0.975 0.90 0.950 0.975
22
24
26
28
30+
0.89
0.88
0.87
0.86
0.85
0.940
0.930
0.920
0.910
0.900
0.980
0.985
0.990
0.995
1.000
0.89
0.88
0.87
0.86
0.85
0.940
0.930
0.920
0.910
0.900
0.980
0.985
0.990
0.995
1.000
•
I No separate ruming lanes or separate signal indications.

II Handle right turns and le/t turns separately in all computations; do nor sum.
iii No adjusrmenr necessary lor approach widrh 0/10 m or more; that is. use factor 0/1.000.
1\ No adjusrment necessary lor approach width 0/12 m or more; rhar is. use factor 0/1.000.
106
• '.
;<
(,
Table 1.03.17
Adjustment Factors for Left Turns on Two-Way Streets i
Adjustment Factor
With No Parking With Parking
Approach Approach Approach Approach Approach Approach
Turns Width Width Width Width Width Width
% :<: : 5 m 5 to 10 m > 10 m :<:::6m 6 to 12 m > 12 m
0 1.30 1.10 1.050 1.30 1.10 1.050
1 1.27 1.09 1.045 1.27 1.09 1.045
2 1.24 1.08 1.040 1.24 1.08 1.040
3 1.21 1.07 1.035 1.21 1.07 1.035

4 1.18 1.06 1.030 1.18 1.06 1.030
5 1.15 1.05 1.025 1.15 1.05 1.025
.~
".'.'"
., 6 1.12 1.04 1.020 1.12 1.04 1.020
7 1.09 1.03 1.015 1.09 1.03 1.015
8 1.06 1.02 1.010 1.06 1.02 1.010
9 1.03 1.01 1.005 1.03 1.01 1.005

10 1.00 1.00 1.000 1.00 1.00 1.000
II 0.98 0.99 1.995 0.98 0.99 0.995
12 0.96 0.98 0.990 0.96 0.98 0.990
13 0.94 0.97 0.985 0.94 0.97 0.985
14 0.92 0.96 0.980 0.92 0.96 0.980
15 0.90 0.95 0.975 0.90 0.95 0.975

16 0.89 0.94 0.970 0.89 0.94 0.970
17 0.88 0.93 0.965 0.88 0.93 0.965
18 0.87 0.92 0.960 0.87 0.92 0.960

19 0.86 0.91 0.955 0.86 0.91 0.955
20 0.85 0.90 0.950 0.85 0.90 0.950
'"
't 22
24
26
0.84
0.83
0.82
0.89
0.88
0.87
0.940
0.930
0.920
0.84
0.83
0.82
0.89
0.88
0.87
0.940
0.930
0.920
28 0.81 0.86 0.910 0.81 0.86 0.910

30+ 0.80 0.85 0.900 0.80 0.85 0.900
i No separate turning lanes or separate sigllQl indications.
(,
107
Table 1.03.18
Truck and Through Bus Adjustment Factors
Trucks and Through

Correction Factor
Buses, Percent
0 1.05
1 1.04
2 1.03
3 1.02
4 1.01
5 1.00
6 0.99
7 0.98
8 0.97
9 0.96
10
11
12
13
14
15
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92
0.91
0.90
•
16 0.89
17 0.88
18 0.87
19 0.86
20 0.85
108
•
- - - - - - - ... . __
$ _
• . Table 1.03.19
•
Adjustment Factor (0 for Level of Service
Load
"
Width of Approach W A, (m)
Level of Service Factor 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 9.0 10.5 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
Two-Way Streets, No Parking
A No Backlog 0.0 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.85
B 0.1 0.90 0.91 0.91 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91
C Design Capacity 0.3 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
D 0.7 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20
E Possible Capacity 0.85 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.21 1.23 1.25 1.26 1.28 1.30
Two-Way Streets, Parking
A No Backlog 0.0 - - 0.95 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.84
B 0.1 - - 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.89
C Design Capacity 0.3 - - 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 \.00 1.00 1.00
---_._--- - "'
D 0.7 - - I.Ot) I .f)l) 1. 1 t 1.1·\ II,' , ~\1 I.'.' \ 'I

_.,-_._~---- -, - ,
--'-- ------ ---_._.,----
E Possible Capacity 0.85 - - 1.10 1.14 I.Ui 1.21 1.25 1.28 1.32 1.34
One-Way Streets, No Parking
A No Backlog 0.0 - - 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94 0.93
B 0.1 - - 0.97 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.96 0.95
C Design Capacity 0.3 - - 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
D 0.7 - - I.J2 1.10 1.07 \.07 1.08 1.10 I. II 1.13
E Possible Capacity 0.85 - - LIS 1.13 1.12 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.16 1.17
One-Way Streets, Parking One Side
A No Backlog 0.0 - - 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.86
B 0.1 - - 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.90
C Design Capacity 0.3 - - 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
D 0.7 - - 1.07 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.19 1.22
E Possible Capacity 0.85 - - 1.10 1.13 1.16 1.18 1.20 1.23 1.26 1.29
One-Way Streets, Parking Both Sides
A No Backlog 0.0 - - - 0.88 0.86 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.82
B 0.1 - - - 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.88
C Design Capacity 0.3 - - - 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
D 0.7 - - - 1.17 1.17 1.17 1.18 1.20 1.23 1.25
......
o E Possible Capacity 0.85 - - - 1.25 1.25 1.25 1.27 1.30 1.33 1.36
\D
Average Conditions
5% trucks and buses
10% right turns
10% left turns
no bus stops
Example
given:
two-way 20 m street
no parking
metro population-400,000
fringe area
•
18
~. __ --- ---7~~-'I-vrr-r--;V,,------,-,---~17-
// /
YVA- 'V",
G/C--O.50
_ / I V / Solution
5f-c- _ / ;/1)/ i?t::'7 V Co-1,500 v/h
~~... / /
_" ~v£' pO '" '/
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T- ..... C\JU')f"'-o.. o
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MP-metro population in 1000's

Figure 1.03.9
Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections
Two-Way Facilities-Average Conditions
110
•
Average Conditions Example

5% trucks and buses given:
10% right turns one way, 13 m street
10% left turns parking both sides
no bus stops metro population-750,000
outlying business district
18 WA-13 m
[7 V V
I h
If' / ~§b r/ /
V VV
V
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V o'S'V 1/ 1/ ~ V
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MP-metro population in 1,ODD's

Figure 1.03.10
Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections of
One-Way Street-Average Conditions
(
\,
\>
5
-
Table A-Adjustment Factor (F) for .,cvel of Service
t-..J
- 18 7~
1 II / / 16.0 18.0
15 0.97 0.96
1 J~~ 1.00 1.00
g
£; 1.11 1.11
-0
·i 1.22 I 1.23 I 125 I 1.27 , 1.29 I 130 1.3 I I 1.J3
12 r----.'L---A!:..L!l'W
~
1.28 I I.JO I l.J2 I 1.35 I 1.38 I 1.40 1.42 I 1.44
lilo
a.a- Example Solution
9
~~ given: Go -740 v/h
t '\
~ ~ .. /
W A -6.5 m Gp -740 x 1.29 ~ 950v/h
T -15 %
0\0
R -12 %
l -7 %
G/G-0.55
PHF -normal condition
3
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
o 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000
CD-Design capacity of approach (v/h)

Figure 1.03.11
Rural Two-Way Highway-No Parking
'-', ,$-_."
\
c\
,r
\
120 ~ J No Parking
.c ) ~ro-/
oc 10
.:s~oy,#;
rJ)
Q)
8) ~/
60r---~A 1/
rJ)
:J
.c
(ij
(.) 40
-~J<{I-
o
.....J
) «..'l-V
. t
I 2 t~:r' I Fe-Local bus factor
J
OJ
I/' : 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 max.
o
~
I
,.~I I ~n,}/
V<--'"
'-....lI 4
I
~ /"lJ' <,co . / Near side bus stop ......... I

~~;;or.:::: ,A\', - - "
I~%~ ~
t....
.~
~ I
i
•
,
I e
I~ 'l:"J/~------------------:,----""I:""~,,"'.,,~r:::,,=---,
/~'i ~ l.--:::'~\\{\'" Far side bus stop i. (915-" " <"0 "-.
~ .. k';:"~co tUQ'/.)-.. 10 .:'-..:
~y \A<> 0 '10, o.,,~~
/. ......-- e /; .,
~ ~ ~
0.8 0.9 1.0 max.
FB-Local bus factor
120.-----------" Parking
.c
oc 1001----------.i~"'"
rJ) 80f------..,"i7f--~
III:J 60 I-----,.!:>-/-..-,.r Fe-Local bus factor

.c WA _7.5m
(ij
(.)
o 40 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
II I I ,
.....J
I
OJ Near side bus stop
(
0.9 1.0 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
I
I WA-14.6 m WA-11.00m
I Fe-Local bus factor Fe-Local bus factor
t
I
:J,1 =:J N:S: &]",,:hJSJ
~- I I I I I T~/~
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 max
Fe-Local bus factor
Figure 1.03.12
Design Capacity of Signalized Intersections-
Local Bus Factor for Use in Conjunction with Figures 1.03.9 and 1.03.10
~.",,,,, ..;,¥??",
High-type design
J::.
.....
g
~
.r:
C>
::l
e
>
800
600 ~l
"
0.80 ~6
~
T
.:
~~
-£ 400 0.60 RI
"0
u
.....
0
>
Q)
E
::l
C>
c
'iii
200
<.?
.Q
ro
a: 0.40
1
0
a.
a.
0
I I I I I I I I I I 0.20
0
>
•
200 400 600 800
800 600 400 200 o Cor-Design capacity right-turn lane v/h
CoJ-Design capacity left-turn lane v/h
Chart 0
Chart A
600
-&// I J vy V
J::.
.....
>
Q) 500
8// / V V V vy V
Cfl
"0
Design capacIty of left-turn

lane is the larger of the two
E
::l '" I / / 1/V V V,.f>'
-r!
g, j'/
o
c values obtained from Chart A
(5
> 400
I I/o? v/
~ I
()
Q)
Cfl
and Chart B. C>
c OJ / /~j II: v/
'c r.$; J / ~J 1//r.J: "i
1c, ~ 300
o~ /~ ~
c L W
Q)
'If
~ :0
Q) ~ 200 ~
13 o 'iii
> N Q)
> E
~
"0
::l
~
100 E
280 c
: r/ V 260 E
I V VI V
240 180 E
~ J~7 I,220 160
40 60 80 100 120 140
I /1- v~ Q)
c
<11
I /1 V.I $>/
•
,::;",'" 200 140 -;;,
CDJ-Design capacity left-turn lane v/h
I II r/~// ~O.::."
c
Chart B 180 120E
: / ~Mr *":> 0' .;:!
~
Normal curb return and pedestrian interference I ~ W""V2; 160j 100
~'o,j 1/ "'''",0\0 140 80 g'
0.80
rM",,,,o' Q)
~
--'
f-- r'I tjlVy;,jJ

I ' l~ '# 120] 60
100 40
J0
V2 ,VI
~ 0.60
<.? ~ V.I 80 20 0
.Q
ro
a: 0.40
T
O2
Length Df right- Dr left-turn lane
Chart E
Charts A and B apply tD tWD-way facilities Dnly. in urban as
1 well as in rural areas.

Charts C and 0 apply tD right-turn lanes Dn two-way streets
0.20 and to both right- and left-turn lanes on one-way streets.
Curve II of Chart 0 generally is not applicable tD CBD.
In rural areas (for service level B) multiply values in chart
100 200 300 400 o by 0.90.
C D2 -Design capacity right-turn lane v/h TD determine pDssible capacity of right- or left-turn lane,
Chart C
multiply chart design capacity by 1.30.
114
Figure 1.03.13
Separate Right- and Left-Turn Lanes

No Separate Signal Indication for Turning Movement •
-,-
l
0.80 I _, 71 7 j Normal conditions
with separate signal indication ::c
~I t 500
1\
s;:>0.60 ,'If "
~ .~
0 400
.Q ~
> I ~ r /I !I y,Os' I~~..{~<t>1 I I I I
C;;
a: I,..:5 <;.<to .I::.
..... OJ V 3__ cOl OJ
0.40 800 ;§ ~V2 .~

:0
~
'Cij
.~
~-
5 f
I
R T 1
M
0)
'0 E
:>
I1IHh'Jifhr I I I
-Y;A~ 600 §, ~
~~ ~
~
> 200 1
II E
1 I 1 1 1
280
0,20 I---N +1 I J" 1<.... D13 1 260
'c
E
.~~ I I > 100~ II I I I I Y l'/V~2404180
0.1::.
400 L'g'
"OJ 220 160.s
uc;; 200 0)
oro Q. 140 §
• ',?" "OJ
~
Ol
200 (j '"
j 120 'E
,~ 140 ::;
Chart A 100 -B
A!L:M~~'-:----1120 .I::.
80 0,
0.80 I > i 7 i IL,UL~------100 c0)
High-type design - - - - - 80
with separate signal indication 60 1
1LAfL--------i 60 o
-J.~b
40 ~
o
~~-------140
v
~ 0.60 I _>r" A / 71
~ ILL -:-__~ 20 20 0
.Q
C;; 800 .I::.
..... 0) Length of right· or left·turn lane Chart C
> c
a: 0.40 I / 717"7"1 ;.,nl
''5 ~
0,20
600 ~.2
nl~
u-
c~
~~rfR~
Ol~
'Cij 0
(1)'
1111 I D2 Charts A and B apply to both two-way and one-way streets,
400°-§,
L-=
,,0)
u nl
11 Chart B generally does not apply to CBD,
In rural areas (jor service level B) multiply values in Charts
A and B by 0,90
/~
A'Sq.,:;.l..... I 200 (j '" ~~ To determine possible capacity of right· or left-turn lane,
multiply chart design capacity by 1,30,
~".:r
Chart B
Figure 1,03,14
Separate Right- and Left-Turn Lanes-
With Separate Signal Indication for Turning Movements

Typical Intersection Capacity Form (
Signalized Intersection
Capacity Analysis
Project
Intersection
Basic Conditions
Metro Population PHF
(circle one) area: CBD fringe aBO
resid. rural 'Note below
C = signal cycle = s A/C= _ _ _ I _ _ =

Phase 1 Phase Phase I Phase
Amber Amber Amber Amber
!..J= GIC = GIC = G/C =

G= s s G= s s G= s s G= s s
I
Approach T= % R= % L= % Bus Stop _______
GIC Capacity
WA Chart
Movement (m) Reference Req'd Used Co Cp DHVt Remarkst
Approach ______ T= % R= ~~ L= % Bus Stop _____ ._.~__

GIC Capacity
WA Chart
Movement (m) Reference Req'd Used CD Cp DHVt Remarkst
Approach T= % R= % L= % Bus Stop _____ .-
GIC Capacity
WA Chart
.vement (m) Reference Req'd Used Co Cp DHVt Remarkst
(
Approach _ _ _ _ _ T= % R= % L= % Bus Stop ._-
GIC Capacity
WA Chart
Movement
(m) Reference Req'd Used CD Cp DHVi Remarkst
• Designate each approach by letter: 1-W or 2-W (1- or 2-way);

By
PKG., N.P. (no PKG.); enter DHV's
Checked
t Mark a.m. or compo (composite peak)

t Turn lane lengths-D2, 03; trucks-T2, T3; widened approach
lengths-D•. Db. etc.
Figure 1.03.15
Typical Intersection Capacity Form
(
\,
I 16
1.03 F
)----1 l
•
- I.
-
__
Tap" .1. D:
• Stop
W~ine
11 r-( =:
1===============-------=========
.1. Tap.' .1
__
Length of Widening Beyond Intersection Length of Widening in Advance of Intersection

Length Required fort Length Required fort
Acceleration Merging Taper Deceleration Storage Taper
(m) (m)
Design Design • Divide approach volume by
Speed Db (m) Speed Db(m) number of lanes in W.
(km/h) (km/h)
60 60 Db = 4 X G 60 60 40 • Use volume per lane in fig. 60
1.03.14 if D, = D. on
80 160 (G, green interval 80 80 60 desirable scale (minimum
70
100 300 in seconds) 100 100 80 scale for restricted conditions) 80
•
t Use the larger of two values but not less than 60 m
Figure 1.03.16
t Use the larger of two values but not less than 60 m
Intersection with Widened Approaches-Length Requirements
3. Examples Given
Given One-way street Metro population
Two-way street, 10.0 m approach width, park 750,000
ing prohibited, in a fringe district within a Approach width 13 m Outlying business
metropolitan area of 400,000 population. Ma district, OBD
jor intersections are signalized. Specific data Parking both sides G = 30 s
regarding trucks, turning movements, etc., are Trucks: 9 % C = 60 s
not known, but conditions are assumed to be Right turns: 14 % No bus stops
average. Half of the time during the hour can Left turns prohibited
be allotted to green on this street. Determine
Determine • Service volume for level of service C, design

Service volume on one approach to provide capacity.
level of service C operation (design capacity). • G/C ratio required for DHV of 1,900 v/h at
level of service C.
To what extent would the service volume be
reduced if parking were permitted? • Approach width required, at level of service
C, for a DHV of 1,900 v/h and the original
Solution green time of 30 s.
For a two-way street, Figure 1.03.9 is applica
Solution
ble. Enter at left with WA = 10 m and inter
sect turning line for fringe area, no parking. G/C ratio = ~~ = 0.50
Turn again at G/C = 0.50 (ratio green time to
total cycle time = 0.50). Enter on lower axis For a one-way street, Figure 1.03.10 is applica
with metropolitan population of 400,000 and ble.
intersect previous construction line. Read CD

(design capacity) 1,500 v/h. Enter with WA = 13 m, and MP = 750,000
and find CD = 1,700 v/h for average condi
For parking permitted condition follow the tions.
same procedure but turn at the appropriate Factors: right turns 1.0 (Table 1.03.16)
line in upper part of the chart. At the intersec Left turns 1.0 (turns prohibited)
tion of construction lines, read CD (design ca
•
Trucks 0.96 (Table 1.03.18)
pacity) 1,070 v/h. Therefore, design capacity is
reduced by (1,500-1,070) 430 v/h. Therefore, design capacity = 1,700 X 1.0 X
1.0 X 0.96 = 1,630 v/h
117
1.03 F
Adjust given DHV by the appropriate factors Solution
to find input volume. Despite the presence of a median, the street to
1,900 x 0.96 = 1,820 v/h

En ter Figure 1.03.10 with W A = 13 m and
be analyzed is classified as a two-way street.
This is because the conflict effects, especially at (
MP = 750,000. intersections, are virtually the same as for
streets without medians. Therefore, Figure
Turn at Co = 1,820 v/h and find G/C = 0.65.

1.03.9 is appropriate.
Enter Figure 1.03.10 with MP = 750,000, CD
= 1,820 v/h and G/C = 0.50. Enter Figure 1.03.9 with W A = 8 m and turn
at line appropriate for CBD-no parking. Turn
Find W A = 15.7 m. at G/C = 0.50. Enter with MP = 500,000 to
Given intersect previous construction line. Read
CD = 960 v/h for average condition.
Divided street with narrow median and each
traveled way 8 m wide, curb to curb. Factors: Right turns 0.99 (Table 1.03.16)
Left turns 1.00 (Table 1.03.17)
No Parking Metro Population 500,000
Trucks 0.97 (Table 1.03.18)
Trucks 8 % CBD
Bus stop 0.79 (Figure 1.03.12)
Right turns 25 % G = 30 s
Left turns 10 % C = 60 s Design capacity = 960 x 0.99 X 1.00 X 0.97
Bus stop on near side serving 46 buses per X 0.79 = 650 v/h.
hour. Factor to convert design capacity to possible
•
T"o'termine capacity = 1.20 (Table 1.03.19). Therefore,
possible capacity = 650 X 1.2 = 780 v/h.
.. 0esign capacity of intersection approach.
If left turns are prohibited, left-turn factor be
• Possible capacity of intersection approach. comes 1.10 (Table 1.03.17).
• Possible capacity if left turns are prohibited

If bus stop is moved to far side, bus stop factor
and the bus stop is moved to the far side of

becomes 1.0 (Figure 1.03.12).
the intersection.
Therefore, design capacity = 960 X 0.99 X
1.10 X 0.97 X 1.0 = 1,010 v/h.
Possible capacity 1,010 X 1.2 = 1,212 v/h.
118
1.04 A, B, C, D
Section 1.04 Access Control

( A. General two-lane, two-way collectors and arterials with
design year ADT (20) greater than 2,500
The regulation of access rights to and from

partial access control.
abutting highway facilities is called access con

trol. Access control may be categorized as full 3. Two-lane, two-way collectors with design
control of access, partial control of access, or year ADT (20) less than 2,500 and local high
approach road and driveway controls. ways-approach road and driveway regula
tions.
Typical examples of access openings and ac

cess control along expressways, at inter C. Delineation on the Plans
changes, and at-grade intersections are shown
1. Project Design Data
in Figures 1.04.2 through II. These illustra
tions do not presume to cover all situations or The project design data for the project shall
to indicate the most desirable design for all include the degree of access control for the
cases. project. See 2-3.02C for details.
I. Full Control of Access 2. Right-of-Way Plans

Full control of access means that preference is When access is controlled, the appropriate
given to through traffic by providing symbols as shown in Figure 1.04.1 shall be
connections only with selected public high used to show the limits of access control and
~.
ways and by prohibiting crossings at grade and the permitted access openings. Control of ac
direct private road or driveway connections. cess shall only be shown on the right-of-way
plans.
2. Partial Control of Access
3. Location
Partial control of access means that preference
is given to through traffic as in full control, but Where appropriate, the right-of-way line and
there may be some crossings at grade and some the access control line shall be coincident.
private road or driveway connections. When fencing is to be installed to control the
access rights, the fence shall be located on the
3. Approach Road and Driveway Controls access control line. Careful consideration must
Approach road and driveway controls means be given to roadway maintenance requirements
that each abutting property owner is permitted when establishing fence lines.
access to the street or highway, but the loca
tion, number, and geometrics of the access D. Design Criteria
points will be limited or regulated in accord 1. Expressways
ance with the design criteria in section 2-l.04D Direct access from private property to the ex
below. pressway is prohibited except as may be al
The principal advantages of access control are lowed by locked gates. Access rights shall be
the preservation of highway capacity, higher acquired along interchange ramps to their
speed, and improved safety. When access is not junction with the nearest public road, and shall
{ controlled, interference from the roadside as
roadside businesses develop can become a ma
extend to the end of the ramp taper (or at least
50 m beyond the end of the curb return or
jor factor in reducing the capacity, increasing ramp radius). Control of access is achieved
the accident potential, and eroding the mobil through either of the following methods.
ity function that the facility was designed to a. Acquiring rights of access to the ex
provide. pressway from abutting property owners
Full or partial access control generally is ac and permitting ingress and egress to the
complished either by legally obtaining right-of traveled ways only at interchanges, or
access from the abutting property owners b. constructing frontage roads to restore ac
(usually at the time of expropriation of the cess to abutting properties, but permitting
right-of-way) or by the use of frontage roads. access to the traveled ways only at inter
changes or by slip-ramps. See item (4)
B. Warrants for Access Control below.
All highway facilities will have some degree of In remote areas, locked gates may be provided
access control as determined by the following in the fencing to provide access for infrequent
warrants (see HDM-I-2.02 for a description of usage, such as maintenance of utilities, high
the various design classes of highways): way maintenance operations, etc. These access
I. Expressways-Full access control. openings will be allowed only upon satisfying
the following conditions:
2. Multilane arterials, multilane collectors, and
119
1.04 D
(I) The location is in a remote area. openings on one side of a divided highway
(2) Access from an interchange is not fea exceeds three in 400 m, a frontage road
sible or not economically justified.
(3) Usage is infrequent (not more than
shall be provided. See item 4, Frontage
Roads, for other warrants. (
once or twice per month). (10) Access openings on divided highways
(4) Approach to the main lanes can be shall not be permitted within 100 m of a
made without causing a hazardous situa median opening unless the access opening
tion. is directly opposite the median opening.
(5) Right turns only will be permitted. (II) Access approaches shall be limited to
right turns only unless (I) the approach
(6) Approval is granted by the MOe.

does not have the potential for
(Formal written application must be made

signalization and it can be shown that al
to the MOe.)
lowing left turns would significantly re
2. Multilane Arterials, Multilane Collectors, duce congestion and safety problems at a
and Two-Lane, Two-Way Collectors and nearby intersection; or (2) there are no
Arterials with Design Year ADT greater than intersections, existing or planned, that al
2,500 low a U-turn; and (3) left turns can be
safety designed without signalization. (See
a. Access Openings
2-1.15 for details on the use of median
The term "access opening" means the open separator to deny left-turn movements).
ing through an access control line that pro
•
(12) Access approaches that have the po
ies for an exit from or entry to the high tential for signalization and require left
way facility. turn movements must (I) meet the
b. Design Criteria to be Observed signalization spacing requirements for in
tersecting public streets, roads, and high
(I) The number of access openings shall

ways, as specified in 2-1.07G I 0, and (2)
be held to a minimum for any facility.

shall not interfere with the location, plan
(2) Police, fire, ambulance, and other ning, and operation of the general street
emergency vehicles shall have a right to system and access to nearby properties.
direct access to the highway facility.

(3) Private direct access to the highway c. Access Opening Width
shall be permitted only when the property See 2-1.07H for design details of approach
in question has no other reasonable access roads and driveways.
to the local street system.

3. Two-Lane, Two-Way Collector Highways
(4) Parcels fronting only on the highway with ADT (20) Less than 2,500 and Local
shall be given access to another public Highways
road or street by constructing suitable
connections if such access can be provided The primary function of these highways is to
at a reasonable cost. provide reasonable and safe access to abutting
property. Access needs generally take priority
(5) Access openings to the highway are

over through-traffic movements without com
limited to one per parcel except as noted

below.
promising the safety of the highway facility.
Control of access is not obtained, but the loca
(6) For parcels with a highway frontage of tion, number, and geometries of access points
1;2 km or greater, not more than one ac must meet the following criteria:
cess opening shall be provided unless it

can be shown that additional access a. The number of access approaches to a
openings would not be detrimental to the parcel shall be controlled by safety and de
safety and operation of the highway and sign considerations contained in 2-1.07H. In
are necessary for the safe and efficient use general, all access approaches shall be sepa
of the property. rated by a minimum distance equal to the
(7) In certain cases, a parcel may be di stopping sight distance.
vided by a natural barrier such as a b. Frontage roads or parallel service roads
stream or ridge, making it necessary to are not permitted along two-lane highways
provide an additional access opening. It because of safety considerations. The addi
may be preferable to connect the physi tion of these roadways could result in the
cally separated portions of the parcel with appearance of a multilane divided facility
a low cost structure or road rather than with the resulting assumption that the two
permit the two access openings. lane, two-way highway is a one-way high
(8) Wherever possible, one access opening way.
should serve two parcels.

(9) When the number of required access
c. Left turns shall be permitted, provided the \
120
1.04 D
required safety and design standards are (2) Economic Considerations-In gen
met. eral, a frontage road is justified if the costs
(
d. In rural areas, approach roads shall be
of furnishing the frontage road are less
than the costs of providing access by other
provided as necessary to provide access to
means. Right-of-way considerations often
pasturelands, farms, ranches, etc. along the
are a determining factor. Thus, a frontage
highway, and at convenient places for travel
road would be justified if the investment
ers to get off the highway in case of emer
in construction and extra right-of-way is
gency or for rest stops. The maximum spac
less than either the severance damages or
ing between approach roads shall be 5 km
the costs of acquiring the affected prop
for these purposes.
erty in its entirety. Frontage roads may be
e. In urban areas with signalized inter required to connect parts of a severed
sections, the minimum spacing between ac property or to serve a landlocked parcel
cess points shall be that which is necessary resulting from right-of-way acquisition.
for the safe operation and proper design of
b. New Alignment
intersections as specified in 2-1.07H.
Frontage roads generally are not provided
4. Frontage Roads on highways on new alignment since the
a. General Policy abutting property owners never had legal
(I) Purpose-Frontage roads are pro right of access to the new facility. They may
vided on highways (as listed under items be provided, however, on the basis of consid
1 and 2 above) for these reasons: erations mentioned in a. above.

• To control access to the through lanes, c. Existing Alignment
thus increasing safety for traffic. On highways developed along existing align
• To provide access to abutting land own ment, the existing highway is often retained
erships. as a frontage road. If access cannot be pro
• To restore continuity of the local street vided by other means, remainders of land on
or road system. the side of the right-of-way opposite the old
• To provide continuity even though it did road must then be served by a frontage road.
not exist before when unreasonable cir Outright purchase of remainders may be
cuity of travel would be incurred be considered in lieu of a frontage road. (See a.
cause of highway construction without a above.)
frontage road. d. Railroad Crossings
Frontage roads serve many purposes other When an expressway is developed on new
than controlling or providing access. Urban location and frontage roads are provided on
frontage roads are multifunctional as they one or both sides of the through roadways,
reduce the "barrier" effect of urban express they should not cross railroads at grade.
ways since the local street grid is not severed They may be terminated or dead ended at
by the expressway. They become an exten the railroad right-of-way or, where two
~
.. sion of the surface street system, providing frontage roads are provided, they may be
{. for continuity and traffic circulation, and re connected by crossing over or under the
sult in an expressway corridor that serves through traffic lands and the railroad. There
local, as well as intracity travel needs. They may be cases that justify carrying the front
also serve as separate bus routes and express age road across the railroad by grade separa
buses can exit from the expressways and use tion. Where frontage roads in urban or sub
the frontage road to safely load or discharge urban areas are initially constructed to be
passengers. They provide invaluable opera discontinuous at railroad crossings, suffi
tional flexibility, serving as detour routes cient right-of-way should be acquired to per
when main line accidents occur, during ma mit future grade separations and continua
jor main line maintenance activity, or for tion of the frontage roads across the
overheight loads. railroad.
In addition to the above purposes of front Any new railroad grade crossings and grade
age roads, they prove advantageous when separations, and any relocations or altera
used as the first stage of construction for a tions of existing crossings must be cleared
complete expressway facility. By construct and approved by the MOe.
ing frontage roads prior to the main lanes
e. Additional Frontage Roads after Initial
very often interim traffic demands can be
Construction of the Highway Facility
satisfied and a usable section of highway can
be opened to the traveling public at a greatly For additional frontage roads requested sub
reduced cost. sequent to the planning stage or after the
121
1.04 D, E
highway has been constructed, control of fic at the ramp terminals and crossroads.
access as originally conceived for the facility • The frontage road shall be constructed to
may be modified to allow access to the pro

posed frontage road only to the extent as
applicable standards contained in 2-1.05
and 2-1.06. (
may be permitted by safety considerations
and in keeping with established policies and E. Protection of Access Rights
procedures. Access control will be similar to For proper control of acquired access rights,
precedents as far as traffic volumes, safety fencing, or other approved barrier, shall be in
and design policy permit. stalled on all expressways and where practical
Additional frontage roads may be consid on multilane divided facilities. See 2-1.15 for
ered when the following conditions are met: appropriate barrier designs.
• A usable section of frontage road shall be Once access rights have been acquired, no ad
developed. The intent of a usable section ditional access openings shall be permitted
would be a facility from a separation to a upon the splitting or dividing of parcels, or
separation or connecting public roadway. contiguous parcels under the same ownership
• The construction of frontage roads shall or control. The specified use of access openings
not adversely affect the movement of traf shall not change.
Proposed Right-of-Way Line
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Property or Ownership Boundary
Existing Fence
•
xX KKK K X K Proposed Fence
Proposed Fence on Right- of-Way Line
""""""""""", Control of Access Line without Fence
Control of Access Line without Fence,
l""~"""'~"""
coincident with Right-of-Way Line (
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f~ Control of Access Line with Fence

)()( RJt Xl' )t)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Control of Access Line with Fence,

K't - )()( - Jt)(
coincident with Right-of-Way Line
~', ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~I
7
15 m , I~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Access Opening
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,~ End of Access Control

J
~~~~"""~"'~~~~"~~"~"
)( Jl ,,- ~!( Ii l Locked Gate Permitting Access on
an Infrequent Basis
Figure 1.04.1
/
Standard Symbols
'"
122
r ,
Access opening
width to be shown on right-aI-way plans
{ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,
I
10m A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
J
/
/ \.. r- Shoulder
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ...-
, 1. _
,:1 - - - - - ~ Single Opening

S""ldec (Private Approach)
Access opening
; - width to be shown on right-aI-way plans
20 m /'
Opening~
Public . /
/'
/
)~
/
I /
I
I
I
/1
I 'I
I I,
~/~:
I
I I II
II'~
I I
I I II
~ I I II __
':v:s:<d=- I
I I
\
III~~~~~~~~~
I \
..j"'- / \
/
I
\
~
-
/
Shoulder ~ ,- ,/
" ......
.---- -..._-------
- - - - - - - - Single-Ope~n~ - - - - - - - - ~~h:ld~r
(Public Approach)
If Figure 1.04.2
Typical Examples of Access Openings
123
N
.j::>.
(j)
OJ
C
Commercial area I «l
.r:
()
I
I I
m I
.~ "10 "
Right-of-way line
J u:se,
:5
___ _TI,,__-,I .~
--~ ~.,~;...;....- ....=.,.;;;;;.~=-,-=aJ ( --r-T""'""""
J
__
...-- ---- -
J L ----
New frontage road
,,'"'"'"'"'""''''""''''''"'.""""'''''''"'''''''''"'''~-((< ~~" """"''''""'''''"'''~ '"'""''''""''''"'"'"'"'"'"'"'"'"'"
-'-- Control of access line
---
L::. Through-traffic roadways J t. - c C - Expressway
"1 _
Existing highway ~----~ -
Control of access line
,""""""""''''''''''''''''' """""''''''''''''''''''~
. -- jII! \~"''''~ :...I _ ___
,"""''''''''''''''''''''''~'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''
--- _ ...'....1..'_ _'1
- I J( - lrb~~lr ~, ,,
I See note 3
~Ri9ht-of-Way line I 8
-, -,- I I
Notes:
I I
1. This drawing is diagrammatic only and is not to be used
as a basis for geometric layout.
2. Commercial areas might be located along crossroads and
fronlage roads.
3. Conlrol of access from ramp to crossroad may be
required where high volumes of exiting-entering traffic
would be subjected to hazards due to side road
entrances.
Figure 1.04.3
Access Control of Expressway on Location of Existing Road
Existing Highway Converted to a One-Way Frontage Road and New Frontage Road Added
/~
~ ~
•
,~ /-~,
i,- j
- ~j II - - IJ 1I- d ll -
--li- -I I- I ~ I
'"
li- I I
Right-ol-way line and

~::-::-__-- \ \' control 01 access line
A~"J: l",~\
""~"""""'~"""""'~~"""'~",(,\,"~,~""'"
~
~ Through-traffic rOadway::=:::.. l I_ Expressway
~
-----11__ ----_
Control 01 access line ~ """ ~, , ,/?: Existing highway
'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:?J ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-_ _ -0 - -_
1- Comm",;,';;;;' ~ J r,,-t: - r - 11 '" I -

I
Ri9ht-of-Way~I ,
I I I
I See note 3 I
.,,~ iI I
I I
Notes:
as a basis lor geometric layout.
2. Commercial areas might be located along crossroads and
frontage roads.
3. Control 01 access from ramp to crossroad may be
required where high volumes of exiting-entering traffic
entrances.
Figure 1.04.4
Access Control of Expressway on Location of Existing Road
Existing Parallel Highway Converted to a Two-Way Frontage Road
N
Ul (No second frontage road in right-of-way)
N
-
0'1
/ /
/
/
/ A;ght-ot-w", t;" , , _
I - / ~ Remainder ~ \ Right-of-way line and

control of access line
[
r I, -~ I~,":'"":'-:"'"":'"":'-:"'"":'"":' \~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~::L~:~~~-:~::~S:::)~~X~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~
L ~ """~-~" ~')A.. ~ ~","- "----See note 4 .i
,
/ \
,
/
- , /
Expressway

-0 /
,
/ / " -
/
- ,/
x~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\~~~~~~~~~~~
.
/ - Cont:;-ol access line

L - - ~\~
/ and right-ol-way line ~
""""7
Notes:
/
as a basis for geometric layout.
2. No commercial areas to serve highway traffic.
3. Alternate one-Right-ol-way occupied by connection to
land, remainder conveyed to political subdivision and
then considered to be outside of expressway.
4. Alternate two-No additional right-ol-way acquired for
frontage road that is constructed inside of freeway right
of-way line but control of access line considered to be
inside of frontage road as shown dashed.
5. Alternate three-Provide neither connection of stub
frontage road if severance damages are less than cost
of frontage road.
Figure 1.04.5
Access Control of Expressway on New Location
Frontage Road Connection to Land Remainder
• • " •
/
Right-ol-way line\
I -~----;
__ _J
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
/ ....,
4
-- /~/
/ / Expressway
z z r--r
~
/ / ..
/
~ /
/
~
// //_ ~~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\)
/ /"-~
/' / /' - / '---- Control 01 access line
"7 and right-ol-way line
":"""\::'7 . y
./"
I /
. .--/" . .
/
Notes:
as a basis lor geometric layout.
2. No commercial areas to serve highway traffic.

3. Alternate one-Right-ol-way occupied by connection
conveyed to political subdivision and then considered to
be outside 01 expressway.
4. Alternate two-No additional right-ol-way acquired lor
Irontage road that is constructed as in alternate two of
Figure 1.04.5
5. No ramps to crossroad.
Figure 1.04.6
,.... Access Control of Expressway on New Location
N
-..J Frontage Road Connection to Local Road
IV
00
Q)
Ol
C
"0
Q)
.t:
«i '~"
I ~ Q)
0 Commercial
Q) .~
(fl
Right-ol-way ~e_~_..3... _ £;
__J
""""""""
-
-
"0
e'"
(fl
(fl
""1 I oo
Notes:
I n
1. This drawing is diagrammatic only and is not to be used as
a basis lor geometric layout.
2. Commercial areas on crossroad serve highway.
3. Control 01 access along the outside 01 Irontage roads
between ramp terminals and crossroads may be re
quired where high volumes of exiting-entering traffic
entrances.
Figure 1.04.7
Access Control of Expressway on New Location
Intermittent Frontage Roads to Connect Intercepted Cross Streets
~,~g2~tj <"~"
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Right-ol-way line and control 01 a:ess line -1 _ ~<~~~

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1 This drawing is diagrammatic only and is not to be used as
a basis for geometric layout
2. A narrow pass corridor may be reserved where luture
multiple-use 01 right-ol-way under the structure is a
possibility.
3. Frontage Road-Animal Guard arrangement is illustrative
only. Different designs may be required, dependent upon
drainage requirements or other considerations.
Figure 1.04.8
Access Control of Expressway Passes
N
~ Expressway Severs Properly Resulting in Land Remainders on Each Side of Highway
/
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5 m locked gate
(Name of permittee)
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control of access line --I / ~
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Figure 1.04.9
Typical Example of a Locked Gate in a Remote Area
130
•
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---------------_.__.'
1.05 A
Section 1.05 Geometric and Struc
(I ture Standards
A. Sight Distance
I. General
3. Passing Sight Distance
Passing sight distance is the minimum sight
distance that must be available to enable the
Sight distance is the continuous length of road
driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle
way ahead, visible to the driver. Of utmost
safely and comfortably, without interfering
importance in highway design is the arrange
with the speed of an oncoming vehicle travel
ment of geometric elements so adequate sight
ing at the design speed.
distance exists for safe and efficient operation.
Two basic types of sight distance must be con It is important, for reasons of safety and serv
sidered; that required for stopping and that ice, to provide as many passing opportunities
required for passing overtaken vehicles. Safe on two-lane highways as possible. The passing
stopping sight distance must be provided con sight distance available on a section of high
tinuously on all highways. Safe passing sight way influences the average speed of the traffic,
distance is applicable only on two-lane high particularly when a highway is operating near
ways, primarily in rural or in outlying urban capacity.
areas. Sight distance for intersections at grade
Minimum values for passing sight distance are
including railroad crossings is covered under
shown in Table 1.05.1.
2-1.07.
4. Sight Distance Standards
2. Stopping Sight Distance
Table 1.05.1 shows the standards for stopping
Stopping sight distance is the distance required
and passing sight distances for various design
by the driver of a vehicle traveling at a given
and assumed running speeds. These are mini
speed to bring his vehicle to a stop after an
mum values, and wherever possible, larger
object on the roadway becomes visible.
values should be used.
The distance required for stopping under pre
vailing vehicle and climatic conditions depends Table 1.05.1
on the initial speed of the vehicle, the percep Sight Distance Standards
tion and reaction time of the driver, and the

Stopping Sight Distance
coefficient of friction between the tires and the
roadway. The minimum stopping sight dis Minimum Minimum
tance is computed using the following equa Assumed Coefficient Stopping Passing
Design Running Of Sight Sight
tion:
Speed Speed Friction Distance Distance
S = Vt + V2 S, Sp
(km/h) (km/h) (m) (m)
s 3.6 255f
where Ss = Minimum stopping sight distance 40 40 0.38 45 280
in meters 50 50 0.36 65 340
V = Vehicle running speed in 60 60 0.34 85 420
kilometers per hour 70 70 0.32 110 480
= Combined perception and 80 80 0.31 140 560
reaction time in seconds 90 90 0.30 170 620
f = Coefficient of friction 100 100 0.30 200 680
110 109 0.29 240 740
The minimum stopping sight distance values 120 118 0.28 280 (a)800
for various design and running speeds are 130 125 0.27 315 (a)860
shown in Table 1.05.1. These values have been 140 128 0.27 330 (a)920
rounded higher to the nearest 5 m and are
based on stopping on level grades, a perception (a) Applicable only 10 highways wilh full conlraJ ofacct'.\s.
and reaction time of 2.5 s, and coefficients of Nole: The minimum SlOpping sighl distances should be
friction for wet pavements. increased for SUSIailled downgrades as indicaled in Table
1.05.2.
Ie
I
133
I
I
1.05 A
Table 1.05.2 where K pc = K Value for passing sight
.'
Effect of Grade on Stopping Sight Distance distance at vertical crests
Sp = Minimum passing sight
Increase Stopping Sight
Design Distance for Downgrades (m)
distance
Speed Values for K for various design speeds are
(km/h) 3% 6% 9%
shown in Table 1.05.3.
40 2 4 6
Table 1.05.3
50 3 6 10 Crest Vertical Curve "K" Values
60 5 10 18
70 7 15 26 Minimum Vertical Curvature
80 9 21 (a) "K" Values
90 12 29 -
Design Stopping Passing
100 16 38 - Speed
Conditions Conditions
110 20 48 - (km/h)
Ksl ' K pc
120 24 (a) -
130 29 - - 40 5 83
140 35 - - 50
II 123
60
18 188
(a) Design Condition 70

30 244
80
49 333
•
90
72 408
•easurement of Sight Distance

100
99 490
~lght distance is measured from the driver's 110

143J 581.1
eyes, which are assumed to be 1.0~ m above 120 194 679
the pavement surface to an object on the road 130" 245 784
way ahead. For stopping sight distance the ob 140

269 898
ject is assumed to be 15 cm high. For passing
sight distance the object is assumed to be The m1l11111Um length of crest vertical curve
1.30 m high. determined using L = KA should be rounded
6. Sight Distance for Crest Vertical Curves higher to an even 10 m.
The minimum length of a crest vertical curve 7. Stopping Sight Distance for Sag Vertical
is controlled by stopping sight distance, or if Curves
passing is desired, by passing sight distance The minimum stopping sight distance for a sag
requirements. The minimum vertical curve vertical curve is controlled by stopping sight
length is expressed by the following equation: distance, which in turn, is controlled by the
vehicle headlight sight distance. The sag verti
L = KA cal curvature must be flat enough so that the
where L = Length of vertical curve headlights illuminate the roadway ahead for a
in meters distance of at least the stopping sight distance.
K - Expression of vertical curvature
(constant for each design speed)
A = Algebraic difference in percent
of gradient
The crest vertical curvature constant for stop
ping sight distance conditions is computed by
It is assumed that the headlight beam slopes
upward at an angle of I G from the plane of the
vehicle and that the height of the headlights is
0.6 m above the roadway. The minimum
length of vertical CUT\'e for the above condi
tions is expressed by the equation:
•
the equation: L = KA
S'
K sc = _s where the terms of the equation are as in Sec
405 tion 2-1.05A6. The sag vertical curvature con
where K sc= K Value for stopping sight stant is expressed by the equation:
distance at vertical crests S/
Kss =
Ss = Minimum stopping sight distance 122 + 3.5S s
The crest vertical curvat ure constant for pass where K ss = K Value for stopping sight
ing sight distance conditions is computed by distance at vertical sags
the equation: Ss = Stopping sight distance
Sp' Values for K for various design speeds are
K pc = 943 shown in Table 1.05.4.
134
•
1.05 A
Table 1.05.4 applicable. Some examples of obstructions are

Sag Vertical Curve "K" Values bridge piers, buildings, signs, and cut slopes.
• For Stopping Sight Distance
Design Speed
(km/h)
40
50
Minimum Vertical
Curvature "K" Value
Kss
8
12
The driver's line of sight to the roadway ahead
is intercepted by the obstruction. For stopping
sight distance, the height of this intercept is
assumed to be 0.60 m above the center of the
inside lane (inside with respect to the horizon
tal curve). The intercept height for passing
sight distance is assumed to be 1.17 m. These
60 18 intercept heights are for tangent grades and
70 24 must be adjusted up or down for vertical cur
80 32 vature.
90 41
100 49 The clearance, C, is the distance from the cen
110 60 ter of the inside lane to a point where the sight
120 71 line intercepts the obstruction. Figure 1.05.1
130 81 shows the relations between clearance, radius,
140 86 design speed and stopping sight distance. Fig
ure 1.05.2 shows the same information for
For aesthetics and driving comfort, sag vertical passing sight distance. To increase the clear
curve lengths determined from the above crite ance, the obstruction should be moved away
ria should be increased substantially if eco from the roadway, or possibly eliminated, or
nomically feasible. else the alignment must be revised.
. 8. Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 9. Sight Distance Through Underpasses
Where an obstruction on the inside of a hori Stopping sight distance must be maintained. If
zontal curve restricts sight distance, the mini economically feasible, passing sight distance
mum radius of curvature is determined by shall also be maintained as the highway passes
sight distance, either stopping or passing, as under a crossing structure.
Ifi
~r,;
•
135
Stopping sight distance

--Ci Highway
f
<\-. Inside lane
o
Line of sight
~ Sight obstruction
C = Rvers CO~RSs)
t>
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
E
Q) 300
c:
:l
() 400
'0 500
(/)
:l
'6
<ll
ex: 1,000
II
ex:
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16
C = Clearance from centerline inside lane

to sight obstruction (m)
Figure 1.05.1
Horizontal Clearance for Stopping
Sight Distance
•
136
• :,'-,,:
.------- ,~~_~'.;::.'!..~..l;:~-.~~~_>...,.,~.,"'~._,~ ..__ .,'.... '~_
• pa~ng sight distance (Sp)
~
~ HIghway
Inside lane
-
()
Line of sight
\ Sight obstruction
v ~ 40 S, ~ 280
C = R vers (1007TRS5) ,
V ~ 60 S,
--
Vo 50 S, ~ 340
~ <20
I - - V c 70 S, 0.' 480
I V = 80 S, -. 560
V = 90S, c. 620
200
V -= 100 S,C 680
•
300 f----+-++-+-t+++-t---+-:r-ifH:'t-::~7;17*- V 110 S, = 740
400 --I-:,,.L.J7"1HA7H;(l,-<r-.-h''J,;...... V ~ 120 S, ~ 800
500
600
f- I I I I I I III V = 130 S, = 860
700 V = 140 Se, 920
'00
900
E 1.000
~
Ql
2:
:>
<.l 2000
\/
0
en 3.000
Xv ~p
:> / v//x//.
:cec
w
4.000
5.000
'///V/
a:
II
a: 10,000
~
~
V ~IDesitn tefdl h, ('1'1
sp ~ Pas Ing! Sl&h~ ~sl~n~e {m)
20.000
30,000 ~
~ g ~ ~ £ Rg~ § ~
C = Clearance from centerline inside lane
to sight obstruction (m)
Figure 1.05.2
Horizontal Clearance for Passing
Sight Distance
•
137
1.05 B
B. Superelevation Table 1.05.6

I. Basic Criteria Minimum Radii for Superelevated Curves
As a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, cen
trifugal force is opposed by roadway super
Design Spee
(km/h)
Maximum SUDerelevation Rate (m/m)
0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
(
elevation and by side friction between the tires

40 55 50 45 45
and the roadway surface. The minimum al
lowable radius for any design speed can be 50 90 85 75 70
computed using the following equation: 60 135 125 lIS 105
70 185 170 ISS 145
V2 250 230 210 195
R = 80
127 (e+f) 90 335 305 280 255
where R = Minimum radius of circular 100 440 395 360 330
curve in meters 110 560 500 455 415
V = Vehicle speed in kilometers per 120 710 630 565 515
hour 130 885 785 700 635
e = Maximum superelevation rate in 140 1,100 965 860 770
meters per meter
f = Side friction factor 2. Superelevation Rates
The maximum superelevation rates for various
Side friction factors for wet pavements are
highway design classifications are shown in
used for l-tighway design. The maximum safe
Table 1.05.7.
'es ot side friction factors for various design
"r _cds are shown in Table 1.05.5. Table 1.05.7
Maximum Superelevation Rates
Table 1.05.5
Maximum Safe Side Friction Factors Desirable Absolute
Highway Maximum Maximum
Design Speed Side Friction Design Superelevation Superelevation
(km/h) Factor Class Rate Rate
(m/m) (m/m)
40 0.17
50 0.16 Expressway 0.08 0.10
60 0.15 Arterial 0.08 0.10
70 0.15 Collector 0.08 0.12
80 0.14/ Local 0.10 0.12
90 0.13
100 0.12 Lower superelevation rates for all classifica
110 0.11 tions of highways may be necessary in urban
120 0.10 areas where restricted speed zones or at-grade
130 0.09 intersections are controlling factors. In addi
140 0.08 tion, established street grades, curbs, or drain
age may impose limitations on design. Such
:num radii of curves for various design conditions may warrant, for example, a reduc
speeds and maximum rates of superelevation
are shown in Table 1.05.6. The radii have been
tion in the superelevation rate, different rates
for each half of the roadbed, or both. In warp
(
rounded to the nearest 5 m. ing street cross sections for drainage, adverse
138
1.05 B
superelevation should be avoided. A super w = Width of traveled way in meters

elevation rate of not more than 0.06 mlm shall r = Percent of runoff slope
•• be used for urban arterial highways with the

above conditions.
A maximum superelevation rate of 0.08 to 0.12
mlm is used for ramps and turning roadways
associated with interchanges and at-grade
intersections.
For example, a two-lane highway has a design
speed of 80 kmlh, a traveled way width of 7.3
m, and a superelevation rate of 0.10 m/m. The
minimum length of superelevation runoff
should be 73 m. To simplify design, runoff
lengths should be selected to be compatible
with the whole numbered transition curve pa
3. Axis of Rotation
rameter, A, and radius, R.
a. Undivided Highways. The axis of rotation
for superelevation shall be at the centerline Table 1.05.8
of the roadbed. However, in special cases Superelevation Runoff Slopes
such as roads in flat country where curves

are preceded by long, relatively level Design Speed Runoff Slope
(km/hl Percent "r"
tangents, the plane of superelevation should
be rotated about the inside edge of the trav 40 0.74
eled way. This will improve perception of 50 0.66
the curve and avoid drainage pockets. 60 0.59
.,
1i.·.:.:Z.<i!;
b. Ramps and Expressway Connections. The
axis of rotation may be either the edge of the
traveled way or the centerline. Appearance
and drainage considerations shall be taken
into account when selecting the axis of rota
70
80
90
100
110
120
0.54
a.. 50
0.47
0.44
0.41
0.38
tion.
130 0.36
c. Divided Highways. The axis of rotation 140 0.34
shall be at the median edge of each traveled
way, except as follows: To avoid a sawtooth For expressway and arterial highways, the
effect on bridges with decked-medians, the minimum length of superelevation runoff shall
axis of rotation shall be at the centerline. be 50 m. For collector and local highways, the
The selection of the axis of rotation shall minimum shall be 30 m.
always be considered in conjunction with
For long transitIOn curves where the runoff
the design of the profile grade and
slope, r, is less than 0.30 percent, the attain
superelevation transition.
ment of superelevation within the super
4. Superelevation Development elevation runoff as shown in Figure 1.05.3
The superelevation development shall be de should be modified as follows:
signed to satisfy the requirements of safety and a. From section B (level on the high side.
comfort and should be pleasing in appearance. normal crown on the low side) to section C
Figure 1.05.3 illustrates the desirable methods (superelevation at the normal crown rate),
-~ for developing superelevation. When transition the runoff slope should be 0.30 percent.
~ curves are used, the transition curve and
b. From section C to section D (full
superelevation runoff should be coincident. On
superelevation), the runoff slope should be
circular curves without transition curves, two
less than 0.30 percent.
thirds of the superelevation runoff shall be
placed on the tangent before the curve. The In special restrictive situations where the stan
length of the superelevation runoff shall be dard superelevation rate is not feasible or the
long enough so the runoff slope meets the cri desirable runoff length is not attainable, the
teria shown in Table 1.05.8. The runoff slope is highest possible rate and longest length respec
in longitudinal gradient between the edge of tively shall be used. These situations occur on
the traveled way profile and the center of the interchange ramps, frontage roads, and sepa
traveled way profile. The minimum length of rate turning lanes where the length of radius,
superelevation runoff can be computed using curve, and adjacent tangents are short.
the following equation:
After the superelevation development is de
L = 50 ew signed, profiles of edges of the traveled way
r should be plotted and irregularities removed
where L = Minimum superelevation runoff by introducing smooth curves. Flat areas that
may not drain properly must be avoided.
length in meters
e = Superelevation rate 5. SupereJevation of Broken Back Curves
in meters per meter
Broken back horizontal alignment occurs
139
1.05 B
when two adjacent curves in the same direc the distance from the ETC of the first curve to
tion are connected by a short tangent. Broken the BTC of the second curve is less than 30 m,
back alignment should be avoided, but when then a linear transition from section B (see
its use is necessary, special attention must be

given to the superelevation between the curves.
figure 1.05.3) of the first curve to section B of
the second curve should be made. In this situa
tion, section A between the reversing curves
The "control distance" is the combined length

will be at a level cross slope and not at the
of the two superelevation runoff lengths for the

normal crown cross slope.
two circular curves of the broken back combi

nation. When the distance between circular 7. Superelevation Charts
curves is less than 1.5 times the control dis Figures 1.05.4 through 1.05.7 show the re
tance, continuous superelevation should be quired superelevation rates for various curve
carried from the first curve to the second. If radii and design speeds for maximum
the radii of the two curves are different, the superelevation rates of 0.06, 0.08, 0.10, and
superelevation rates will be different. When the 0.12 m/m respectively.
distance between circular curves is between 1.5
and 2.5 times the control distance, a relatively 8. Superelevation of Shoulders
flat superelevation rate should be used between The maximum change in cross slope between
the curves. When the distance between curves the paved shoulder and the traveled way shall
is greater than 2.5 times the control distance, be 0.025 m/m. The application of
continuous superelevation should not be used superelevation on the shoulder shall be ad
•
between the curves. A normal crown section justed to meet this standard.
lid be attained between the curves, with
~_ Ai curve superelevated independently. The superelevation rates for paved shoulders
shall be as shown in Figure 1.05.8.
6. Superelevation of Reverse Curves
Where the traveled way and shoulders are
Sufficient length shall be provided between re gravel surfaced, the cross slope of the shoul
versing horizontal curves so that adequate ders shall match the cross slope of the traveled
superelevation runoff lengths can be provided. way.
If two reversing curves are close together and
140
Tangent
;;;1--.' Superelevatlon runoff
Runout
•
5
u uu
tu uu
mw
Slope 1:400 [ \ u
5 RunoHslope ")---.----~fOutside
------ edge of traveled way
I
'§ ~.
[D
...... Normal --
--- It Grade u.~
>
crown -~
...- - - Q)
------ Jl
---------...
Q.
Inside edge of traveled way
-- - -- .
<l; m u 0
It Profile control
~
-
Traveled way revolved about centerline
Tangent
Superelevation runoff
Runou!
(;
u u
u u
U CD LU
.......
I
LU OutSI edge of traveled way

(; Runoff slope ~ _____ -
"-; -~~---
J. ~. ,.....,.., .
Slope
U
I-
m
- - - et Grade
-
Normal It profile gra~
"S
u. Qj
~
- >
Q)_
- , , - - ~~~~~~~~~~-- -- _ Jl =-=--=
- - -
Normal
crown
Inside dge of traveled way
U 0
_ Ir
side edge
~--
Profile control
Traveled way revolved about inside edge
ToIClrly~rll Superelevation runoff

Runout
u
I-
U
U
LU LU
(; 0
U U
I- U
---n-
CD Outside edge of tra' eled way
_ _ _ _ Normal It profile grade [D
/_-----
""- Normal
crown - ---- ---=--=---=-----------.......=-------=-------- c:
~.
- -- - -- 't Grade
.Q
co
---- ~ -- -
= &i
-"-:1---
lID Q;
<l; co u
Runoff slope - - __
- -
Q.
:'l
~_ .
Inside edge of trav eled way
Outside edge
Profile control
Traveled way revolved about outside edge
Notes:
A = Normal crown,
8 = Level highside, normal crown low side
C = Superelevation at normal crown rate
o = Full superelevation
Figure 1.05.3
Development of Su.perelevation
•
9,000~~HtjJL IT:Lq~iJ i~1l<jd~
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.
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a:
II
a:
200
..
~_~C':: : ~=
e
:.',.
o 0.02 0.04 0.06

e = Superelevation rate, m/m
Notes:
V Design speed. km/h
RC =
Remove crown and superelevate at
normal crown rate
NC = Normal crown, superelevation not required
Figure 1.05.4
Design Superelevation Rates
.'
eMax. = 0.06
142
( -.. .-::l"ZO
. _-l
\ ~~J.j..
5,000
=t=:;::=:::..::=--"==J=-::;+----+== .. ~C" ::..::.c::L=

:c-~::::
._-~_=:-=~
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-<----.---
r===r: ~=--:.::.:....----:
-~ --
2,000
E
ai
>
:; 1'\
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eli
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o
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o
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II
a:
h ",,",M' I--:~ ~
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r---~ ~_:=f--~-=-=--_,=-.=_-.~ -:_~_.-----'_. ~--~=_-~--=~ ~_~
r---'-~~f__---_;_ ~-~- -~--- ---~- - - - - - ~=-=-~. --~
f---c-,---;---'-t--c------+-...---,----- ---r~--- - ~ -- - f---- - - ----- ~--
100 - '-r---= _--c--- 1'<..= - ~ --"
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£(, ._-- =-~-=:
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~~ ,......,-- f--------,------ t--~~
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-- + - __ +- ~ _~d-' :~....... ~~ ~ __. ~~~---;---===
~::r---+ __ ..~-= :_~,_-==§ -;=:
o 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
e = Superelevation rate. m/m
Notes:
V = Design speed, km/h
RC = Remove crown and superelevate at
normal crown rate
NC = Normal crown. superelevation not required
Figure 1.05.5
Design Superelevation Rates
e!\lax. = 0.08
143
•
f~
1
j
~
~ ~ ~
~~
II ~
III
a
a a
~ '"
w 'aNn:> /eluozlJ04 10 snlpet/ = t/
~ I 'tlt++++I+I,++H+++
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a o a a
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al
W 'allJn:J lejuozlJoLj )0 snlpel::! = l::!
•
1.05 C
I' Sh,,"e'l n"e:d we, rhO'ldee,1 new conditions. In this way, erratic operation
and accidents can be minimized as the driver
0.015 m/m _ 0.015 m/m ~ 0.015 m/m - 0.015 m/m

will not be surprised by the need for a sudden
decrease in operating speed. (
Sharp curves should not be introduced on high

fills. In the absence of physical objects above
Normal Crown Section the roadways, a driver may have difficulty in
estimating the severity of the curve and fail to
adjust to the conditions.
Abrupt reversals in alignment should be
avoided. When reverse curves are too close
together, it is difficult to superelevate them ad
equately, thus resulting in hazardous and er
ratic operation. A reversal in alignment is
suitably designed by including transition
curves of sufficient length between two revers
Superelevated Section ing circular curves to allow for superelevation
CD = 6-0.025 m/m runoff.
® = 0.04 m/m or e, whichever is greater
Broken-back curve combinations composed of
•
a short tangent between two curves in the same
Figure 1.05.8
direction should be avoided. The use of transi
Superelevation of Paved Shoulders
tion curves or compound circular curves that
will provide some degree of continuous curva
C. Horizontal Alignment ture and superelevation is preferable under
such conditions.
I. General Controls
Horizontal alignment is a combination of cir Compound circular curves should be joined by
cular curves, transition curves, and tangents. transition curves, especially when the radius of
Horizontal alignment must provide for safe the flatter curve is more than 33 percent
and continuous operation at a uniform design greater than the radius of the sharper curve. In
speed for substantial lengths of highway. some situations it may be possible to substitute
a long transition curve for one of the circular
The major considerations in the design of hori curves of a compound combination.
zontal alignment are safety, highway design
class, design speed, topography, vertical align For small central angles, curves should be of
ment, construction cost, cultural development, sufficient length to avoid the appearance of a
and aesthetics. All these factors must be kink. Curves should be at least 300 m long for
balanced to produce an alignment that is safe, a central angle of 6G or less.
economical, and in harmony with the natural On divided multilane highways, independent
..,tour of the land. horizontal and vertical alignments may be
2. Standards for Curvature used for each travel direction to fit the terrain
and produce a pleasing appearance. See HDM
Except as noted below, the minimum radii of 1-2.05B.
superelevated curves are shown in Table

1.05.6. Every effort should be made to exceed 4. Alignment at Bridges
the minimum values, and minimum radii Except for very long bridges, the highway
should be used only when the cost or other alignment governs, and the bridge must be laid
adverse effects of a higher standard are incon out to fit the highway. However, where possi
sistent with the benefits. ble, the alignment should be designed to avoid
3. Alignment Consistency having superelevation transitions end on a
bridge because this usually results in an un
Horizontal alignment should be as directional sightly appearance of the bridge and its railing.
as possible, compatible with the topography. A Therefore, if at all possible, the entire bridge
flowing curvilinear alignment conforming gen should be on a tangent, on a circular curve, on
erally to the natural contours is preferable to a transition curve, or on a circular curve and a
an alignment of long tangents. Successive radii transition curve, but not a combination of the
must have a balanced proportion. Sudden three. Safety and operational considerations
changes from a tangent or a long radius to a take precedence, however, and must not be
short radius should be avoided. A gradual de sacrificed to meet the above criteria.
crease in radii should be introduced to allow
the driver to adjust his operating speed to the (
146
5. Alignment at Intersections and Interchanges 7. Transition Curves
The horizontal alignment at intersections or at Transition curves should be used on all hori
( interchanges should be on tangent sections or zontal curves with radii equal to or less than
on flat circular curves with little or no those shown in Table 1.05.9.
superelevation. For further details see 2-1.07
8. Horizontal Curve Elements
and 2-1.08.
The elements for circular and transition curves
6. Passing are shown in Figures 1.05.9 and 1.05.10. An
Passing shall be provided on two-lane high gular measurements for horizontal curves shall
ways as frequently as possible in keeping with be expressed in grads, linear measurements in
the terrain. meters.
Table 1.05.9
Transition Curve Requirements
Design Speed
(km/h) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Radius
400 500 800 1,000 1,700 1,900 2,100 2,300 2,600 3,000 4,000
(m)
t., a:
a:
..'\ ~~:;:::-:'cK:--:t
----t
_
- L
c
--.::::.:..
Circular Curve Symmetrical Form of Transition to Circular Curve
Elements: Elements:
··
... '
PI = Point of Tangent Intersection PI = Point of Tangent Intersection
f· BCC = Beginning of Circular Curve BTC = Beginning of Transition Curve

' ECC = End of Circular Curve BCC = Beginning of Circular Curve
6 c = Deflection Angle of Circular Curve ECC = End of Circular Curve
R = Radius of Circular Curve ETC = End of Transition Curve
T = Tangent 6 = Total Deflection Angle
Lc = Length of Curve 6 T = Deflection Angle of Transition Curve
6 c = Deflection Angle of Circular Curve
R = Radius of Circular Curve
MT = Main Tangent
Figure 1.05.9
TK = Short Tangent of Transition Curve
Circular Curve Elements TL = Long Tangent of Transition Curve
X.. = Abscissa of the Center of Radius Point
6 R = Circular Curve Offset
X = Abscissa of BCC or ECC
Y = Ordinate of BCC or ECC
LT = Length of Transition Curve
Lc = Length of Circular Curve
Figure 1.05.10
Transition and Circular Curve Elements
147
1.05 D, E
D. Curve Widening A "roller coaster" or "hidden dip" type of

1. General profile grade should be avoided. A smoothly
The rear wheels of vehicles do not follow the
front wheels exactly on horizontal curves, and
rolling grade line, however, rather than a
straight grade line can often result in economy (
of construction without sacrificing operating

it is more difficult to steer the vehicle on characteristics and aesthetics.
curves. For these reasons, it is good practice to
increase traveled way widths on curves. How A broken-back grade line (two vertical curves
ever, widening of less than 0.6 01 accomplishes in the same direction separated by a short sec
little in improved operation and shall not be tion of tangent grade) is not desirable, particu
used. larly in sags where a full view of the profile is
possible.
2. Application
Where an at-grade intersection occurs on a
Traveled way widening values are shown in highway with moderate to steep grades, the
Table 1.05.10. Widening shall be placed on the gradient through the intersection shall be re
inside of curves and shall be transitioned duced, if possible. This is beneficial for vehicles
throughout the length of the superelevation making turns and stops, and serves to reduce
runoff. potential hazards.
E. Vertical Alignment A superelevation runoff occurring on a vertical
1. General Controls curve requires special attention in order to en
. --,-tical alignment consists of a series of sure that the required minimum vertical curva
ture is maintained across the pavement. For
O' ddients connected by vertical curves. It is
example, the lane profile on the opposite side
controlled by safety, topography, highway de
of the roadway from the superelevation control
sign class, design speed, horizontal alignment,
line may have sharper curvature due to the
construction cost, cultural development, drain
change in superelevation rate required by the
age, vehicular characteristics, and aesthetics.
superelevation runoff. It is, therefore, neces
The vertical alignment is usually referred to as
sary to check both edge profiles and adjust
the profile grade or the grade line.
where necessary in order to maintain the de
A smooth profile grade with gradual changes, sired minimum vertical curvature.
consistent with the class of highway and the
In flat terrain, the elevation of the grade line is
character of the terrain, is preferable to a verti
often controlled by drainage. The grade line
cal alignment with numerous sharp breaks and
must be positioned so that adequate drainage
short lengths of grade.
structures can be constructed.
Table 1.05.10
Traveled Way Widening for Horizontal Curves
I Radius
Of 3.65 m Lane Width
Radius Pavement Widening (m)
3.25 m Lane Width
...:urve
(m)
40
Design Speed (kmlh)
50 60 70 80 40 50
Design Speed (km/h)
60 70 80 90 100
(
500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6
400 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.6
350 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7
300 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7
250 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8
200 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
175 0 0 0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8
150 0 0 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
125 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
100 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9
80 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.1
60 0.8 1.1
50 0.9 1.3
45 1.0 1.4
Notes: Widening shown is Jar two-lane pavements in either one or two directions.
For three-la/ze pavements in one direction. multiply above values by 1.5.
For Jour-lane pavements in one direction. multiply above values by 2.0. (
'
148
1.05 E
Table 1.05.11
Maximum Percent of Gradients
(
Design
Highway Design Class
Speed Expressway Arterial Collector Local
(km/h)
Desir Abso Desir Abso Desir Abso Desir Abso
able lute able lute able lute able lute
40 8 12/
50 7 9 7 II
60 6 8 6 10
70 4.5 6 5 6 5.5 9
80 4 5 4 5 4 7 5 8
90 3.5 5 3.5 5 3.5 6.5 5 7
100 3 5 3 5 3 6
110 2.5 4.5 2.5 4.5
120 2.5 4 2.5 4
130 2 3.5
140 2 3
In areas where the surface water is above the position of the grade line should be as follows:
ground level or the ground water table is im
a. Undivided Highways
mediately below the surface, the grade line
shall be established so that the low edge of the The grade line should coincide with the
finished shoulder is at least 0.5 m above the highway centerline.
water level. In areas of rock, if practical, the b. Ramps and Directional Highway
grade line should be established so that the low Connections
edge of the finished shoulder is at least 0.3 m
The grade line may be positioned at either
above the rock level. This will avoid unnec
essary rock excavation. edge of the traveled way or at the centerline.
c. Divided Highways
For aesthetic reasons, the length of vertical
curves should be substantially longer than the The grade line may be positioned at either
length required for stopping sight distance. the centerline of the highway or at the me
dian edge of the traveled way.
2. Grade Standards
4. Vertical Curves
Maximum gradients for various highway de
sign classes and design speeds are shown in Properly designed vertical curves will provide
Table 1.05.11. adequate sight distance, safety, comfortable
driving, good drainage and pleasing a~(:'
Minimum longitudinal gradients for highways ance.
{,
and ditches are shown in Table 1.05.12.
Table 1.05.12
A parabolic curve is used. Figure 1.05.11

shows the different types of vertical curves and
Minimum Percent of Gradients
gives the necessary mathematical relations for
For All Design Classes
computing vertical curves.
Gradient Forcl~jgl1 sp-~_ds_.DL.6Q1mLh gX more, the

minImum length ofver:t!f:il curve sI1ilifbe"TUO
Design Element Desirable Absolute
'lin. (%) Min. (%) neFal-design speeds of 50 km/hanclhelo\\:;It
Shall be 50 m whenever feasible. Vertical
Cuts or Fills curves with curvature that is too flat may de
Curbed 0.5 0.25 velop poor drainage. This difficulty may be
Uncurbed 0.5 0.5 overcome by a slight gutter or ditch grade ad
Flat Bottomed justment or by shortening the vertical curve.
Ditches 0.5 0.05 In special cases, unsymmetrical vertical curves
..v.. ditches 0.5 0.25 may be used provided that sight distance and
other criteria set forth herein are not violated.
3. Position with Respect to Cross Section 5. Heavy Grades
The elevation of the pavement, subgrade, and Except in level country, it is often not econom
other features of the highway are established ically feasible to design a profile grade that will
by the grade line. allow uniform operating speeds for all classes
In relation to the cross section, the horizontal of vehicles. Long sustained grades are some
times unavoidable.
149
For truck operation, a profile grade with sec For design purposes, a design truck having a
tions of maximum gradient broken by lengths mass-power ratio of 250 g/w is recommended
of flatter grade is preferable to a long sustained

grade only slightly below the maximum. It is
to represent an appropriate lower level of per
formance. Figure 1.05.12 shows the operating (
considered good practice to use the steeper characteristics for such a design truck on as
gradients at the bottom of the grade, thus de cending and descending grades.
veloping slack for lighter gradients at the top.

A climbing lane shall begin when the design
These steeper gradients, however, should be

truck experiences a speed reduction of 20
appraised for their effect upon the downhill

km/h from the normal operating speed.
speed of trucks.
Climbing lanes should end where the design
6. Critical Length of Grade and Climbing truck regains a speed equivalent to or higher
Lanes than the speed for which the climbing lane was
The critical length of grade is that combination initiated. This usually places the end of the
of percent of gradient and length that will climbing lane beyond the crest of a vertical
cause a designated design truck to operate at curve, where sight distance is somewhat re
some predetermined minimum speed. A lower stricted. Sight distances should be checked and
speed is considered unacceptable for safety and where necessary, the climbing lane should be
operational efficiency. There are two alterna extended. The minimum length of a climbing
tives that should be considered when the de lane should be 250 m, excluding tapers.
sign gradient exceeds the critical length. Figure 1.05.13 illustrates the design of climb
1. Adjust the profile un til it is no. longer

·..:ritical, or
b. add an auxiliary climbing lane for slow
moving vehicles.
Factors affecting the design for climbing lanes
ing lanes. The width of an auxiliary climbing
lane should be the same as the width of the
normal travel lanes. The transition lengths at
the beginning and end of the climbing lane
shall be determined in accordance with

2-1.05H4.
•
are volume warrant criteria, truck mass-power 7. Separate Grade Lines
ratios related to climbing characteristics, speed
reduction criteria, and critical lengths of Separate or independent grade lines are appro
grades. priate in some cases for divided highways,
where medians are more than 10 m wide.
The justification for a climbing lane is usually
based on highway service volume. A climbing 8. Grade Line at Structures
lane is considered necessary when the DHV The grade line under grade separation struc
equals or exceeds the design capacity of the tures shall provide a minimum vertic?-J.c'~ar
highway on the grade. The provision of a anceQf5.5 m plus an aIlowanceforJO cmo[
climbing lane will reduce the percentage of [uture w~aring course.
grade-affected vehicles in the through lane,

Where vertical curves are required on bridges,
and the through lane can then handle the re
a minimum longitudinal gradient of 2 mm per
maining demand volume. The service volume
m should be provided. This minimum gradient
'1e highway grade should be determined in
aL:cordance with 2-1.03.
should not extend over a length greater than
15 m each side of the crest or sag point in
(
Climbing lanes can also be justified on speed order to provide adequate runoff. The mini
reduction alone, even though adequate high mum gradient on a short bridge shaIl be 0.12
way capacity will exist without their use. percent. On long bridges where drainage is
Where significant speed reduction will occur, confined to the bridge, the minimum shaIl be
the safety and operational aspects of the high 0.25 percent.
way shall be evaluated and judgment exercised
in determining whether or not to include
climbing lanes.
150
(
Deceleration Curves
~;-"'~<'''''
~ E~- ~ ;;
80 ----- i
~ y-
~-?'-'"~g,,,,,,-
E 601
:2 '\1\. '" .... I.. . . . . .......
""" 1- =t-- ---,f---II
.....
..><:
............, I I
II .P
~
2=- X ~
"0401 1\"1'0
,~ \ \ '1 " I ' .... 1 I I
-7 O; "\
~'l. ~
..><:
g,=+ g201-- I \ 'l=? I I I
.= ' I
(a) (b)
o I I I I , ! I I
Types of vertical curves: (a) Sag curves. (b) Crest curves. a 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Distance (m)
Q)' .,.../
Speed vs distance chart on uniform ascending grades
for trucks with mass: power = 250 g/W
.,... .,.../
~. :>
ct.
BOr---
Acceleration Curves
777V7:::;::oj:::;;:
00
~ 60 0
E 1
0
0
..><:
2'0
Symmetrical Vertical Curve
Elements: oL I I I ! I I
g, and g2 = Gradients in percent o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
PVC = Beginning of vertical curve Distance (m)
PVI = Point of gradient intersection
PVT = End of vertical curve Speed vs distance chart on uniform descending and
E = External distance (mid ordinate) in meters
ascending grades for trucks with mass: power = 250 g/W
d = Elevation difference from g, to the vertical curve in meters
Ip = Length of parabolic curve in meters Figure 1.05.12
f = Length to any point on the vertical curve in meters Truck Operation on Ascending
Ic = Length to the level point on the vertical curve in meters
11 And Descending Grades
~
Equations:
g, - G2
E = Ip ( 800 Note:
g, - g2 in these
t2 equations is the
d = E [ ('l2lp)2 algebraic difference
(AD) in gradient.
g,
to = g, - g2 (Ip)
Figure 1.05.11
Symmetrical Vertical Curves
f }\
lSI
Notes:
Lp =600 m
Use the deceleration and acceleration curves of Figure
1.05.12 to find proper length and location of climbing lane

shown on sketch.
When AD <4% the vertical curve is ignored and the

E E (
fA--
distance between P.I.'s are used.
When AD >4% that vertical curve should be approximated

by the use of the average grade connecting the quarter
points on the semitangents of the vertical curve
(see PVI 3 on sketch). '<t
C\l
-1% 1,000 m
:>
a.
0%
-\-1.5%
80 km/h
O%\~ '"
:>
a.
1,100 m Climbing lane
90 m Transition 135 m Transition
.r.
......
E
-"
15
.r.
E
-"
g
•
Figure 1.05.13
Design of Climbing Lanes
F. Combination of Horizontal and Vertical ished facility in three dimensions.

Alignments
To obtain the proper combination of horizon
I. General tal and vertical alignment the following guide
Horizontal and vertical alignments shall not be lines shall be used during the design of the
designed independently. They complement highway.
each other, and poorly designed combinations a. Horizontal curvature and grades shall be
can impair the good points and intensify the in proper balance with the terrain and area
•
deficiencies of each. Excellence in the design of traversed.
;zontal and vertical alignments and in the

~ Agn of their combination increases safety,
b. Superimposing vertical curvature upon
encourages uniform speed, and improves ap horizontal curvature will generally provide
pearance, in most cases with little additional improved appearance. This combination
cost. It is extremely difficult and costly to shall, however, be analyzed for its effect
come back later and correct alignment defi upon traffic operations, and safety.
ciencies. Once a facility is constructed with c. Sharp horizontal curvature including re
poorly designed alignment combinations, it verse horizontal curvature shall not be intro
will in all likelihood remain in operation for duced at pronounced grade crests or grade
many years. sags.
2. Design Controls d. Short vertical curvature shall be avoided
Standards cannot be established for the rela on long horizontal curves.
tionship between horizontal and vertical e. Two-lane highways shall provide adequate
alignments. Nor can the subject be dealt with safe passing opportunities. This requirement
in isolation without reference to the broader may limit the achievement of desirable hori
subject of highway location. Horizontal and zontal and vertical alignment combinations.
vertical alignments are mutually interrelated

and what may be said about one may be appli f. Horizontal curvature and profile shall be
cable to the other. In the centerline projection made as flat as feasible at intersections.
stage as well as during the design phase of a

highway, one should try to visualize the fin
g. On divided highways, variable width
medians and independent vertical and hori
(
1.05 G
zontal alignments for each direction shall be From an operational and safety standpoint,
considered where such combinations would one-way frontage roads are preferred. One-way
// result in reduced cost or improved opera operation inconveniences local traffic to some
(
tions. degree, but reduction in vehicular and pedes
trian conflicts at intersecting streets often fully
h. The alignments shall be designed to en
compensates for this inconvenience. Also, slip
hance attractive scenic views of the natural
ramps from a frontage road to a highway are
and manmade environment, such as wadis,
permitted only on one-way frontage roads.
rock formations, parks, and outstanding
buildings. 3. Outer Separation
Horizontal and vertical coordination is espe The area between the traveled ways of the
cially important when the highway is visible main highway and the frontage road is the
ahead for long distances. For long oblique outer separation. Such separations function as
viewing distances, each deviation in the hori traffic buffers and provide space for ramps or
zontal alignment and the profile will be re intersection connections to or from the high
vealed, and unless these deviations are gradual, way.
they will be visually magnified. For example, a The wider the outer separation, the less influ
distant view of a long grade will show sharp ence local traffic will have on highway traffic.
grade changes as bumps. A distant oblique Wide separations lend themselves to landscape
view of a highway will show short horizontal
..
treatment and enhance the appearance of both

curves, inadequate median tapers, or sharp the highway and the adjoining property. Also,
vertical curves as objectionable kinks. if the outer separation can be made at least
G. Frontage Roads 18 m wide, there will be no need for a traffic
barrier between the highway and the frontage
I. Function road. See 2-1.15.
Frontage roads have several functions, depend In urban and mountainous areas, an outer sep
ing on the type of highway they serve and the aration of 8 m or minimum shall be provided.
character of the surrounding area. A greater width shall be provided when it is
a. Control of Access obtainable with little additional cost. In rural
areas, other than in mountainous terrain, it is
A frontage road allows the number of access
desirable to have an outer separation of 12 m
points to the main highway to be minimized.
or more. Where ramp connections are pro
b. Segregation of Traffic vided between the through roadway and
Relatively high-speed through traffic can be the frontage road, the outer separation must
segregated from the lower speed local traffic be substantially wider than normal, see
by frontage roads. This will preserve the 2-l.05G4. The required width will depend
safety and capacity of the main highway. upon design requirements at the ramp termini.
The outer separation shall be sufficiently wide
c. Service to Local Traffic to minimize the effects of approaching traffic,
Road approaches and driveways can be ac particularly the confusing and distracting
.If" headlight glare at night. With one-way front
commodated by frontage roads. Also,
l frontage roads can re-establish the continu age roads, the outer separation need not be as
wide as with two-way frontage roads.
ity of an existing local road or street system
that has been interrupted by a new highway. The cross section and treatment of an outer
d. Highway Maintenance and Operations separation strip depends largely upon its
width, the type of highway, and the type of
Continuous frontage roads, and to a lesser
frontage road. Preferably, the strip shall drain
extent discontinuous frontage roads, may be
away from the main highway either to a curb
used to handle emergency traffic during
and gutter at the frontage road or to a swale
maintenance operations or during the emer
within the strip. Cross section requirements for
gency closing of the main highway.
frontage roads are discussed further in 2-1.06.
2. Location
4. Terminals
Frontage roads generally are, but need not be,
Frontage roads should be terminated at
parallel to the highway. They mayor may not
intersections with crossroads, at slip ramps, or
be continuous, and they may be provided on
at connections with a local road or street sys
one or both sides of the highway. Where the
tem.
highway diagonally crosses a grid street system
or where the street pattern is irregular, the Where a crossroad or street is intersected by a
frontage roads may be located at a variable frontage road as well as a ramp from the main
distance.
153
1.05 H
highway, an adequate distance must be pro 2. Two-Lane to Four-Lane Transition

vided between these multiple intersections. Typical transitions from two-lane to four-lane
This distance shall be as follows:
a. Rural areas, 100 m.
pavements are shown in Figure 1.05.14.
3. Median Width Transitions
(
b. Urban areas, 50 m where traffic signals
Whenever two abutting highway sections have
will not be used; 120 m where traffic signals
different median widths, a smooth transition
will be used or are justified for future use.
shall adjust the difference. On a horizontal
Frontage road terminals are essentially at curve, the median can be uniformly narrowed
grade intersections and should be designed in or widened to adjust the difference in width.
accordance with 2-1.07. On a tangent section, the transition may be
applied about the centerline, or either edge of
H. Traveled Way Transitions the median. For good appearance, the transi
1. General
tion length should be as long as possible and
should occur within a horizontal curve.
A traveled way transition is the area of varia
ble pavement width encountered when chang

4. Auxiliary Lane Transitions
ing from one highway width or cross section to
Typical transitions to and from auxiliary lanes
another. Whenever possible, the entire transi
are shown in Figure 1.05.15.
tion should be visible to the driver of a vehicle
approaching the narrower section.

5. Temporary Connections
••
~
transition should normally be made on a Very often a new project will have slightly
l""lgent section. However, a transition on a flat wider travel lanes and/or shoulder widths than
circular curve is also acceptable if the direction the existing highway at the project termini. To
of the curve is in the same direction as the shift provide a smooth transition from an existing to
in the traveled way centerline. Intersections a new section of highway, the length of pave
at-grade within the transition should be ment transition in meters shall be at least 2.25
avoided. times the design speed in kilometers per hour.
(
154
A,;A ~
r"':"'~~ \,
"..
Case 1 L
-
I
approach to two-,ahe section-narrow median.
/6.10 m .7.30 m ,
\ 65m Double traffic stripe and raised bars _
R ~~ml 3. l -V
l-I
L "- \
"
--
I
.
= h -
-- I 130m ~ 7.30 m
.-./' • 215 m ~~
(No passing traffic stripe) --'
0t-
CI:z
t--
zO
Oel.
o
Case 2
Curved approach to two-lane section-wide median.
R 2.300 m ~
h
-- I. 130 m ~L7.30 m
---
215 m 15 m
~ ~
(No passing traffic stripe) Equation
--'
0t-
CI:z L=2,3 V Where L=Len!;jth of variable width traveled way in m
t--
zO V=Deslgn speed In km/h
Oel.
Case 3 o
60 m L
Tangent appro ach to two-lane section
3.65 m"l C3.65 m I Double traffic stripe and raised bars 7.30 m \
L tJ
7 __ I L
~ r -"-_\~ ~ \ \ \_\\ \ --
7.30 m
150 m 120 m L R 915 m min.
--
L J (No oasslno traffic strloe I
J
--' . ---
t--~ R=915 m min.
zO
Oel.
o
Figure 1.05.14
VI
VI Typical Two- to Four-Lane Transition
VI
0'
c
o c
'iii .,u
C iii
L,=1.50 V c
~ 0:0=
c: Transition ~ ~ E
'0, "0
III c: Normal shoulder width 1 '" E
~ :l
CD W U '"
"';> <;> t
""----- - -
\~ @- c e:-', ,.J}A.J/.I· <
@ - - - ; > - - - - - - - -
--
- ~
I
• 1.20 m min.
L=Length of transition in meters r
V=Design speed in kilometers/hour ~
c
.g
'iii
c
E ~'"
c: L2 =2.25 V
g'"
'0, 'iii
III c:
90 m CD Transition ·1
~'"
"t:l
Minimum c:
W i
~!
i~
- .
- - ~- I
<;. -I -
I---
1 ~
--- .
--
t Normal shoulder width~
1.20 m min.
Figure 1.05.15
Typical Auxiliary Lane Transitions fi
·w.r"",
e.
~
1.05 I
I. Airway-Highway Clearances c. Military Airports-See Figure 1.05.18.

1. General When the horizontal and vertical alignment
(
An object is considered an obstruction to air within the vicinity of the airport has been de
signed, a letter of notice shall be sent to the
navigation, if any portion of that object is of
greater height than the approach surfaces ex Ministry of Defense and Aviation through the
tending outward and upward from the airport MOC with accompanying maps showing the
runway. These objects include overhead signs, following minimum information:
light standards, and moving vehicles, and • Distance and azimuth from highway to run
grade separation structures. way.
2. Clearances • Elevation of runway.
a. Civil Airports-See Figure 1.05.16. • Relationship between airport runway and
highway elevations.
b. Heliports-See Figure 1.05.17.
,~
{
(
'
157
~A
~
"l
(
t._
A 0 40:1
~
'¢
7:1 Horizontal surface

III
., I 50 m above
't~ established airport
elevation.
~
"l
20:1 Conical surface
'"
~
"
"
Conical surface
Precision instrument approach
Visual or nonprecision approach
(Slope-E)
•
hC
Isometric View of Section A-A
Figure 1.05.16
Airway-Highway
Clearance Requirements
Civil Airports
158
•
'.;'
r"~''~.•
Runway Standards
Visual Nonprecision
Types of Runway Runway Instrument Runway Precision
II Instrument
I II I Runway
III IV
Dim Item Dimensional Standards (m)
Width of Primary Surface and
A Approach Surface Width at
Inner End 75 150 150 150 300 300
B Radius of Horizontal Surface 1,520 1,520 1,520 3,050 3,050 3,050
C Approach Surface Width at End 380 460 610 1,070 1,220 4,880
D Approach Surface Length 1,520 1,520 1,520 3,050 3,050 •
E Approach Slope 20:1 20:1 20:1 34:1 34:1 •
I -Utility runway.
II -Runways larger than utility.
III -Visibility minimums greater than 1.2 km.
IV -Visibility minimums as low as 1.2 km.
• -Precision instrument approach slope is 50: I for inner 3,050 m.
and 40:1 for an additional 12,200 m.
Figure 1.05.16
Airway-Highway
Civil Airports (Cont.)
.,
• 159
(
Notes:
1. All dimensions in meters.
2. Dimensions "a" and "b" are multiples of overall helicopter length.
3. Minimum vertical clearance is 5.5 m for all highways. Highway clearance,
profile at pavement edge nearest airfield.
155
At helicopter enroute altitude
/
/
Heliport 1.
departure &
approach surface
8:1 Slope"
7
•
/
*10: 1 for military heliports
Figure 1.05.17
Airway-Highway
Heliports
(.
160
1.05 J, K
/--
------ - -
( // G
-
9,150
I
F I
I
G
I
• ...
.,C'
,' ...
Legend
A - Primary surface
B - Clear zone surface
150
/
/
/
/
C - Approach-departure clearance surface (glide angle)

o - Approach-departure clearance surface (horizontal) /
E - Inner horizontal surface
F - Conical surface
G - Outer horizontal surface
H - Transitional surface
Figure 1.05.18
Airway-Highway
Military Airports
J. Bridges and Grade Separation Structures and pedestrian traffic. A minimum separation
width of 1.2 m is desirable for all urban high
1. Width
ways.
The curb-to-curb width of bridges and grade
separation structures shall be equal to the sum Sidewalks should be hard surfaced with port
<'....;:.~,' of the width of the approach traveled way, and land cement concrete, tile, or bituminous pave
shoulders and barrier offset distances. When ment. The minimum cross slope should be
ever there are sidewalks on bridge approaches, 0.015 m/m. In areas with heavy volumes of
the sidewalk width shall be continued across pedestrian traffic, sidewalks should be placed
the bridge. on each side of the roadway. Some urban areas
and most frontage roads can be served with a
2. Cross Slope sidewalk on only one side. In these areas,
The cross slope on a bridge deck should be sidewalks must be continuous between
consistent with that of the adjoining roadway. intersections.
K. Pedestrian Facilities On rural roads, sidewalks are usually not re

quired, except along sections where there is
1. Sidewalks intensive residential or commercial develop
Some urban streets and highways, including ment. In these cases, sidewalks are normally
highway frontage roads, may require sidewalks located between the ditch or the bottom of the
to handle pedestrian traffic. Sidewalks are roadway embankment and the property line.
usually placed outside of a curb and gutter 2. Sidewalk Widths
section. Except in commercial areas with on
street parking, a separation area between the Reliable estimates of pedestrian traffic volumes
.€ are usually not available and actual sidewalk
;~,::,:,
curb and the sidewalk is desirable. This separa
~ tion area provides a buffer between vehicular capacities are difficult to determine. In general,
161
1.05 L
the intensity of land use must be quite high to L. Curbs and Gutters
require sidewalks of large capacity. In deter
I. General
mining sidewalk width the following guides
should be considered. Curbs and gutters shall be used only when they
are justified by the following:
(
a. The minimum sidewalk width shall be
1.0 m. a. Where required for proper drainage.
b. Near multiple family dwelling units, a b. Where needed for channelization, delinea
width of 1.8 m is adequate unless there is a tion, control of access, or other means of
possibility that the sidewalk will be used by improving traffic flow and safety.
many pedestrians from other sources. c. For replacement of existing curbs and
c. A 2.0 m width sidewalk shall be provided gutters.
near schools, offices, and industrial plants d. In intersection median openings to shield
where large pedestrian volumes may occur traffic signal posts.
for short periods.

2. Types and Uses
d. Where the adjacent land is used for shop
Standard concrete curb and gutter and bitumi
ping or entertainment, sidewalks shall be at
nous curb drawings are included in HDM-4.
least 2.4 m wide.
The following typical concrete curb and gutter
3. Pedestrian Grade Separations sections are illustrated.
•
Warrants for a pedestrian grade separation a. Type A
Jctures are based on detailed assessments of These are commonly called "barrier curbs,"
the present and future needs of an area or com but they do not constitute a positive barrier
munity. Each situation should be investigated as they are easily mounted except at low
and considered on its own merits. The investi speeds and flat angles of approach. Their
gation shall cover studies of pedestrian gener main functions are to deter vehicles from
ating sources, pedestrian travel patterns and using areas outside the traveled way not in
crossing volumes, classification of highway to tended for vehicular travel, control drain
be crossed, location of adjacent crossing facili age, and regulate and control parking of
ties, land uses, and sociological and cultural vehicles.
factors.
Barrier curbs are generally used in urban
4. Pedestrian Overpasses areas and should not be used on highways
The design of pedestrian overpasses shall be in where the design speeds are above 80 km/h.
keeping geometrically and architecturally with

b. Type B
other cross street structures. The width should
be at least 2.5 m between railings. The mini These are known as "mountable curbs," and
mum vertical clearance required over the road typical uses include drainage control and
way shall be 5.5 m plus an allowance for 10 cm channelization. Mountable curbs are gener
of future wearing course. Pedestrian ramps ally used on rural highways or on high speed
,uld be provided with maximum gradients urban highways.
OJ 10 percent. The ramp gradient should be

designed so the gradient is not continuous, and
c. Type C (
a maximum length of 9 m of gradient should This is a combination mountable curb and
be alternated with I.S m lengths of level gutter.
landings. If there is inadequate room for an d. Type D

approach ramp, stairs may be used instead.
This is a valley gutter and is used to carry
Hand rails shall be provided. Lighting and

drainage across a side road or street. When
fencing shall be considered on a site by site

storm drains or storm sewer inlets are feasi
basis.
ble, they should be used in preference to a
S. Pedestrian Underpasses valley gutter.
Although an overpass is much more desirable The following typical bituminous curb sections
than an underpass, there are instances when an are illustrated.
underpass is necessary. Underpasses shall be
well lighted, and clear unobstructed visibility a. Type A
is essential. The required minimum clear verti This type is used to control roadway surface
cal distance is 2.0 m, however, 3.0 m is desira drainage and is used in conjunction with
ble. The minimum width shall be 2.5 m. A paved waterways and spillways.
sidewalk or ramp approaching an underpass

b. Type B
should provide a clear view through the under
pass. This type is used to control roadway surface
162
1.05 L
drainage as well as to facilitate a paved ditch tween two different curb types. This allows for
section. warping from one curb shape and height to
( 3. Position of Curbs
another. At curb termini, the curb
warped in a distance of 5 m from
should be
a normal
Curbs should be placed where they will not curb height to zero height.
obstruct travel lanes or shoulders.
5. Gutter Cross Slopes
4. Curb Transitions
The cross slopes of gutters should be 8 percent.
A transition length of 3 m should be used be
#
:~
'<
163
1.06 A
Section 1.06 Geometric Cross

Section
(
A. Travel Lane Standards edge on each pavement. Divided highways that
slope in one direction are more comfortable to
1. Widths
drivers because vehicles tend to be pulled in
No feature of a highway has a greater influ the same direction when changing lanes.
ence on the safety and comfort of driving than

Roadways having a unidirectional slope may
the width and condition of the surface. There
drain away from or toward the median. Drain
is obvious need for a wide, smooth, nonskid,
age away from the median simplifies treatment
all-weather surface on highways. Studies on
of intersecting streets. An advantage of drain
two-lane, two-way rural highways show that
age toward the median is an economical drain
undesirable conditions (inadequate vehicle
age system in which all surface runoff is
clearances and edge-of-pavement clearances)
collected into a single conduit, and the outer
exist on surfaces less than 6.50 m wide carry
lanes, which are used by most traffic, are freer
ing even moderate volumes of mixed traffic.
of surface water. A major disadvantage of this
Narrow widths severely affect capacity. Also,
pavement cross section is that all the pavement
the effective width of the traveled way is fur
drainage must pass over the inner, higher
ther reduced when adjacent obstructions such
speed lanes. Where curbed medians exist,
as retaining walls, bridge trusses or headwalls,
drainage is concentrated next to and on the
and parked cars restrict the lateral clearance.
higher speed lanes. This concentration results
In addition to the capacity effect, the resultant

in the annoying and hazardous splashing on
erratic operation has an undesirable effect on
the windshields of opposing traffic when the
driver comfort and accident rates.
median is narrow.
Generally, studies have shown that a 7.30 m
The rate of cross slope on curves as well as on
surface is required to permit desired clearance
tangent alignment is an important element in
between commercial vehicles. In the interest of
cross section design. Pavement superelevation
safety, efficiency, and ease of operation, trav
on curves is determined by the speed-curvature
eled way widths of7.30 m shall be provided on
relationships given in 2-1.05, but cross slope or
all design classes of highways except rural and
crown on tangents or on long radius curves is
urban locals. A traveled way width of 6.50 m
complicated by two contradictory controls. A
is considered adequate for locals since
reasonably steep lateral slope is desirable to
meetings and passings are infrequent and the
minimize water ponding on flat sections of
proportion of trucks is low.
uncurbed pavements as a result of pavement
Although lane widths of 3.65 m are desirable, imperfections or unequal settlement. A steep
there are circumstances that necessitate the use cross slope is desirable on curbed pavements to
of lane widths less than 3.65 m. In mountain confine the flow of water to a narrow width of
ous areas with severe topography limitations pavement adjacent to the curb. On the other
and in urban areas where right-of-way and ex hand, pavements with steep cross slopes are
*'
',~
isting development become stringent controls,
the use of 3.35 m lanes may be acceptable sub
ject to MOC approval as a deviation from pol
objectionable in appearance and may be an
noying and uncomfortable in operation.
Steep cross slopes are undesirable on tangents
icy on a case-by-case basis.
because of the tendency of vehicles to drift
Auxiliary lanes at intersections and inter toward the low edge of pavement. Cross slopes
changes often are provided to facilitate traffic up to 1.5 percent are barely perceptible as far
movements. Such added lanes should be as as effect on vehicle steering is concerned, but
wide as the through-traffic lanes. cross slopes steeper than 1.5 percent are no
ticeable to the driver. The latter rate requires a
Refer to 2-1.03 to determine the number of
conscious effort in steering and would increase
lanes required to serve the traffic on the partic the susceptibility to lateral skidding when
ular roadway to be designed. vehicles brake on wet pavements and even on
2. Cross Slope dry pavements when stops are made under
Two-lane and urban-curbed arterial pavements emergency conditions.
on tangents or on flat curves have a crown or The prevalence of high winds may significantly
high point in the middle and slope downward alter the effect of pavement crown on steering.
toward both edges. On divided highways, ex In rolling terrain with alternate cut-and-fill
cept urban-curbed arterials, each one-way sections or in areas alternately forested and
pavement shall have a unidirectional slope cleared, any substantial cross wind produces
across the entire width of the traveled way, and an intermittent impact on a vehicle moving
the slope is usually downward to the outer along the highway and affects its steering. In
165
1.06 B, C
areas where such conditions are likely, it is 2. Climbing Lanes
desirable to avoid high rates of cross slope. Warrants for and length of climbing lanes are
In the Kingdom, cross slope rate or crown

shall be governed by the desire for comfortable
discussed in 2-1.05. The width for a climbing
lane shall be equal to the width of the traveled (
and safe control of the vehicle and shall be 1.5 lane. The outside shoulder width, when climb
percent for all paved traveled ways. ing lanes are introduced, is 1.25 m.
Because of the nature of the surfacing mate 3. Turning Lanes

rials used and surface irregularities, surfaces See 2-1.07 for design information on turning
composed of loose earth or pit run stone re lanes. The minimum width for right- and left
quire a still steeper cross slope on tangents to turning lanes is 3.0 m. Wider turning lanes are
prevent the absorption of water into the sur desirable on highways with higher design
face. On highways with these surfaces, vehicle speeds and at locations where they would be
speeds generally are not as high as those on used by large numbers of heavy trucks.
paved surfaces so that, in an operational sense,
no sacrifice is made. The cross slope rate for all 4. Frontage Roads
unpaved traveled ways shall be 3 percent. See 2-1.05 for design information on frontage
roads. The widths of traveled lanes and shoul
B. Auxiliary Lane Standards ders for frontage roads will be equal to the
1. Parking Lanes widths of either local or collector roads de
pending on the class selected by the designer.
•
1\ roadway network provides for the safe and
.Ient movement of the vehicles operating on C. Shoulder Standards .
the system. Although the movement of
vehicles is the primary function of a roadway 1. General
network, segments of the network may, as a On highways, shoulders are necessary to pro
result of land use, be required to provide for vide structural support for the pavement edges.
the parking of vehicles. On highways carrying higher volumes, shoul
ders provide structural support, emergency
Only emergency stopping or parking should be
parking space for stopped vehicles, and the
permitted or considered in the design of arte
required side clearance between moving
rial and expressway facilities. However, within
vehicles and stationary objects. On most urban
urban areas, existing and developing land uses
streets, shoulders are not necessary, as struc
necessitate the consideration of on-street park
tural support is provided by the curbs and
ing. This situation may also occur in small
gutters, and disabled vehicles can find refuge in
rural communities located on arterial highway
parking lanes, side streets, and driveways.
routes. Usually, adequate off-street parking fa
cilities are not available, so the designer must The shoulder on minor rural highways with
recognize the fact that on-street parking must low traffic volume serves essentially as struc
be a design consideration so that the proposed tural lateral support for the surfacing and as
street or highway improvement will be com an additional width for the narrow traveled
.,Ie with the land use. way. It permits drivers meeting or passing
Only parallel on-street parking should be con
sidered. Angle parking should not be permit
other vehicles to drive on the very edge of the
roadway without leaving the surfacing, thus
(
making use of the shoulder itself. Such opera
ted for the reasons that vehicle lengths vary
tion is fitting only where traffic volume is so
significantly and vehicles such as vans and
small that meetings and passings occur infre-·
small trucks require extra length so as not to
quently. Where there is appreciable traffic vol
interfere with the traveled way. Accident in
ume, highways with narrow surfacing and nar
vestigation studies also show a much higher
row shoulders give poor service, have a high
incident of accidents, particularly relating to
accident experience, and require frequent and
the unparking movement, at angle parking
costly maintenance.
zones than in areas where parallel parking is
permitted. Well-designed and properly maintained shoul
ders are necessary on rural high ways with any
Parking lanes shall be designed for all curbed
appreciable volume of traffic and on some
local and collector streets. On all other classes
types of urban highways. Their advantages are
of roads the shoulder shall act as a designated
as follows:
parking lane or as an area available for emer
gency parking. • Width is provided for safe stopping because
of mechanical difficulty, a flat tire, or other
The parking lane width shall be 2.5 m from emergency.
edge of traveled way to face of curb. The
• Width is provided for safe stopping to con (
length of a typical parallel parking space shall
"
be 6.5 m.
166
1.06 C
suIt highway maps, to rest, or for other per • Storm water can be discharged farther from
sonal reasons. the pavement, and seepage adjacent to the
( • Width is provided for increased mobility to pavement can be minimized. This may re
\ escape potential accidents or reduce their duce pavement breakup.
severity. • Structural support is given to the pavement.
• The sense of openness created by shoulders • Space is provided for pedestrian and bicycle
contributes much to driving ease and free use.
dom from strain. • Space is provided for bus stops.
• Sight distance is improved in cut sections, Pavement edge dropoff, which can cause loss
thereby improving safety. of vehicle control, is eliminated when the
• Some types of shoulders enhance the aes shoulder is stabilized.
thetics of the highway.
Where on-street parking is permitted, the
• Highway capacity is improved, and uniform
parking lane provides some of the same ser
speed is encouraged.
vices listed above for shoulders.
• Space is provided for maintenance opera
tions. 2. Widths
• Lateral clearance to signs and guardrails is Table 1.06.1 shows the desirable and minimum
increased. shoulder widths for the eight major classes of
roadways.
~.
Table 1.06.1
Shoulder Widths (m)
Class Special Feature Desirable Minimum
Rural Local Flat 2.00 Not Applicable

Rolling 2.00 Not Applicable
Mountainous 2.00 1.25
Rural Collector Flat 2.50 Not Applicable
Rolling 2.50 Not Applicable
Mountainous 2.50 1.25
Rural Arterial Flat Inside Sh. 4
and Expressways 2.00 Not Applicable
Outside Sh.
3.00 Not Applicable
Rolling Inside Sh.
4'
2.00 Not Applicable
.. ~.. Outside Sh.
3.00 Not Applicable
Mountainous Inside Sh.
2.00 Not Applicable
Outside Sh.
3.00 2.50
Urban Local Does Not Apply-Parking Lanes Are Required
Urban Collector 2.00 1.25
Urban Arterial Inside Sh.
2.00 Not Applicable
Outside Sh.
3.00 2.50
Urban Expressways Inside Sh.
2.00 Not Applicable
Outside Sh.
\,
3.00 Not Applicable
Note: For climbing lanes. the outside shoulder width shall be 1.25 m for all classes of roads.
167
1.06 D, E
Where guardrails, walls, or other vertical ele ent with the overall type of highway. Effective
ments are used, the graded shoulder should be erosion control, low-cost maintenance, and ad
wide enough so that these vertical elements
can be offset a minimum of 0.5 m from the
outer edge of the usable shoulder. It may be
necessary to provide a graded shoulder wider
tha~ used elsewhere to provide lateral support
for· guardrail posts. Shoulders on structures
equate drainage of the subgrade are dependent
upon proper shaping of the sideslopes. Slope
and soil data are used in combination to ap
proximate the stability of the slopes and the
erosion hazard potential. Overall economy de
pends not only on the element of first cost but
•
should have the same width as the usable also on the cost of maintenance, of which slope
shoulders on the approach roadways, both stability is a factor. In addition to these reaSOns
right and left. Refer to 2-1.15 for widening for flat slopes on any highway, the proximity of
required for traffic barriers. any urban highway to the developments and
people of the community call for additional
3. Cross Slopes
attention to naturalized slopes and overall ap
Cross slopes for shoulders shall be 4 percent pearance factors.
except that the inside shoulders on multilane
facilities shall be I percent sloping toward the Earth cutslopes shall not be steeper than 2: 1
median. and preferably flatter, at least 3:1, to make it
easier for motorized equipment to be used in
D. Side Ditches maintenance in areas where rock or other spe
cial soils are encountered. See HDM-I-2.06 for
The ditch cross sections must have adequate
•
recommendations in rock. Retaining walls of
hydraulic capacity. The flow line of ditch must
partial height shall be considered where space
!equate to accommodate drainage of the
restrictions require slopes that otherwise
pavement.
would be steeper than 2: 1. On the other hand,
Ditches should have a streamlined cross sec soil characteristics may necessitate the use of
tion for safety and ease of maintenance. See slopes flatter than 2: 1 or even 3: 1. If adequate
2-1.15C2. Wide ditch bottoms facilitate grad width is not available in such cases, partial
ing operations where side borrow methods are walls may be necessary. To minimize the feel
used. ing of constriction, walls should be set back a
minimum of 0.5 m from the outer edge of the
The depth of the ditch in cut sections is depen
usable shoulder.
dent on hydraulic needs but should normally
be no deeper than 0.25 m below subgrade for The highway should be designed with a clear
safety and maintenance. Short sections of ditch zone free of hazards. Desirably, slopes should
deeper than 0.25 m may be required to drain be 6: 1 or flatter. If slopes are steeper than 3: 1,
flat gradient ditches to a culvert inlet or to an a traffic barrier may be required. The purpose
embankment area. Should hydraulic needs dic and width of clear zone and warrants for traf
tate ditches of greater capacity than the nor fic barriers are described in 2-1.15.
mal depth V-ditch, the designer should design
The intersections of slope planes in the high
a flat bottom ditch of sufficient width instead
way cross section should be well rounded to
•
of deepening the V-ditch. Subsurface ground
simulate natural earth forms.
may require the installation of
uno"rdrain systems in lieu of deeper or wider The combination of flat slopes and rounding is
ditches. frequently referred to as streamlined cross sec
tion. With this shape the cross winds sweep
E. Sideslopes along the surface without forming eddies that
Sideslopes should be designed to insure the contribute to the wind erosion and drifting of
stability of the roadway and to provide a rea sand. The streamlined cross section usually re
sonable opportunity for recovery for an out-of sults in a minimum of expenditure for sand
control vehicle. removal because the winds blow the sand off
the pavement instead of drifting it, as happens
The desirable foreslope, the slope from the in cross sections with steep slopes without
edge of the surfaced shoulder to the edge of the rounding. When combined with the design
subgrade shoulder, is 6: 1 except that on rural practice of making the level of the roadway
local roads with an ADT (20) less than 300, above that of the surrounding land to also in
the foreslope shall be 4: I. In excavation sec sure drainage of the subgrade, the streamlined
tions with ditches, the slope from the edge of cross section results in a highway requiring a
the subgrade shoulder to the bottom of the minimum of maintenance and operating costs
ditch shall be an extension of the foreslope. and a maximum of safety. See Figure 1.06.5
•
Earth cut and fill slopes should be flattened as and 2-1.16 for special cut-and-fill treatment in
appropriate with the topography and consist- sand.
168
1.06 F
Table 1.06.2
Desirable and Maximum Slopes
• Height (m)
Desirable
Earth Slope, Horizontal to Vertical,
Type of Terrain (Except in Hard Rock)
Flat
Maximum Desirable
Rolling
Maximum
Mountainous
Desirable Maximum
Cut 6: I 4:1 6: 1 3: 1 6:1 3: 1

0-1
Fill 6:1 6: 1 4:1 4: 1 4:1 4:1
Cut 4:1 3: 1 3: 1 2:1a 3: 1 2:1a
1-3
Fill 4:1 4:1 4: I 4:1 3: I 3: 1
Cut 3: 1 2:1a 3: 1 2:1a 3: I 2:la
3-5
Fill 4: 1 3: I 4: I 3: 1 3: 1 l.5:la
Cut 2:la 2:1a 2:1a 2:1a 2: la 2:1
5
Fill 3: 1 2:1a 3: 1 2:1a 2:la 1.5:la
•
aSlopes 2:1 or sleeper are subjecl 10 a soil slabilily analysis.
Design guide values for the selection of earth Wide ditches at the ;...-;; tom of cuts having rock
slopes in relation to the height of cut or fill fall potential ha\e~-.; vantages in that a safe
yield generally favorable cross sections, but landing area is pre' '. Jed for falling boulders.
best results are obtained by area and individual This width can a;s, ~e shaped to provide a
study for each case. Contour maps are partic clear roadside reco'. .~:- 2' area. See Figure 1.06.5
ularly helpful and should be used for difficult for rock cut slope r:-~:-~lment.
design situations. Table 1.06.2 shows what Rock outcroppings :-.,·,e sometimes been left in
slopes are used as a general basis for design of
place during constr.;.<:lOn of new highways for
earth sideslopes. These values are suggested for
reasons of econorr~ ')r aesthetics. These are
use where the topography or right of-way re
lethal if struck by 2: <:utomobile and any such
strictions do not permit the use of flatter
obstacle should n~7 0e tolerated within the
slopes. Even in steep terrain there are places
clear roadside rece. ';' y area where removal is
where for appearance and increased safety it is
feasible. If they ca:-.:-. 0)1 be removed, a roadside
desirable to use flatter slopes than those
barrier of appropr12' '; design shall be installed.
shown. The selected slope should conform gen
erally with existing land and ground forms. F. Median Standar (; >,
I. Design slopes for rock vary widely, depending

upon the materials. A commonly used stan
dard slope for rock cuts is 1/2: 1. With modern
construction methods such as presplitting,
slopes ranging from 1/6: 1 to 1/20: 1 may be
used in good quality rock. Deep cuts in rock
1. General
A median is a higrJ j) desirable element on all
highways carrying ff)ur or more lanes. A me
dian is defined as tht: portion of a divided high
way separating the 1raveled way for traffic in
opposing direction~o The median width is ex
often require the construction of benches in the

pressed as the diml:TI',ion between the edges of
slopes. See HDM-I-2.06 for further details.

the traveled ways lind includes the left shoul
The necessity for benches, their width and ver ders. The principal (unctions of a median are
tical spacing shall be determined only after an as follows:
adequate geotechnical investigation is made. • Provide the desirl:d freedom from the inter
ference of opposill~~ traffic
For ease of maintenance, 4.0 m width benches
• Provide a recowl)' area for out-of-control
are satisfactory. Benches should be on a slope
vehicles, to provide II stopping area in case of
of approximately 20: I towards the roadway to
emergencies
prevent ponding of water behind the bench
• Provide for speed ~'hange lanes and storage
that would create slip plane problems. Benches
lanes for left turnill~ and U-turning vehicles
should be constructed to blend with geological
• Minimize headliF.ht glare, installation of
strata rather than conforming to any set grade.
utilities, illuminati"ll, traffic control devices
Slope stability as well as appearance may be • Provide width for future lanes.
•
enhanced in poor-quality rock by the establish Another benefit of :1 median in an urban area
ment of serrated cut slopes in any material that is that it may prO'i.k an open area for aes
can be ripped. See Figure 1.06.5.
169
1.06 G
thetic treatment. For maximum efficiency, a roadside safety. All drainage inlets in the me
median should be highly visible both night and dian shall be designed with the top flush with
day and in definite contrast to the through

traffic lanes. A median may vary in scope from
a barrier to an area of varying width between
the ground or culvert ends provided with
safety grates so they will not be hazardous to

out of control vehicles that run off the road
two independently designed roadways. way.
Medians may be depressed, raised, or flush

Raised medians have application on urban
with the pavement surface. Medians shall be as

streets where it is desirable to regulate left-tum
wide as feasible but of a dimension in balance

movements. They are also frequently used
with other components of the cross section. As

where the median is to be landscaped, particu
far as the safety and convenience of motor ve

larly where the width is relatively narrow. It
hicle operation are concerned, the farther the

must be pointed out, however, that landscap
traveled ways are apart, the better. However,

ing in narrow medians creates hazardous con
economic factors limit the width of median

ditions for maintenance operations and may
that can be provided.

also restrict sight distance on curves.
Cost of construction and maintenance in

creases generally with an increase in the width Flush medians are used to some extent on all
of roadbed, but the additional cost may not be types of urban arterials. When used on
appreciable compared with the cost of the expressways, a median barrier may be re
highway as a whole and may be justified in quired. The median should be slightly crowned
or depressed for drainage. The crowned type is
•
v;~w of the benefits derived. A distinct advan
of the wider medians on roadways other frequently used because it eliminates the need
than expressways is to provide adequate shel for collecting drainage water in the median.
ter for vehicles crossing at intersections with However, the slightly depressed type is gener
public highways and at crossovers serving ally preferred with the depression being
commercial and private drives. However, wide formed by 4-percent cross slopes being con
medians are a disadvantage when the intersec structed from the shoulder of each inside lane
tion is signalized. The increased time for and intersecting in the middle of the median.
vehicles to cross the median may lead to ineffi 2. Median Widths
cient signal operation.
The desirable median width is 20 m for all
If the right-of-way is restricted, the median rural and urban highways except that the de
shall not be widened beyond a desirable mini sirable width for rural mountain highways is
mum at the expense of narrowed border areas. 10 m.
A reasonable border width is required to ade
Under restraining circumstances that arise due
quately serve as a buffer between the private
to economical, topographical, environmental,
development along the highway and the trav
or political factors the median width may be
eled way, particularly where zoning is limited
reduced to a minimum width of 5 m for any
or nonexistent. Space must be provided on the
class of highway.
borders for sidewalks, highway signs, utility
.. ';, parking, drainage channels and struc Whenever two abutting highway sections have
.. _-:s, for proper slopes, and any retained na
tive growth. Narrowing these areas may tend
different median widths, a smooth transition
shall adjust the difference. For good appear
(
to develop hazards and hindrances similar to ance the transition length shall be as long as
those that the median is designed to avoid. possible and occur within a horizontal curve.
A depressed median is preferred on G. Cross Sections
expressways. This type is more efficient for
drainage. Median side slope should be no Figures 1.06.1, 1.06.2, 1.06.3, and 1.06.4 show
steeper than 6: I, and preferably 10: I. Slopes of cross sections depicting the essential elements
4: I may be adequate structurally and for vege for typical sections of two-lane rural highways,
tation, but they are questionably steep for urban streets, multilane rural highways, and
urban highways.
(,
170
•
"a"
Shldr.
"b"
<t
I
"b"
Traveled lane Traveled lane
"a"
Shldr.
Depth of cut
Round top
of cut
0.25 m
6:1 -
1.5%
_
1.5% I 1.5%
Crown I Crown
-
1.5%
6:1
See Table 1.06.2 Pavement Subgrade

min. structure See Table 1.06.2
(See 2-1.09)
Additional Warrants:
Shoulder and Traveled Lane Widths (m)
1. For traffic barriers,
Shoulder Traveled Lane refer to 2-1.15.
Class "a" "b"
2. For truck climbing
-
Rural Local 2.00 3.25 lanes, add a width
Rural Collector 2.50 3.65 equal to "b".
«
. '.. .'.' . ' Rural Arterial 3.00' 3.65
3. Reduce adjacent "a"
Urban Local 2.00 3.25 to 1.25 m for
Urban Collector 2.00 3.65 climbing lane.
Urban Arterial 3.00 3.65
See Figure 1.06.5 for Special Treatments
Figure 1.06.1
Rural Two-Lane Cross Section
Urban Two-Lane, Noncurbed Cross Section
<t
"a" "b" "b" "a" 0.5 m min.
Sidewalk Parking Traveled lane I Traveled lane Parking Sidewalk
-~~p
,
- 1% 1.5% I
I
...-- Crown Crown
1.5%
---
1%
See Table 1.06.2 Depth of cut Pavement Subgrade Curb, or curb

structure and gutter
(See 2-1.09)
See Table 1.06.2
Parking and Traveled Lane Widths (m)

Parking Traveled Lane
Class "a" "b"
Local 2.50 3.25
Collector 2.50 3.65
Arterial 2.00 3.65
·See Figure 1.06.5 for Special Treatments
Figure 1.06.2
Urban Two-Lane Curbed Cross Section
171
(
~
Median
"a" "b" /Iane "c" Variable
Outside Traveled lanes Inside

(Depressed or flush
shoulder
-
shoulder
- 1.5% median)
1.5% 1.5%
- Crown
Round top
of cut 0.25 m Pavement Subgrade
min. structure
(See 2-1.09)
See Table 1.06.2
Additional Warrants:
e,
Shoulder and Traveled Lane Widths (m)
I 1. For traffic barriers,
Outside Traveled Inside refer to 2-1.15.
Shoulder Lane Shoulder
"c" 2. For truck climbing lane,
Llass "a" "b"
add one 3.65 m
Rural Arterial 3.00 3.65 2.00 traveled lane.
Rural Expressway 3.00 3.65 2.00
3. Reduce "a" to 1.25 m
Urban Arterial 3.00 3.65 2.00
for climbing
Urban Expressway 3.00 3.65 2.00
lane.
Figure 1.06.3
Rural Multilane Cross Section
Urban Multilane, Noncurbed Cross Section
(Half Section)
~ Round top of cut
Variable 0.5 m 3.65 m/Traveled lanes 2.0 m Variable
Raised median Curb Fallout ditch or
--
sidewalk or other
1% offset 1.5% I 1.5%
appurtenances
Curb, or curb
and gutter Pavement
- Crown ! Crown - -
Subgrade
- 1%
Structure
(See 2-1.09)
See Table 1.06.2
Figure 1.06.4
Urban Multilane Curbed Cross Section
Urban Arterial and Collector
(Half Section)
172
.$ 5c' --.
1.06 H
ct
m
3.0m 3.0m
I
( 10:1 Flat 6:1
I
_!........::::===j======="",,--
Variable
slope
Round breaks
in slope.
Sand Dune Only
(See 2-1.16)
Round top of cut

Variable: V2: 1 to vertical.
Benches to be provided when
required for geotechnical reasons.
0.3 to 0.6 m
"H"
J _
.. 1 '/
'/
Staked slope
l-'w,j Serrated Rock Cuts
Rock Cuts
The decision to construct
a fallout ditch will depend
on geotechnical requirements.
'Height Width of
of Cut Fallout Ditch
"H" (m) "'V" (m)
0- 9 3.0
9-18 4.0
18-30 5.0
over 30 6.0
'''H'' is from bottom bench when benches
\( are constructed.
Figure 1.06.5
Special Treatments
II. Structure Clearances vertical clearance shall be 7.0 m above the top
of the rails. The lateral clearance to piers or
The desired horizontal clearance for roadway
abutment walls shall be 6.0 m from the
structures between the edges of the traveled
centerline of the track.
way and piers or abutment walls shall be the
clear zone width determined from Figure The vertical clearance for overhead communi
2-1.15.1. In many cases, such clearance is not cation lines is 7 m and for power lines is as
economically feasibly. Then, lesser clearance is follows:
allowable if barrier rail or guardrail is used to o to 750 volts 7m
protect both the structure and highways users. 750 to 15,000 volts 9m
Vertical clearances on all roadway structures Greater than 15,000 volts 10m
should be at least 5.5 m with additional provi Horizontal clearances for major line supports
sions for future surfacing if applicable. are the same as discussed for roadway struc
( If the roadway structure crosses a railway, the tures.
173
Section 1.07 Grade Intersections
• 'A. General
Many accidents and safety problems on high
ways are attributable to intersection opera
tions. Capacity and traveltime are also con
trolled by the type and spacing of intersections.
The three-leg intersection has three intersect
ing approach legs that form a shape of a T or
a Y. The T shape provides better driver visibil
ity. The Y shape can cause driver confusion
when two legs diverge from the stem and thus,
requires careful signing.
Geometric design considerations and types of
The four-leg intersection may be right angled,
traffic control measures must be coordinated in
oblique, or offset. The right-angled crossing
intersection design. Geometric design consid
can be easily signed and signalized, provides
erations include the number and width of
good driver visibility, and is the safest to nego
through and turning lanes, channelization, and
tiate by drivers and pedestrians. The oblique
turning radii. Traffic control measures depend
crossing creates problems with driver visibility,
upon the design class of intersecting highways
pedestrian safety, and vehicle-turning angles.
and may include stop or yield control or traffic
The offset intersection has low intersection ca
signals. Traffic signal warrants are given in the
pacity, is difficult to comprehend and negoti
Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
ate, and is difficult to sign and signalize. Offset
(MUTCD).
intersections shall not be used when the offset
Intersection of public highways, commercial or in Figure 1.07.1 is greater than one lane width.
•
private side road connections, and highway
Multileg intersections have more than four in
railroad grade crossings are the three groups of
tersecting approach legs and can form several
intersections described in this section. Al
different shapes. Multileg intersections have
though the basic intersection design principles
poor driver and pedestrian visibility, have poor
apply to each, geometric design criteria will
turning angles, are confusing to drivers, and
vary slightly between these intersections.
are difficult to sign, mark, and signalize. This
B. Intersection Types type of intersection can occur when a highway
is located diagonally across a street grid system
The three-leg, four-leg, and multileg are the or when more than four approach legs inter
three basic types of intersections. These are sect. This type of intersection shall not be used
illustrated in Figure 1.07.1. Where traffic on new highways and existing multileg
volumes and design speeds are low, and a intersections should be reconstructed to the
multileg intersection is desirable, a rotary in four-leg type.
tersection may be used but only with the ap
proval of the MOC as a deviation from policy.
•
175
1.07 C
•~' oFf
"T" "Y" ................................... "Y"
Three-leg Intersections
"'
---j r Maximum offset
of one traveled lane
J
-
85 G to 115 G
f&;, J
l IRI9hl009
Four-leg Intersections
1ed ~ --:Jtli
•
~
Multileg Intersections Figure 1.07.1
Basic Intersection Types •
C. Establishing Intersection Traffic Control 3. The intersection of an arterial with a local
may be channelized depending upon speed and
The design class of each intersecting highway
traffic volumes with stop control on the local.
shall be considered when designing channeliza
This type of intersection should be avoided,
tion and establishing the types of traffic control
whenever possible.
devices. Traffic control and channelization for
intersection of the various design class high 4. The intersection of two collector highways
way approach legs are as follows: may have channelization and signalization at
1. The intersection of two arterial highways higher voh!mes or be controlled by stop signs
should be signalized and channelized when on the lower volume collector.
ADT (20) is greater than 5,000. 5. The intersection of the collector with a local
2. The intersection of an arterial with a collec
shall have stop control on the local.
•
tor shall be channelized and signalized at 6. The intersection of two locals shall have
higher volumes or have stop control on the stop control on the lower volume local or stop
collector for lower traffic volumes. control on all intersection legs.
176
1.07 D, E
D. Data for Intersection Design features and ground contours.
Adequate data are required for proper design • Existing sight distances.
( of intersections. After the necessary data are
obtained, the appropriate number of turning
3. Intersection Capacity Analysis indicating
required approach widths, special turning
and through lanes may be provided for as well lanes, and signalization; see 2-1.03.
as proper channelization and installation of
traffic control devices. The following data shall E. Intersection Maneuvers and Conflicts
be obtained or developed and used in design or 1. Merging, diverging, crossing, and weaving
redesign of intersections. are maneuvers that can occur within an inter
1. Traffic Characteristics section. These maneuvers are illustrated in
Figure 1.07.2, and shall be considered when
• Through and turning vehicle volumes for
designing intersections.
current and design year (20 years).
• Percentages of cars, trucks, and buses. 2. Conflicts at intersections occur when a ve
• Design class of trucks. hicle makes a maneuver and its path either
diverges, merges, or crosses that of another
• Design speeds.
vehicle or pedestrian. The safety and operation
• Design classes of intersection legs. of intersections shall be improved by minimiz
• Pedestrian volumes and movements. ing the number of conflicts through the use of
• Accident data for existing intersection. channelization and signalization. Figure 1.07.3
• Any proposed roadside development. illustrates the types of conflicts for signalized
~. • Driver habits.
2. Field Data
and unsignalized intersections while Figure
1.07.4 illustrates the corresponding maximum
number of conflicts that could occur.
• Topographic map showing all planimetric
Diverging
Right , ::\ ---
~----
Left
...
Left
)
I~Ri9ht

J k Left
Merging
:(
L ~"L
7
I
(
Oblique Right angled
------~
Crossing
-
~ One sided
~
~ Two sided
Weaving
Figure 1.07.2
\
Types of Maneuvers
177
(
~ L ~ L .. _H~ L Vehicular Conflicts ~
••
Possible Conflicts
• diverging
• merging
8
8
.through-flow crossing 4
• turning-flow crossing 12
1 1111 I 1
I
Diverging Merging
Four-leg intersection single-lane
number of conflicts 32
1 L
approach no signal control
~ lL~ L ~
I f POSSible, Conflicts
• diverging 4
•
• merging 2
• through-f1ow crossing a
I II{ I 1 (
Through-flow crossing Turning-flow crossing
• turning-flow crossing
number of conflicts
2
L ILL
Vehicular-Pedestrian Conflicts Four-leg intersection single-lane
approach with signal control
-----t#M,L ~lei I I le-

II
I, ~ •
Possible Conflicts
diverging
• merging
2
2
lei I 11-1:> ,
• through-flow crossing
• turning-flow crossing a
Two-way streets One-way streets
At unsignalized intersections
1 (
Four-leg intersection one-way
)llL ~J1L
streets no signal control
~.
+ I
_ t! L Possible Conflicts
• diverging 3
f
• merging 3
~lrr irri
.through-flow crossing a
• turning-flow crossing 3
Phase A Phase B
(
At signalized intersections Three-leg intersection single-lane
approach no signal control
Figure 1.07.3
Types of Conflicts Figure 1.07.4
Intersection Conflicts
178
F. Design Vehicles 1.07.6, and 1.07.7. Intersections shall be de
signed to accommodate at least a single unit
The turning radii and other dimensions shall
truck. If it is anticipated that trailer truck
(
'-
be large enough to meet the turning require
ments of vehicles using the intersection. Four
combinations will be using the highway, the
turning requirements for WB-12 or WB-15
types of design vehicles with their dimensions
trailer truck shall be met.
and turning paths are shown in Figures 1.07.5,
5.8
p
Passenger car
or pickup truck
9.1
I:1.8-I 6.1 1.~ I
..
'I
~[I X IJ
SU
Single unit truck
or bus
12.2
I: 3.1
I 7.3
-I 1.8:1
~[I II I J
B12
Large bus
'5'
1:'8.:!\ ,;" ". ::, ;
I
, 1
4.0 1.2
·1- I, -I
~II II II IJ
f WB12
Trailer-truck
combination
[',. 'a,
:h;1
15.2
'1
:~.2• I • 7.9
I
1.2
II -I- 4.9
•
~I~I III IJ
WB15
Trailer-truck
All dimensions in meters combination
Figure 1.07.5
Design Vehicles
\
179
(:
I,, 1 I\ -I
. . .: :';::::'-::-,-=-=-- - - C
r- Palh of
Path
o~,h,",
o~nt wheel ~
i ~7 ___
J11. ~/ ' ~ --- "C;.lh of ,;,hl ,e., wheel
:/1'
I~I
J-. 6~/~ I
I
~
\ \
--+-~--~., WB12
Trailer-truck
combination
\ I
\~<
--
0' I
p \~ ~~~~~~
" ---
""'~
r:-(I
··1
I---
'.0
XI 7.0
12.2
XX
1.2 1.'
1:1I
.
:1
l~ __
15.2 I
J \ _ _ _ -ICPatho~~ _
It \ // ::::::.=:--::..=f:.=.=
. I
~ Path of left front wheel ~ _
I~
II //
L,- ~;'::'i:: w:
!1/7 \ /
,"I \
WB15
"AP-'' i\-~- Trailer-truck
combination
\\\
'\,
" , :::::- " [['" -- -
....:
'I I~~
-"'" I ~11.2~
II I 09
l L -: J . . . .
. '.9 I· ,
2
15.2
7.9 I1.2:~
.,
r~6
: :: 16.7 •
1
All dimensions in meters

Figure 1.07.7
Minimum Vehicle Turning Radius
And Turning Path
l'
'~
Jl.
181
'~~i.."!,::;;.~;,,~,,":~~ ,...: "'"~ _ . ~~-:.-""'''-.. __ .,.. ~~,_. ~ __ ~:~ ~_- ... :;:"':'"'"'C-J':-:~ _ '~,_71'-"" _ _ '~-_~'''~' '.__ .~_
(
:II:1 t '\'y " ---+
~
....t= Path o~~~n:..
~ ~'
/ ' /' P.th of Ief",o" .h'"
- - = --=
:II '1 .~"_~ Path of ",ht '''' ~'" _ -
I /( ~v I ~ Path of rear overhang
I
1-T~:·
1'1
,'&~\\
\
...
i$-<::-c>'! ~<::-~.
:
I
p
Passenger car
or pickup truck
\. ......§ '\'?
\.
" - -1I!I~- -
"'~~(~I
~ I --
/
T-
0.9 3.4
:.1. 5.8 ./. :
1.51 =-=-=--=-=--
~ Path of overhang
-
•
:\ ~ I ;t' ' " ~
~~
-- ~ Path of left front Wheel--=
I
I'I ,1/ 1(/ ///
'.\>'f -t--~---
Path of right rear wheel
'1 / / I
:,1; \ / I
I" ~
4--~. ~
fh,.. I
I SU
Single unit truck
or bus
\\
\
\
\
.;
....'1Y,
I
I
(
\~ ~ ~c>.! if lQ
" '\. J.....~ ~'
\.~ A I
"V '-,---1__
'~~[I X []~-
11.~ 6,1 1.81 - -
.j.:
I
: I 9.1
Figure 1.07.6
Minimum Vehicle Turning Radius
And Turning Path
(
180
G. Intersection Design Elements Before T can be determined, the crossing dis
tance, S, shall be computed as follows:
Intersection design elements include crossing

and stopping sight distance, vertical alignment,
intersection angles and radii, turning lanes, where d
S= d+W+L
= Distance in meters from the front
(
channelization, median openings, roadside de of crossing vehicle to the near
velopment, and superelevation. All these ele edge of the traveled way (gener
ments shall be coordinated to assure that the ally assumed to be 3 m)
driver can easily comprehend and negotiate W = Width in meters of the traveled
the intersection, that the number of potential way measured along the path of
conflicts are minimized, that all vehicular and crossing vehicle. If the major
pedestrian movements are provided for, and highway is divided, W is the
that provisions are made for drainage and width of traveled way in one di
placement of traffic control devices. rection when the median is wide
1. Crossing Sight Distance enough to accommodate the
crossing vehicle or the width of
There shall be adequate sight distance along both traveled ways plus the me
each approach leg at an intersection having dian width when the median is
stop control on the minor crossroad. This too narrow to accommodate the
unobstructed sight distance is illustrated in the crossing vehicle
sight triangle, Figure 1.07.8A. The sight dis L = Overall length in meters of the
•
tance between the vehicle on the crossroad and crossing vehicle
'>oproaching vehicle on main highway shall

D" wng enough to allow the crossing maneuver The eye height is 1.05 m and the vehicle height
to be made in time to avoid a collision. is 1.30 m. The line of sight in the sight triangle
shall be checked from both directions.
The sight triangle shall be used to determine

required building setbacks or to determine The acceleration time, T, can be obtained from
whether an obstruction such as a sign or a Figure 1.07.8B for level conditions, based upon
building should be removed. If an obstruction the crossing distance, S, for three types of de
cannot be removed, traffic signals may be re sign vehicles. If the crossroad is on an incline,
quired instead of stop signs. the acceleration time, T, shall be multiplied by
the Acceleration Gradient Factor in Figure
For a stop condition, the minimum sight dis 1.07.8B. The adjusted, T, value shall then be
tance, D, along the major highway is given by used to calculate the minimum crossing sight
the following equation: distance, D.
D = V (2 + T)
3.6 Obstruction ~ 1 d
where D = Minimum crossing sight distance, -
tL
Hi9~~:;~i~• • • _!t~~1
in meters along the major high t
way measured from the centerline
of crossing vehicle path to the ap I I
-
w
~
-
proaching vehicle
V = Design speed of the major high
V _
" I L S (
D 1.1
way, kilometers per hour
T = Acceleration time, in seconds, re -t S=d+ W+ L
quired for the crossing vehicle to
clear the distance S beginning
from a stop condition, (T shall Figure 1.07.8A
not be less than 4 seconds) Sight Distance Triangle
182
14 I I I I I I
3. Vertical Alignment
The gradient of a minor crossing highway shall
( v;
match the cross slope of the main highway.
~
-g 121 I
8 I I / I Proper treatment of minor highway gradients
I is shown in Figures 1.07.9 and 1.07.10. The
minor highway gradients shall be checked to
---r---I~c;\.J)'~'/
~
§~ 10 I
0:; I _ I, 7 7' I insure that adequate crossing sight distance is
I provided. Shoulder edge profiles shall also be
checked to insure there are no flat spots where
~ the road surface will not drain.
.:i.
~
~Ql 8I I 7' I >' I AP' j,.r
I
Major Highway
Traveled
61 I I I I I
:;;>'
(0 nl ~y 'I~O ~I
G, lG 3 G2
4 ;:::;;-- ,
~----r---~
I I I , I I
o 10 20 30 40 50
S=Crossing distance traveled during acceleration (m)
Acceleration Gradient Adjustment Factor Flat to Moderate Cross Grades

Design %
Vehicle -4 -2 0 +2 +4 G, & G2 = Tangent gradient

between-D.5%
P 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 i.3 and-2.0%
SU 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3 G3 = Traveled way
WB 0.8 0.9 1.0 I.2 1.7 cross slope
Figure 1.07.8B Traveled

Acceleration Time 20 m Way 10 m ....-:: -?
(Level Conditions) ~~crossroad

~ __ --I~>- . G44
l:i
2. Stopping Sight Distance
e:--
.-----
The minimum stopping sight distances for
channelized right-turn roadways are shown in
Table 1.07.1. The minimum stopping sight Steep Cross Grades
distance for other conditions are described in G, = Tangent gradient between
2-1.05. -D.5% and -2.0%
G3 = Traveled way cross slope
Table 1.07.1
G4 = Tangent gradient between
Minimum Stopping Sight Distance for
+0.5% and +2.0%.
Channelized Right-Turn Roadway
;(' Design Speed

(km/h) 25 30 35 40 45 50
The above 10m and 20 m
dimensions are the cross
street tangent lengths.
Minimum
Stopping Sight Figure 1.07.9
Distance (m) 25 30 35 45 55 65 Cross Street Grade Adjustment
Note: Eye height is 1.05 m. Qlld object height is 150 mm.
183
(
Diagram A Diagram B
Traveled way Traveled way

cross slope
--
cross slope
110~1
~G4'! G~G4 ~
10 m ___
!'GL.-c
---
20m
-
~
Triangle shape -I
- II
-
-LG'H --=_
---
•
Ascending gradient Ascending gradient
%
.r
'c,:.
"
-;.
10 m and 20 m = tangent lengths
G, = original gradient
G2 = revised gradient
G3 = traveled way cross slope
G 4 = tangent gradient of
cross street (not to
exceed 3V2 % difference
from G 3 )
Figure 1.07.10
Combined Vertical and Horizontal
Alignments at Intersections
184
1.07 G
4. Intersection Angles Where an existing highway or a new highway

Intersection angles for three-leg, T, and four crosses a major highway at a sharper angle, the
( leg intersections shall be between 85 G and 115 G
(preferably 100G) as shown in Figure 1.07.11.
alignment of the minor highway shall be ad
justed as shown in Figure 1.07.11.
~ A Good solution B Good solution
~~ '"
'fI~;~
6~ i~~ //' - ~ ~6
I ""
_
///
1/1// C Undesirable solution D Acceptable solution
(See note 1) (See note 2)
( "
Acceptable
E L =20 m min.
t; = S5 G to 115G
./
Notes:
1. Requires a left turn following a right turn creating a chance 2. Solution D can only be used if solutions A' and B are not
for a rear· end collision. feasible.
\ Figure 1.07.11
Realignment of Intersections
185
1.07 G
5. Intersection Radii tion taper and simple curve shall be used

Left-turn and right-comer-turn radii shall be since it approximates the design vehicle
large enough to accommodate the design vehi
cle turning movements described under items
turning path and requires less right-of-way
than a large radius simple curve. (
F and G in this section. c. Channelized Right-Turn Roadway

a. Left Turn A channelized right-turn roadway is a sepa
Figure 1.07.12 shows the minimum radii rate roadway for right-turn movements as
and median opening length for semicircle shown in Figure 1.07.13. The radius may be
and bullet nose median end treatments. Bul the same as for right-corner turns, or
let nose medians require smaller openings greater.
than medians with a semicircle end treat d. V-Turns at Intersections
ment.
If V-turns are allowed at intersections and if
b. Right-Corner Turns the approach legs are multilane highways,
Figure 1.07.13 shows the minimum edge of the combination of the median plus the op
traveled way radius required so that vehicles posing traveled way width shall be wide
making right-corner turns will not encroach enough so a design vehicle can make the
into adjacent lanes. For turning angles less V-turn from the left turn-lane without mak
than 65 G , a simple curve shall be used. For ing any backing maneuvers (3-point turn). If
turning angles greater than 65 G , a combina- adequate width cannot be obtained, signs
prohibiting V-turns shall be installed.
I~ L ~I I~ L ~I
-----) \..'--- ) l
- ----
-----==.:-::...... - - - -- - ---
) '~\ ( MI 1< )"'''''\ ( - - - -
II
I - - - - ---- \\
II
1 L
d
( 1 "r
_ _ _ _--' I") \,'1 I' ) l 'I L
_
-=
_ _ _ _ _ _,
r~;\
II
II
II
C=Ml t=J~~\
C
---- ----
,\
1\ -----
'1 II ( ..
1
II
II (
(
Semicircle Bullet Nose
L=Minimum Median Opening Length L=Minimum Median Opening Length

(m) (m)
Median P and SU WB-12 and WB-lS

Median
P and SU
WB-12 and WB-lS
Width
Width
M
Semi- Bullet Semi- Bullet M
Semi- Bullet Semi- Bullet
(m) circle Nose circle Nose (m) circle Nose circle Nose
1 29 29 44 36.5 8 22.5 12 37 22
2 28.5 23 43.5 34.5 10 20.5 12 35 20
3 27 18.5 42 31.5 12 18 12 30 17
4 26 16 41 29.5 15 15 12 28.5 12
5 25 15 40 28 20 12 12 25 12
6 24 13.5 39 25.5 30 12 12 15 12
Figure 1.07.12
Median Opening Length for Left Turns (
186
(
- -+
~y
----
Edge of traveled way Edge of

~7
traveled way I
\
~\
taper
I
I
Combination
Simple curve \ taper and simple
curve
I
ti
• Turn
Angle
6
(grads)
Design
Vehicle
SU
Simple
Curve
30
R
(m) (m)
-
Combination
Taper and Simple Curve
Radius R Offset
h (m)
-
Taper
Ratio
35 WB-12 45
WB-15 60
SU 18
65 WB-12 27
WB-15 - 30 1 15: 1
SU 15 12 0.6 10:1
100 WB-12 - 13.5 1.2 10:1
WB-15 - 18 1.2 15: 1 i
SU -
I
9 1 10:1
135 WB-12 - 10.5 1.5 8: 1
15: 1
( WB-15
SU
-
-
13.5
9
1.2
1.2 8: 1
165 WB-12 - 9 1.8 8: 1
WB-15 - 10.5 2.1 6: 1
SU - 9 0.5 10: 1
200 WB-12 - 6 3 5: 1
WB-15 - 8 3 5: 1
Figure 1.07.13
Minimum Right-Turn Radii
At Edge of Traveled Way
,
\
187
1.07 G
6. Separate Right- and Left-Turning Lanes L = Length in meters occupied by

Intersection capacity analysis shall be used to each vehicle (7 m for passenger
vehicles, 12 m for trucks)
determine the number of right-and left-turning
lanes and number of through lanes. Accelera At signalized intersections the storage lane
(
tion and deceleration lanes shall be used with length shall be at least 1.5 times the average
these turning lanes. Figures 1.07.14, 1.07.15, number of peak hour vehicles to be stored per
and 1.07.16 are examples of turning lanes on cycle.
multilane highways. Figure 1.07.17 and
1.07.18 are good examples of providing The length of deceleration lanes, P, is shown in
shielded left-turning lanes and providing ref Figures 1.07.14 through 1.07.18. The length
uge lanes to accommodate left-turn move varies according to the approach speed and
ments from a crossroad onto a two-lane, two type of intersection. Through traffic movement
way highway. In rural areas, raised median lanes may have to be shifted laterally to ac
curbs shall not be used unless the highway is commodate turning lanes at intersections. Ta
multilane divided and the design speed less per transitions lengths as shown in Table
than 80 km/h. 1.07.2 shall be used to minimize abrupt
changes in lane alignment within the intersec
Turning lanes shall be at least 3 m and desira tion.
bly 3.5 m wide. When used with a curbed is
land, these widths should be increased by at Table 1.07.2
least 0.50 m. The minimum median width is 5 Minimum Taper Length
m. Design
Speed
" length of turning lanes shall depend upon (km!h) 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
the length required for speed change and the
Taper
number of vehicles to be stored. The storage Length
length is based upon the number of vehicles (m) 75 90 105 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
that are likely to accumulate in 2 minutes, as
determined from the capacity analysis, and is Lanes shall not be dropped within an intersec
calculated by the following formula: tion but shall be carried through the intersec
tion, as shown in Figures 1.07.17 and 1.07.18.
S = NL Lane drops shall begin a minimum 30 m past
30
the center of the intersection.
where S = Storage length in meters
N = Design volume of turning vehicle
in vehicles per hour
188
( ~
~- --
--
-,.-.-
T - - _-d:::/·/·)::··::'-':::::·::·::··:·: ':"::,;);;"';;;
i
a R150
b
50 P S
L Storage
L=50+P+S ct
I
• 73 ., Iill 5.0 mio. • I It 7.3 .. I Rural
Design Speed km/h 70 80 90 100
.... .." P 60 80 100 120
----r' 'I II ~ S Storage Length Required
Section a-a Urban

Design Speed km/h I 50 60 70 80 I
a" I t 7.3 " I 'II 2.0 I . 3.0.

• ,.
min. min.
II.. I 7.3 .. I
ill 30
.
min.
.. I
p
·S min.
I 25
• If the storage length calculated in accordance

with section 2-1.0786, is longer then these values,
0 0
40
60
60
8r
8
----n.-.. 'IT'
... ""
'J
the longer length governs.
•• Curbs pemlitted only if the design speed is ;;;:
80 km/h.
Section bob All dimensions in meters.
Figure 1.07.14
Turning Lanes on Multilane Divided Highway
Lt" rt u
K2.0~
30:1
R 2,000
;,., "- R 500 - R 150
---
--- rf"l+
----- ...
:>'~:"-" :~
-
R 2,000 ~ ~
!=l
R 2,000
30:11+ a R1S0
~n
( L=50+P+S
I- 50
L
..
H -
S
Storage
I
"r15mir,
I ct
ct
~I~
I
.. 73 .. 1'II 20 .. 1ill
min.
ci ci l .. ill 7.3 II ! Rural
80 90 100
I Design Speed kmlh 70
~
P 60 80 100 120
D ..
0 S Storage Lengt h Required
Section a-a Urban

Design Speed km/h 50 60 70 80
2.5 ct P 0 0 60 80
I
,.
7.3 "
~ 3.0 "
I ill
7.3 ..
I'II
3.0 ..
I ·S min. 25 40 60 80
min. I • If the storage length, calculated in accordance

with section 2-1.07G6, is longer then these values,
D I ~ I~ the longer length governs.
•• Curbs permitted only if the design speed is ;;;:
80 km/h.
Section bob
All dimensions in meters.
Figure 1.07.15
Introduced Median and Turning Lanes on Multilane Undivided Highway
189
--
,,?i:1
v..
r?U
--
~~:~
_.~"'1fik:':': """""":"'o':@":'.:" '" _ rf)
(
---
--
-+a
I
I
l+b
-- ...........
t I
I
T i p
I S'
c+ ..................
Storage
IJ .~
I 't
I
-c
Varies 't
..
2.5 _I" 7.3 I Rural
l
'II It'
pesign Speed km/h 70 80 90 100 110
I
------r'IQ=-
I
. ry- .. P
T
55
105
60
120
70
130
80
140
90
150
I
Section a-a Urban
•
't Design Speed km/h 50 60 70 80
10.0 10.0 P 30 30 30 40
'S min. 75 90 105 120
7.3 .1_ 2.0 _11 3.0 _I. 7.3
-I
Tmin.-11 I •• • If the storage length calculated in accordance
with section 2-1.07G6, is longer then these values,
I ~
I _ rr- the longer length governs.
----r'
•• Curbs permitted only if the design speed is ~
80 km/h.
Section b-b
Figure 1.07.16
Introduced Median and Left-Turn Lane on Multilane Undivided Highway
t: r=~torng".
I
30 15lmin. S .1 p
[fa
, , , ' S , , S S \ \ \ S~Uj:;~';~j1& T"~ "J- ';t(!: Tur~ lane

--- I "t (
a p S. I 15\min.I' 30
T J
Storage -, I -I
Deceleration
't
Design speed (km/h) T P
I
..
"riB,
't
I
I
• •
365 I 1
365 I
50
60
70
80
75
90
105
120
45
50
55
60
~
90 130 70
---r= I
Section a-a
100
110
140
150
80
90
120 160 100
130 170 110
• Storage length in accordance with section

2-1.07.G.6.
•• Curbs permitted only if the design speed is ~
80 km/h.
Figure 1.07.17 (
Left-Turn Lane and Turning Lane on Two-Lane Highway
190
(
- ;:t:r:8i~
l .. __ I... _ .....
~-~+
I 3.65 ,I. 3.65 I 3.65 I
Design Speed (kmlh) T P

~ I ~
50 75 45
Section A-A 60 90 50
70 105 55
80 120 60
90 130 70
100 140 80
110 150 90
120 160 100
130 170 110
~ Figure 1.07.18
Left-Turn Lane and Turn Lane at Two-Lane "T" Intersection
7. Channelization b. Divisional islands are used to separate

Channelization separates traffic into definite opposing traffic, to provide protection for
paths of travel by the use of pavement left-turn lanes, and to channel traffic into
markings or raised islands. Channelization fa right-angled approach paths at skewed
cilitates the safe and orderly movement of both
intersections.
vehicles and pedestrians.
Channelization islands may be constructed by
Channelization can be used to improve exist the use of raised curbs or traffic markings con
ing intersections. Figure 1.07.19 illustrates the sisting of raised pavement markers and strip
following types of improvements: ing. These may be used individually or in com
bination. However, raised curbs shall not be
• Separate conflicts. used when the design speed is greater than 80
• Control angles of potential conflict. km/h.
• Reduce excessively large pavement areas.
Islands shall be large enough to attract tht>
f
•
•
Regulate traffic flow and indicate proper use
of intersection.
Favor predominant turning movements.
attention of drivers. Raised curbed islan
shall be at least 8 m 2 in size while painted
islands should be at least 5 m 2 in size. Divi
• Protect pedestrians. sional islands shall be at least 1.5 m wide with
• Protect turning and crossing vehicles. lengths varying between 6 m for urban areas to
• Provide proper and safe location for traffic 30 m for rural areas.
control devices. When an island is situated on a vertical crest
• Provide reference points. curve or a horizontal curve, the approach end
• Discourage prohibited movements. of the island shall be extended so as to be visi
• Control speed. ble to approaching drivers.
• Protect bicyclists. Figures 1.07.21 and 1.07.22 show examples of
• Control or restrict access. proper layouts for directional islands. Figure
• Restrict through traffic. 1.07.23 shows special treatment for left-turn
lanes in wide median areas, to improve the
Directional islands and divisional islands are sight distance for drivers making left turns.
the two types of intersection channelization.
These are illustrated in figure 1.07.20. When designing directional islands for chan
nelized right-turn roadways, the pavement
a. Directional islands are triangular in width shall be wide enough to accommodate
shape and are used to direct turning move the design vehicle. This width varies with the
ments.
191
1.07 G
turning radius of the inner edge of the turning stalled vehicle, and (3) two-lane operation. The
roadway. Table 1.07.3 shows the required width of roadway should at least meet the re
width for three cases: (I) one-lane operation,
(2) one-lane operation with provision to pass a
quirements of Case 2 and shall not be less than
Case I. (
Table 1.07.3
Widths of Channelized Right-Turn Roadways
Pavement width (m)
Case II
R Case I One-Lane, One-
Radius on
One-Lane, One- Way Operation Case III
Inner Edge Way Operation With Provision Two-Lane Operation
Of Pavement, No Provision for For Passing a
(m) Passing Stalled Vehicle
Design Traffic Conditions Design Traffic Conditions Design Traffic Conditions
A B C A B C A B C
15
25
35
5.50
4.50
4.50
5.50
5.00
5.00
7.00
5.50
5.50
7.00
6.25
6.00
7.75
6.75
6.50
9.00
7.75
7.50
9.50
8.50
8.50
10.75
9.50
9.25
13.00
11.50
10.50
t
45 4.25 4.75 5.25 6.00 6.50 7.25 8.25 9.00 10.00

60 4.25 4.75 5.00 5.75 6.50 7.25 8.25 9.00 9.75
80 4.00 4.75 5.00 5.75 6.25 7.00 8.00 8.75 9.50
100 4.00 4.75 5.00 5.50 6.25 6.75 8.00 8.75 9.25
125 4.00 4.50 4.75 5.25 6.00 6.75 8.00 8.50 9.00
150 3.75 4.50 4.75 5.00 6.00 6.50 7.75 8.50 8.75
Tangent 3.75 4.50 4.50 4.75 5.75 6.50 7.50 8.25 8.25
t:tw
I I:?
!i'~ '!fi?7
I / '9
I I I:? I
stalled
I I vehicle I
I
I
I I
(
Notes:
If barrier curbs are used all aile side, add 0.5 m for Cases I alld III.
If barrier curbs are used on both sides, add 1.0 m for Cases I alld III alld 0.5 In for Case II.
If there is a stabilized shoulder: deduct shoulder width ill Case II but millimum pal'emelll width should be that for Case I: deduct
0.5 m where shoulder is 1.0 m or wider ill Case III.
Traffic conditiolls A: predomirJOlltly P vehicles but some cOllsideratioll for SU truck.~
Traffic conditioll B: sufficiellt SU vehicles to govern desigll but some cOII.lideratioll for semitrailer l'ehicles.
Traffic cOllditioll C: sufficiellt semitrailer or WB vehicles to govern desigll.
192
1.07 G
Table 1.07.4 through-lane cross slope and the super
Design Values for Rate of Change elevation of the right-turn roadway shall con
Of Cross Slope for Turning Roadways form to Table 1.07.5. By knowing the ap
(
Design Speed 25 55 and
proach speed for the right-turn roadway and
(km/h) 30 40 50 More the cross slope of the through lanes, it is possi
ble to determine the superelevation at various
Change in rate of points along a turning roadway. After the
superelevation (m/m) superelevations have been determined, gutter
40 m length 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 flow lines shall be plotted and adjusted to in
10 m length 0.03 0.022 0.020 0.016 sure proper drainage.
9. Bus Bays
Table 1.07.5
Bus bays shall be located along outside of
Maximum Algebraic Difference in Pavement
traveled way or adjacent to a directional island
Cross Slope at Turning Roadway Terminals
for safe loading and unloading of passengers.
Bus bays are illustrated in Figure 1.07.26.
Maximum Algebraic Difference
Design Speed of In Cross Slope at Cross Over 10. Spacing of Intersections
Exit or Entrance Between Traveled Way
Curve (km/h) And Turning Roadway (m/m) a. General
Up to 30 0.06 The spacing of intersections shall vary ac
30 to 50 0.05 cording to the design class of the highway.
a
50 and over 0.04
The basic concepts for channelization also ap

ply to intersections at interchange ramp ter
On local and collector highways, the mini
mum spacing of intersections may be 150 r
since the function of these highways is to
serve abutting land along with movement of
mini. Channelization and other techniques traffic. On arterial highways the spacing of
shall be included to discourage wrong turn intersections becomes more critical for the
movements onto ramps. Figure 1.07.27 gives a proper movement of vehicles with minimum
typical layout for a simple diamond inter interruptions by cross traffic and traffic sig
change. To discourage wrong-way left turns, nals. Signalized intersections shall have a
median islands shall be extended to a point minimum spacing of 500 m, and be equally
that would provide too short of a radius for the spaced if progressive signalization is to be
vehicles to make the wrong turn. Short radii used.
shall be used to discourage wrong way right b. Spacing Between Frontage Road
turns onto ramps. Similar techniques shall be Intersections and Interchanges or Other
used to prevent wrong-way movements on Intersections
other types of grade separated interchanges.
Frontage roads create a problem when they
8. Superelevation intersect major cross streets. Generally,
The superelevation of channelized right-turn frontage roads are separated from multilane
roadway for various radii differs from highways by a narrow buffer strip, called the
{
superelevation of highways, See 2-1.05, since
superelevation must be compatible with the
outer separation. This results in tw'"
intersections: (1) frontage road to cro.
street and (2) cross street to multilane high
intersection cross slopes and since drivers ex
pect lower superelevation rates at inter way or to a ramp terminus from the
sections. The rate of superelevation for chan multilane highway. When adequate distance
nelized right-turn roadways can be obtained is not provided between these intersections,
from Figure 1.07.24. The development of these problems occur with turning movements
superelevations is shown schematically in Fig and signalization. Therefore, the intersection
ure 1.07.25. The rate of change in super of a frontage road and cross street shall be
elevation along the right-turn roadway shall spaced at least 50 m from the intersection of
conform to the values of Table 1.07.4. The the multilane highway or ramp terminus as
maximum algebraic difference between the shown in Figures 1.07.27 and 1.07.28.
'.
193
After No. Belore Alter

No. Belore Channelization Purpose Channelization Purpose
1 ~illiL .: t~;:.r-- :!::""'. signal

8
= --
-
- - - -----
-
-----_._-- = ----
=---- Provide proper and
sale location lor
i!II!rZ= Ij~
- - - - - . control the "Before" trallic control
~ 111 1 ~
II
f-----+------;--'-"--'--O
t I ~ n s,lualion shown IS
preferable
devices
i~f ~.
~;:'
AddItion of slop line and island
show driver where to sto;z
--
=
9 ---
----
=
---- :=:=: E Provide relerence
iill!1ilW'r
points
2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 01
lilllL ill l
I 1 \\ Merge al
possible
conllict
II I
~IIIL
1
I I~ I I' ,-"
~"IL
lIal angles
:II :ti : :lr;;~ II

--,----+---------1
10 =
Ij I
----
----
Ij I
---- - - -
=- - -
- =\=
--- Discourage prohib·
ited movements
t
3
~"
--
JlII : I
Reduce exces' 1!II!i1!llrr
I 411 : sively large
~
Speed conlrol by
V
II
..~~~..~~
pavement areas
Control speed
- - - - - - = -=v:=-,.-=-=='=
e---j'II'i- I I\lllr ~~9~~~~~~:I~~~~~~
c(e~sed for cr~a5ed for
major flow mInor flow
1/
4 i use 01 Intersection
~JIIIL
I
I I I I ~IIII~
-------- - - - ---
- -- - ---
- - --
- ---
II I r
~;II:L~1111L- ---- -- -- --- Alert bicyclists
12 and motorists
--- - ----- ==- Favor predominant Bike ~!lliC--
- - - f /======:>
5 = "r - - - - - f ,,---~
_ _ _ turmng
. movemen ts lane Bring aMentian to possible
conflict when turning right
I : II' rHeaVYllow ~ 1111r Jill.- J II I-.--

-
._~- --- ----
~:IIIL----.-JIII\~ OO~
7h - ---r ~
9: II!F - - -r- Control or restrict
=-=-= ==-== 13 - -~
6
1
~
~ !1/: - Protect pedestrians Conllicls~
major intersec-
lions
III LClose
median 1111 access
i l l-:~~-
~illil ~lllilrcr~:~'ng ~:l
7
-
-
- -
--~I ~
- - - Area shadowed
t=-.r
_ _ _
Protecttu~ning .
and crossIng trallic
14
---- ----
Restrict through
trallic
(
I !II ! I :~~~U9h Ira~lc, II !I T~;~ng IntersectIon of two residen·
t1a1 streets traffIc through neighborhood
Figure 1.07.19
Channelization to Improve Intersection Operations
(
194
(
• I , Divisional
island
Yield Stop
Directional island
Divisional island
~ Divisional
island
---
- - - --- -- - - - - - - - -
--------- --
-
, i::::::::a:= -----------
Directional island
lil!l - - Directional island
II
II
I
Merge
I Added Lane
I
I
I
I
e I
f- Q.
~ I
- Directional island
Figure 1.07.20
Types of Island Channelization
195
Offset Island Offset
(
H' , i
t
lilt..
'\
Section a-a
0.5 to
1.0 radius - - -
0.5 to 1.0 •
offset 1.0 to 2.0
offset
a
Channelized right-turn \
roadway
0.5 radius '
large
-----o-f .t-4-- 0.5 to 1.0
offset
I
0.5 to 1.5 <I>
C
radius ~
0.5 to 1.5
radius .1
0.5 to 1.0 --~
offset 1.0 to 2.0
offset
a
0.5 -------.
radius
Intermediate - - f •.•1 ----+- 0.5 to 1.0
offset
Through-traffic lane
0.5 to 1.5
radius
(
<I>
C
~
0.5
radius - - - -
0.5---~
offset
0.5
radius a
Small
Through-traffic lane 0.5 to 1.0' offset
• Offset may exceed 1.0 m depending on number of lanes and 0.5 to 1.0
turning path design.

radius
I··..•. .•. .•. ... >.•. •.··•. •·.•• •.·.1 rumble

Painted stripes, contrasting surfaces,
strips, etc.
Figure 1.07.21
Curbed Directional Islands with No Shoulder
(
196
~ Island Shoulder
( I I' 'I 'I

----2) LSF====-
Section a-a
0.5 to 1.0 ~
radius
a
0.5 to 1.0 "trlj
offset
Channelized right
turn roadway
0.5 radius-....
~.
Large
0.5 to 1.5
radius
0.5 to 1.0
radius------,
0.5 to 1.0 ...
offset
0.5
radius
Intermediate
Through·traffic lane
0.5 to
(
:::
.
A,_.
1.5 radius
Ql
0.5 radius •J C
~
0.5 offset ...
0.5 radius ... a
Small
0.5 to 1.0
radius
Figure 1.07,22
Curbed Directional Islands with Outside Shoulder
197
See Fig. 1.07.12
E
for length ll'>
C":i
-------
Medians 5 m wide
I~
E
~
______ (
------ [QJ...--
) - -
Visibility is poor
- -J -[Q]
(
-----
~
Use striping to paint out
IlDJ I ~ excess area-":::J ~)I c>"~
~ t----,·c::::;::::,.....--__
J
<I «
~- Visibility is better j
Medians wider than 5 m ~
E
ll'>
Figure 1.07.23
Channelization to Improve Left-Turn Sight Distance
700
600 l I ~ J J J ~ J J ~
500
400 c:::
300 IiQ.
~
250
..!.-~ .11s. _
L' ~':::;',
-- 70kE/h L
200 ....:.. _
E 150
fifl ..!.-~ .172
(l)
~ 100
u 90
I
'0 80
I1l
::>
70
I
15 60 I
<Il
a: 50 I
- Ok~
_
(
40 (\J
I 0
o
30
:.!'~h
(l)
25
Ir f 294
20
15
10 1. 1- i i-ll.1-1-J
-0.02 -0.01 000 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 005 006 0.07 0.08
Rate of superelevation (m/m)
Figure 1.07.24
Superelevation for Channelized Right-Turn
Roadways
198
~.
A
-- B
-- . -----, -
----
C
o
Tangent highway E
Tapered-turning roadway
A
-- C o
Curving highway right
8
Curving highway left E F
C o
~-f''----
A
B C
{". Tangent highway
Parallel auxiliary lane
--.Pavement surface above level line

~ Pavement surface below level line
A Main line cross slope
B to E Superelevation transition
F Full superelevated turning highway
Figure 1.07.25
Development of Superelevation
I
\
199
(
I
Delineated ""'
. . •. . . • ~....
$QlaoS':bafYf@ ~.......... R 100
A"~.. "'"
Corner Location
I_ 25.0 _I_ 15.0 _,.. 25.0 _/
==2
R 100
Midblock Location
WilikOlatlstiavf$Qi· ...
--::-
"'CSidewalk
R 100
•
I
I
I
I
I I
<~ .. '.H )111 I
Island Location
Figure 1.07.26
(
Bus Bays
200
_T. _ _~ , '_ _ ~ .. _~C •. ~, _ .•• ' ,.,-',y....,_' ......
.... , . . . . . _~~"
.~-':. '.~7:'~
( Q)
-""
<tI Q)
E -""
o~
<tI
E
c
~~
c
oE
l
.~ c~
J11 }f i: if
~1?2m :: I~
-----)-~~~~---~~,~-------
- - - - - - - - - ".1 (....._ _---".,,----,--.,..-_
,.. t
~~.<
~.<;,.....
"::!!-"o
""_:J',' '.
Figure 1.07.27
Intersection Channelization at Interchanges and
Spacing of Frontage Roads from Interchange
(
\..
201
1.07 H
50 m (min.)
I! (
II
I
I,
I
----
-----
~II~
I I
I I
I I
I I
tl , It:,
I
I
I
I
I
•
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 1.07.28
Spacing of Frontage Road Terminus from Intersections
(
H. Intersection Connections to Roadside De gradually turning curves meeting the require
velopment ments of 2-1.08.
A second group of intersections consists of Along other highways, public and commercial
public and commercial/private side road connections shall meet the tapers, acceleration
connections. The principles of basic intersec and deceleration lanes, and turning radii pre
tion design also apply to these connections for sented under 2-1.07H. The highway shall have
proper sight distance and turning radii. left turn and median acceleration lanes. These
are shown in Figure 1.07.29.
A public connection shall consist of side road
approaches to public buildings, parks, and rest Private road connections shall not be made to
areas. A commercial/private connection shall expressways and high speed multilane
consist of entrances to industrial parks, service arterials. This type of connection shall be per
stations, shopping centers, and small busi mitted on lower speed arterials, collectors, and
nesses. local highways. A private road connection is
shown in Figure 1.07.30.
Along expressways and high-speed multilane
divided arterials (90 km/h or more), public Driveway connections shall be permitted to
connections and commercial connections shall collector and local highways. This type of con
have exits and entrances consisting of adequate
tapers, acceleration and deceleration lanes, and
nection is shown in Figure 1.07.30.
\
202
~. 1_;.,y ....,.>'-~·~~:~:j;-t:~< J'~:-' ~~ _'" '~.'t /~' :~~''1i. L''JllJ!.!f.2>C:t:
I I I
I I
I I
•; , I'I :I II
I I I
I
II I I 1
II I I I
II I I ,
I: : I: I
J
I I I I
I/, I) I
I \'
II I
WI I I I I
I II I, I
,~ I II I
I II II I
I I1 I
I I II III
I
: : : ~I ~ I
, : J/: I _ ~J
• 1:11: -3~i -----~
:
I
JI
-----, I
"" I I
I
I
:
I
"~IUI I I I I
1 '\1 II I
." I I I I I
1 I, I
I II II I I
I II II I I
I I I I I II
II II II II
I I I I I I I I
I,
II I
I II II I:
I \ t
I I I
I I I II II 111
•
I II II
'. \'I ':I ':I

I I I
I I I
III I I
flf III I
I
I
t'fI '
I
: \:1 : IiI
I I I I
I I I I
I I Multilane divided I I I Two lane
Figure 1.07.29
Public and Commercial Connections
• 203
c-T""
!r I
R=5 m
==f~ m (min.)
Private
I
I
I 1-
V-- Si dewalk (
driveway
~
I
..?
I
I 7
DrivE way
R=10m I
Bituminous
surfacing I
I
j
~[
Private
road
I" Traveled way
I
"I
L 10% max.
•
I
r ::;;
Traveled
way
I
10m I_
4 5 m/(min.)
~
±1.5%
1 -t- , '!""
±1.5%
Curbed Highway
Noncurbed Highway
I
I
I
I
~ [t (
Figure 1.07.30
Private Connections
(
204
-r- '.. , ~.'"'-.r~. __ . _ ~ _
1.07 I
I. Railroad Grade Crossings tance cannot be met, positive controls using
railroad signal and gates with flashing lights
The third group of grade intersections is rail
(
road grade crossings.
conforming to the requirements of the
MUTCD shall be installed.
Railroad grade crossings shall be permitted
No commercial signs or other obstructions
only on local, collector, or arterial highways.
shall be permitted within 100 m of a railroad
At higher volumes of vehicular and train traf
grade crossing. The safety warning devices
fic, railroad grade separated crossings shall be
associated with such crossings shall be clearly
considered. All expressways shall have grade
visible.
separated railroad crossings.
Railroad grade crossings intersection angle Table 1.07.6
shall be between 85 G and 115 G • The full width Required Sight Distance for Rural
of roadway including shoulders shall be con Unsignalized Railway Crossings
tinued across the railroad crossing. Distance Traveled
By Train at Speed
The sight distance for a railroad grade crossing Shown During
follows the same principles as a highway to Time for Vehicle

Clear Sight Line
To Come to a Required for
highway crossing. The desirable crossing sight Stop (m) Train (m)
distance shall be adequate so that a vehicle Road
Design Stopping Train Speed Train Speed
..
approaching the railroad will be able to stop in Speed, Distance (kmlh) (km/h)
time after seeing a train approaching. To sat (km/h) (m)
30 80 100 150 30 80 100 150
isfy this condition, the two sides of the mini
mum sight triangle shall be as follows:
60 85 65 170 210 320 110 190 230 330
80 140 85 230 280 420 170 270 320 450
1. A distance along the highway measured 100 200 100 270 340 500 230 340 390 540
from the crossing corresponding to the mini
mum stopping distance for the design speed of Notes:
the highway as shown in Table 1.07.6. The following corrections for grade should be made to
"stopping distance:"
2. A distance along the railroad track, design speed 60 km/h at + 3 % decrease of 3 m

measured from the crossing, equivalent to the at +6% decrease of 6 m
01 -3% increase of 3 m
distance traveled by the train during the time
at -6% increase of 10 m
interval required for the highway vehicle to be design speed 80 km/h 01 +3% decrease of 6 m
brought to a stop. at +6% decrease of 10 m
at -3% increase of 6 m
3. The sight distance meeting these require at -6% increase of 15 m
ments is required in all four quadrants. design speed 100 km/h at +3% decrease of 10 m
01 +6% decrease of 15 m
For the above sight distance, the traffic control at -3% increase of 10 m
devices for railroads as required in the 01 -6% increase of 25 m
MUTCD shall be installed. If the sight dis
205
1.08 A, B, C
Section 1.08 Interchanges

( A. Concepts and Warrants than indicated in Figure 1.03.8 for proper
weaving conditions.
1. Introduction
The traffic interchange is a particular form of 3. Design Principles
intersection design and is the ultimate solution a. Provide regularity and consistency of de
to the intersection at-grade. It permits traffic sign features.
volumes to operate safely on intersecting
b. Ramp exits from main highway shall be
roadways. It is a system of interconnecting
from the right except in special cases.
roadways with grade separations providing for
the movement of traffic between two or more c. Ramp entrances to the main highway
roadways at different levels. It provides at least shall be on the right.
one connection for traffic between intersecting
d. There should be one exit per direction
roadways. Crossing conflicts are completely
from the main highway and any further
eliminated by grade separations and turning
division of traffic movement shall be at a
conflicts are minimized depending on the con
distance beyond the exit not less than that
figuration of the particular interchange.
traveled in 6 s at the design speed.
The design of an interchange is the most spe
e. Design speed of the ramp just beyond the
cialized and highly developed form of intersec

exit should preferably be one-half to two
tion design. Thus the designer should refer to

t.. the material in 2-1.07.
An interchange or series of interchanges on a
thirds that of the highway.
f. Provide ramps for return or complemen
tary traffic movements at same inter
main highway may affect contiguous areas

change.
along the route. Each interchange should be

located and designed to provide the best possi g. In rural areas the intersecting road is
ble traffic service consistent with the design usually carried over the main highway.
class. Consistency in interchange design for

h. Use flatter grades and slopes to minimize
similar conditions is desirable to minimize

intrusion on the surrounding environ
driver confusion. In addition, each design shall

ment.
be as simple as possible.
l. Signing is an important aspect of inter
2. Warrants
changes and its design should be done in
The following are conditions that warrant the conjunction with the geometric design.
examination of interchange planning:

J. The angle of skew of intersecting
a. As part of a highway with access control roadways should not be less than SOG.
between selected terminals.

b. To eliminate a traffic bottleneck. C. Interchange Types
c. To eliminate or correct a hazardous grade 1. General
t intersection.
d. Topography and nature of surrounding
area.
Design patterns for interchanges vary with
each interchange; a design suitable for one site
is rarely adaptable to the traffic and topo
e. Intersecting traffic volumes. graphic conditions at another site. Uniformity
in design or standardizing interchange layouts
B. Basic Design Features
whenever possible is very desirable. Definite
1. General patterns of interchange designs have evolved
The interchange shall be designed to avoid er that are suitable for use under most conditions.
ratic and unsafe driver behavior and for maxi Common patterns or types are descriptively
mum operational safety for the given traffic. called: diamond, cloverleaf, partial cloverleaf
This can be done with the application of some (parclo), three leg, directional, and rotary.
basic interchange design principles and appro Combinations of turning roadways, commonly
priate signing that is compatible with projected called ramps, that connect two or more legs of
traffic, adjacent land use, and site topography. the intersecting routes form these various in
terchange patterns. The choice of one of these
2. Spacing types for a particular location is dependent on
a. Rural-Normal spacing shall be 8 km. traffic volumes, topography, land use, and cost.
b. Urban-Normal spacing shall be 3 km. 2. Patterns or Types
In special conditions, spacing between suc a. Diamond (Figure 1.08.1)
cessive entrances and exits shall not be less A diamond interchange has four ramps
207
1.08 C
which are generally parallel to the main less signalized.

highway. It is a complete interchange pro Possibility of wrong-way movements.
viding all eight turning movements; each

ramp provides for one right-turn and one
Turning traffic from the expressway is obliged
to stop at the minor road. Storage lane treat
left-turn movement at the intersecting

ment may be required.
crossroad. The left turns are made at grade

intersections across conflicting traffic on the Little possibility of allowing for future expan
crossroad. This type is adaptable to major sion of the interchange but increased volumes
minor highway crossings with direct high may be handled by
speed exit and entrance ramp terminals on (a) channelizing the open throats.
the major highway and at-grade intersec (b) installing signals on the minor road (three
tions on the minor highway. By adding stor phase), or
age lanes, channelization, and traffic signals
(c) providing two-lane left turns.
at the ramp crossroad intersections, high
capacity interchanges can be developed. b. Cloverleaf (Figure 1.08.2)
It is essential that maximum sight distance The cloverleaf is a four-leg interchange
or visibility between vehicles approaching whose principal advantage is complete elim
ramp intersections be provided. ination of left-turn conflicts. Loop ramps are
provided to eliminate the four left-turn
The diamond interchange is the simplest

movements and outer ramps are provided
and possibly the most common type of in
•
for the four right-turn movements.
~rchange.
Figure 1.08.1
Simple Diamond
Advantages
High standard s.ingle exits in advance of the
structure.
High standard single entrances beyond the
~·ructure.
~conomical
costs.
in property use and construction Figure 1.08.2

Cloverleaf (
Where the expressway is depressed, the grades
of the ramps assist the deceleration of exiting

Advantages
traffic and the acceleration of entering traffic.
All left-turn conflicts eliminated in this single
Single exit feature simplifies signing of ex

structure design.
pressway.
Traffic signals are unnecessary.
No need for speed change lanes on or under
Traffic movements are continuous and natural.
the structure.
May be built in stages if necessary.
No weaving on the expressway.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
Large property requirements.
Lower capacity on the minor road due to left

turning movements. Weaving both on the expressway and the mi
nor road may severely limit capacity.
Difficulty of obtaining adequate visibility at the

open throat ramp terminals especially where Double exit on the expressway complicates
the minor road crosses over the expressway. signing.
Many points of conflict on the minor road in Additional weaving lanes on and under struc
crease the accident potential of the design, un ture increase cost.
(
Insufficient length for deceleration from ex
208
1.08 C
pressway speed to control speed of inner loop. intersections. This type is suitable for loca
Poor safety features. tions where by removing two left-turn
movements from the intersections the re
(
A cloverleaf may include a collector maining left-turn conflicts can be tolerated.
distributor highway (Figure 1.08.3). This
Two loop ramps are provided to remove the
design feature physically separates the
two major left-turn movements.
weaving ramp traffic from the main road
way, thereby minimizing weaving conflicts These ramps will also provide for two right
and signing difficulties. It provides a single turn movements when other ramps are not
exit and entrance from and to the main included in open quadrants of the inter
highway. change. Two outer ramps are provided for
the remaining four turning movements.
Since there will be left-turn conflicts at the
ramp crossroad intersections, it is essential
that maximum sight distance or visibility
between vehicles approaching ramp
intersections be provided.
a.
"
Figure 1.08.3
Cloverleaf with Collector Distributor Road
Advantages
Weaving section is removed from the ex

Figure 1.08.4A
pressway and is placed on lower speed

Parclo
collector-distributor road.
Merging and diverging points on the ex

Advantages
pressway are reduced in number from eight to

Favors the fast traffic on expressway by plac
four.
ing. exit terminals in advance of structure.
Interchange can handle higher volumes of traf

Weaving is eliminated.
fic than the basic cloverleaf design.
( Single exit and entrance on the expressway.
Movements for turning traffic are natural.
pressway.
May be used as stage I of parclo as shown in
Figure 1.08.4B as it lends itself to future ex
Disadvantages
pansion provided the structure opening is wide
May require more property than the basic clo

enough to accommodate the extra lanes.
verleaf depending on the size of loops.
Structure costs higher because of greater span.

Disadvantages
Unless sufficient distance is provided between

Natural right turn is replaced by a left turn
the exit from the expressway and the first exit

from the minor road.
from the collector-distributor road, adequate

Points of conflict on the minor road at the
directional signing may not be possible.

ramp terminals limits capacity and safety.
c. Partial Cloverleaf (Parclo) (Figures Stop condition on minor road for left-turn
1.08.4A to 1.08.4E) movement. Left-turn storage lane may be re
quired on the minor road.
The parclo interchange eliminates two left

turn movements from the ramp crossroad
209
1.08 C
Movements from the minor highway are

natural.
May be used as stage 1 of parclo as shown in
Figure l.08.4D as it lends itself to future ex (
// pansion provided the structure opening is wide

enough to accommodate the extra lanes.
Disadvantages
Points of conflict on the minor highway at the
ramp terminals limit capacity and safety.
Right-turn traffic from the expressway must
come to a stop at the minor highway.
Left-turn storage lane may be required on the
Figure 1.08.4B
minor highway with storage on or under the
Parclo
bridge between the ramp terminals.
High speed traffic must exit from the ex
Advantages pressway directly on to a small radius loop.
t Favors the fast expressway traffic by placing
~xit terminals in advance of structure.
~aving is eliminated.
pressway.
Not conducive to wrong-way movements.
High capacity, equal to or greater than clover
leaf, depending on left-turn movements.
,f
~
•
All traffic movements are natural.
Stop for left turns confined to ramps only.
Disadvantages
Higher construction and property costs than
Figure 1.08.4D
parclo two-quadrant or diamond.
Parclo
Signals required on minor road when through
and turning volumes are high.
Advantages
Not conducive to wrong-way movements.
,f All traffic movements are natural.
Disadvantages
Higher construction and property costs than
parclo two-quadrant or diamond.
In urban conditions when the minor highway
has high through and left turning volumes, a
two phase signal system is required.
Stop on minor highway for left turn with stor
age on or under the bridge between ramp
Figure 1.08.4C
terminals.
Parclo
High speed traffic must exit from the ex
pressway on a small radius loop.
Advantages
pressway.
(
210
1.08 C
Figure 1.08.7(b) is a three-leg interchange

involving multiple structures with high-type
(
directional ramps for all movements. This
design is suitable at the termination of a
high-speed arterial or expressway at an ex
pressway.
-
J
Trumpet-(a)
Figure 1.08.4E
Pardo
..0
Advantages
~
pressway. Trumpet-(b)
Can be used in special cases where the minor

highway closely parallels a railroad or
Figure 1.08.5
streambed, etc.
Trumpet
Disadvantages
Points of conflict on the minor highway at the Advantages
ramp terminals limit capacity and safety. Provides a relatively high speed semidirect
Signals required on minor highway when movement for heavier turning volume of traf
through and turning volumes high. fic.
A single structure is required.
d. Three-Leg (Figure 1.08.5 and Figure
1.08.7(b) ) No weaving.
High capacity as all movements are free flow.
Many three-leg interchanges involve a single
structure. These designs are used primarily e. Directional (Figures 1.08.6 and 1.08.7(a)
for connecting a terminated main highway & (b))
with an expressway.
f'
Directional interchanges have one or more

The trumpet design, Figure 1.08.5, should grade separations with direct or semidirect
not be used where the terminated leg is a ramp connections for one or more left
high-speed, free-flow highway of some turning movements. There are many
length. The abrupt ending of the through schemes of various combinations of direct
lanes at a loop ramp that requires substan connections for one or more turning move
tial speed reduction tends to result in acci ments. These are used mainly at major
dents. Where existing local conditions are intersections in urban areas and at
suitable to this design, the interchange intersections of two main highways. In such
should be oriented so that the directional cases, free flow is provided for high turning
ramp roadway would accommodate the traffic volumes in one or two quadrants
higher traffic volume, and the loop the lower comparable in volume to through traffic.
volume. In Figure 1.08.5, Trumpet A is fit
Direct or semidirect ramp connections pro
ting fQr the higher volume to the right and
vide higher traffic capacity, an increase in
Trumpet B for the higher volume to the left.
operating speed, and usually reduces travel
distance and avoids the necessity for weav
mg.
211
',_., ......~~ .• _~_~''''" .., / ' . • C?~ • . , . "..." -~~'-_ _-"'!'< ..... _
.."".," ....-"-'-"",.~._•••.~._~ • .,; •..-:::_'?~ ._~
1.08 D
f. Rotary (Figure 1.08.8)

The rotary interchange has the major high
way separated from the intersecting
roadways. It frees the through traffic move
(
ment and routes the ramp or intersecting
traffic to the rotary roadway. Weaving ma
neuvers limit the use of rotary interchanges
::0- to low volume and low speed conditions.
Rotaries may be fitting in areas where there
are five or more intersecting roadways and
all movements, other than through traffic on
the major highway, are relatively small and
can be handled on the weaving sections.
The configuration of the rotary is such that
weaving sections can be lengthened to in
crease capacity, however, this will increase
the overall area of the interchange.
Figure 1.08.6
This type of interchange has limited applica
Directional Interchange with Right Hand
bility and shall be used only when other
Exits and Entrances
types are not applicable and the above con
ditions exist. The use of a rotary type inter
change is considered to be a deviation from
the policy set forth in this manual.
.~
Figure 1.08.8
Rotary
Advantages
•
This type provides a relatively simple solution
lor rural intersections with four or more ap
proaches where speed and volumes are not
(a)
high.
-....:::: --- Disadvantages
Large property requirements.
The weaving sections limit the speed and ca
pacity.
The directional signing is difficult unless the
diameter of the circle is large enough to pro
vide adequate length in the weaving sections.
D. Design Procedures
This section outlines the design procedures
(b)
which have been found most desirable for in
Figure 1.08.7
terchange design. The guides and practices
Directional Interchanges with Right Hand
given in the previous parts of this section shall
Exits and Entr~nces
be applied to assure the most appropriate de
sign. This also assures complete coverage of all
(
212
- - -• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •-• .1Ii-~~... -'~:~:--1:.~~ __
1,08 E
aspects of an interchange design and avoids within the interchange area. Standards pertain
•
needless refinement in the preliminary study ing to 2-1.07, are also used. Essentially, inter
stages. Design for any interchange involves changes are composed of a combination of ele
some, and for most cases, all of the following ments some of which the standards have
steps. already been provided. Only those additional
standards peculiar to interchanges are given
1. Basic Data for Design
here.
a. Obtain and analyze traffic data for all
through and turning movements, includ 2. Design Speed (Ramps)
ing future growth. It is rarely feasible to provide ramp speeds in
the same range as on the through roadway. It
b. Obtain physical data for the site, includ
is desirable that drivers be able to use ramps at
ing maps showing topography and cul
as high a speed as practical so that there will
ture, and maps showing existing land use
be little conscious effort required in a decrease
and that likely to occur in the future.
from or an increase to the speed of through
c. Determine the location, classification, traffic. The design speed of the ramps, there
and general design features of all high fore, shall be related to the design speed of the
ways and other development, both exist intersecting highways. Drivers are willing to
ing and planned, in the area which may accept some speed change if they can still
have a bearing on the design. travel the ramp at a reasonable speed.
2. Preliminary Design
Guide values for ramp design speed in terms of
a. Prepare study sketches for several likely approach roadway design speed are shown in
interchange schemes that are suitable to Table 1.08.1. To cover the wide variety of in
meet traffic needs and are practical for tersection types and site conditions, the ramp
the site and design controls. design speed is shown as a range between de
sirable and minimum values which depends in
b. Analyze alternate schemes and select two part on the corresponding ramp curvature.
or more for further study. Ramp designs shall be based on desirable de
c. Prepare preliminary plans and profiles for sign speeds where feasible. Final determination
alternates selected under b. would depend upon the type of intersecting
highways and the site controls in each quad
3. Determination of Preferred Plan rant.
a. Evaluate each alternative plan with re Table 1.08.1
spect to the highway and the total effect Values for Ramp Design Speed as Related
on the environment. Factors to be evalu To Highway Design Speed
ated include geometrics, capacity-volume

operational characteristics, signing, Approach
Roadway
aesthetics, overall adaptability, maintain
Design
ing traffic during construction, suitability Speed (km/h) 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
•
to stage construction, right-or-way re
quired and the effect on the local street Ramp Design
and highway network. Speed
(km/h)
b. Prepare preliminary cost estimates for Desirable 50 60 70 80 80 90 100 100 110
each alternative plan including right-of Minimum 40 40 40 50 50 60 60 70 70
way, construction, maintenance, and Correspondin!
other appropriate items. Horizontal
Curve
c. Analyze steps 3a and 3b together and Radii, (m)
reach conclusions as to the preferred Desirable 90 110 160 190 250 310 340 380 440
plan. Minimum 30 30 50 60 70 90 110 130 160
E. Design Standards
3. Sight Distance
I. General
a. Ramp Proper
The following standards pertain to design ele
Stopping sight distances are shown in Table

ments of interchanges. Geometric and Struc
1.08.2. Minimum sight distances should be

ture Standards, 2-1.05, shall be followed in the
available at all points along the ramp road
design of all features of the through highway
way and wherever feasible the desirnhle
values should be provided.
• .' I \
1.08 E
Table 1.08.2 the crossroad coming into view after he

Stopping Sight Distance for Turning starts, reaches him. The sight distances
Roadways needed are provided in Figure 1.08.9.
Design Where the crossroad overcrosses the major
(
Speed highway, allowance should be made for a
(km/h) 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 no crest vertical curve and the fact that cross
Stopping road traffic may be on a downgrade. Also,
Sight the structure parapet or rail shall not ob
Distance struct the critical line of sight. Similar pre
(m)
cautions shall be taken where the cross
Desirable 26 34 48 64 84 106 136 170 210 250

Minimum 26 34 48 62 78 92 106 126 152 180 road underpasses the major highway,
obstructions to the critical line of sight in
b. Ramp-Crossroad Intersection this case being piers or abutments.
At the intersection of a ramp and crossroad, 4. Ramp Grades and Profile

traffic is usually required to stop, particu Ramp grades shall be as flat as feasible to mini
larly traffic which must turn left. Sight mize the driving effort required in moving
distance along the crossroad from the from one roadway to another.
stopped vehicle must be sufficient to enable
the driver to perceive the conditions, accel The typical ramp profile usually consists of a
~rate from a standing start and complete his central portion on a grade coupled with verti
•
rning maneuver safely before a vehicle on
cal curves and connections to the profiles of
========
3.65
l I I l - - - __
i End bridge rail~ - - - --Sight Ii;;;

-
I
I
I Required sight distance (d) I I
Dimensions shown are in meters.
Minimum Required Sight Distance

Sight Distance Required to
Design
Permit Design Vehicle
Speed of
to Turn Left From Ramp to
Crossroad
Crossroad (m)*
Through
the
Interchange
Design Vehicle Assumed at
Ramp Terminal (
(km/h) P SU WB-50
110 220 320 430
100 200 290 390
90 180 260 350
80 160 230 310
70 140 200 270
60 120 175 235
50 100 145 195
40 80
115 155
*The sight distance is assumed to be measured from a
driver's height of eye of 1.05 m for P design vehicles
and 2.44 m for SU and WB-50 design vehicles to an
object 1.30 m high.
P = Design passenger vehicle; SU = Design single unit,
truck, or bus; WB-50 = Design semitrailer combination
Figure 1.08.9
Sight Distance at Ramp Terminals
(
214
'~~''-''-''''''''"-,,,~ -"1"-' ted"''':'' ·,.--tm-..~~i:t'··~~~M~lt~"_;:W-Fj·-·';~-'~:~;d::L~;:>l~~ __~~"'~~~{~.~;'I.,aet1L~Sllf'J'~~~'''::''!~-'':
1.08 E
the intersection legs. In general, adequate sight sight restrictions that will adversely affect op
distance is more important in design than spe erations. At an exit into a ramp on a descend
( cific gradient control. Principal guides for
ramp grades are as follows:
ing grade, a horizontal curve ahead should not
appear suddenly to a driver. Instead the initial
a. Ramp grades shall be a maximum of 6 crest vertical curve should be made longer,
percent. thus increasing sight distance, so that the di
rection of the horizontal curve is obvious to
b. Where ramp traffic consists of a large per the driver in sufficient time for safe operation.
centage of trucks and buses, maximum At an entrance terminal from a ramp, the por
grades shall be limited to 4 percent. tion of the ramp and terminal intended for
Usually ramp profiles assume the shape of the acceleration should match the through-lane
letter "S", with a sag vertical curve at the profile to permit the entering driver a clear
lower end and a crest vertical curve at the view of the through roadway on his left.
upper end. Additional vertical curves may be The profile of the ramp approaching an inter
necessary on ramps that cross under or over section with the crossroad should be designed
other roadways. to match the pavement gradient on the cross
Profiles of ramp terminals should be designed road. Where vehicles are likely to stop, a flat
in association with horizontal curves to avoid space for at least one vehicle shall be provided.
Table 1.08.3
:a. Minimum Acceleration Lengths for Entrance Terminals with Flat Grades of 2 Percent or Less
Highway
Stop
Condition
Design Speed Entrance Curve Design Speed (km/h)
Speed Reached
(km/h) (km/h) 25 30 40 50 60 70 80
And Initial Speed (kmlh) is
0 23 28~ 35 I 44 ~ 63 70
L = Acceleration Length (m)
50 47 60 - - - - - - -
60 52 90 60 55 30 - - - -
70 63 155 135 130 110 80 - - -
80 70 225 205 200 180 150 90 - -
90 78 305 290 285 265 230 170 100 -

100 86 385 370 360 335 300 250 175 90
110 92 465 440 430 405 375 320 245 150
Note: The uniform taper is between the outer edge of the acceleration lane and the right edge of the through-traffic
lane.
~)
!I 3.65 m
- - __ 1 ----
--.~-
:
V 14
L
Taper Type
J
3.65 m
- --- ± --
/7
L
.{ Parallel Type
".
"
215
1.08 E
Table 1.08.4
Ratio of Length of Speed-Change Lanes on Grade to Length on Flat
Acceleration or Deceleration Lanes
(
Design Deceleration Lanes
Speed of
Highway Ratio of Length on Grade to Length on Flat (a) for
(km/h)
All 3 to 4 percent upgrade 3 to 4 percent downgrade

0.9 1.2
All 5 to 6 percent upgrade 5 to 6 percent downgrade

0.8 1.35
Acceleration Lanes
•
Design Ratio of Length on Grade to Length on Flat (a) for
Speed of
Highway
(km/h) Design Speed of Turning Roadway Curve (km/h)
30 40 50 60 70 80 All Speeds
3 to 4 Percent Upgrade 3 to 4 Percent Downgrade
50 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.22 1.23 1.24 0.7

60 1.24 1.26 1.27 1.29 1.31 1.32 0.65
70 1.29 1.31 1.34 1.36 1.38 1.41 0.6
80 1.33 1.36 1.38 1.41 1.44 1.47 0.6
90 1.38 1.41 1.44 1.47 1.51 1.54
100 1.43 1.47 1.50 1.54 1.58 1.62
110 1.48 1.53 1.59 1.64 1.70 1.75
5 to 6 Percent Upgrade 5 to 6 Percent Downgrade
50 1.24 1.27 1.30 1.33. 1.37 1.40 0.6

60 1.31 1.37 1.44 1.50 1.57 1.63 0.55
70 1.40 1.49 1.58 1.67 1.76 1.05 0.5
80
90
1.48
1.60
1.61
1.76
1.73
1.91
1.85
2.05
1.98
2.20
2.10
2.35
0.5
(
100 1.72 1.90 2.08 2.25 2.44 2.62
110 1.85 2.05 2.25 2.45 2.64 2.85
(a) Ratio from this table multiplied by length in Table 1.08.3 or 1.08.5 gives length of speed-change lane 011 grade.
The length of this area would depend on the tables, and figures. However, the direct or
type of traffic control at the intersection and straight taper design shall be used unless there
the capacity requirements. are restrictions that would require the parallel
design.
5. Ramp Terminals
Ramp terminal refers to the transition area of a. Entrance Terminals
a roadway between the through lanes of a The length of an acceleration lane is based
highway and the ramp. Exit terminals facili on three factors in combination:
tate traffic moving from a through-lane to a • The speed at which ramp traffic merges
ramp and entrance terminals from a ramp to a with through-lane traffic.
through lane. Two forms of terminals are used,

• The speed at which ramp traffic enters
each having its characteristic features, namely the acceleration lane.
parallel and direct or straight taper. Details for

both are provided in the following discussion, • The manner of accelerating. (
216
"','~-~., '~''';'""'''--~:''lII.~·:E.:'':~~~~ . _.
1.08 E
Table 1.08.5 The geometries of the ramp and accelera

Minimum Deceleration Lengths for Exit Terminals tion lane should be such that drivers may
( With Flat Grades of 2 Percent
attain a speed approximately 8 km/h less
Or Less
than the running speed of the through
lane by the time they reach the point
Design Speed of Exit Curve (km/h)
Highway where the left edge of the ramp joins the
Design Stop right edge of the through lane.
Speed Condi 25 30 40 50 60 70 80
(km/h) tion The distance needed for acceleration in
advance of this point is governed by the
50 76 60 56 46 - - - -
speed on the entrance curve on the ramp
60 96 8 76 66 48 - - -
and the running speed of the through
70 114 102 98 86 70 54 - -
lanes. Table 1.08.3 shows minimum
80 132 122 118 106 92 80 60 -
lengths of acceleration distances for en
90 152 142 138 128 118 106 84 60
trance. Where grades occur on ramp, the
100 168 160 156 148 138 126 104 82
acceleration lengths should be adjusted in
110 182 176 172 164 154 140 120 100
accordance with Table 1.08.4.
The taper-type exit terminal design (Figure (2) Parallel Entrance
1.08.12) can be used advantageously in de The parallel-type entrance provides an
veloping the desired long, narrow, triangular added lane of sufficient length to enable a
emergency maneuver area just upstream vehicle to accelerate to near through lane
I.,
from the exit nose located in proper offset
position from both the through lane and sep
arated ramp lane. The taper configuration
speeds prior to merging. A taper is pro
vided at the end of the added lane. A par
allel entrance is shown in Figure 1.08.11.
also works well in the length-width
superelevation adjustments to effect a ramp Horizontal curvature in advance of the
cross slope different from that of the added lane shall have a minimum radius of
through lane. 300 m and a minimum length of 60 m.
(1) Taper Entrance The length of the added acceleration lane
is measured from the point where the left
The taper type entrance of proper dimen
edge of the ramp joins the right edge of
sions usually operates smoothly for all
the through lane to the beginning of the
volumes. A single lane taper entrance is
taper. Part of the ramp may be considered
shown in Figure 1.08.10.
in the acceleration length if the driver on
The entrance is brought into the through the ramp has an unobstructed view of the
roadway with a long uniform taper. A de through lane on the left. For a parallel
sirable rate of taper is 50: 1, however, entrance, the taper shall be at least 25: 1.
when the acceleration lane is greater than The minimum acceleration lengths are
400 m in length and the design speed ex shown in Table 1.08.3 and the adjust
ceeds 110 km/h a 70: 1 rate of taper shall ments for grades are shown in Table
('
be used. 1.08.4.
~!-- - -------
- --038
- - ~--==-~~------------
~--
.7--~·
~~4.5
1 ------=--~--
- ~Approx. 50:1 Taper 3.65 - - --- ,. .
C':)
Transition I '-- Ramp control line

curve
Shoulder ()
~
I (if required)
Total length of acceleration lane
Figure 1.08.10
Expressway Entrance Terminal-Taper Type
(Suggested for High Speed, High Volume Entrances)
\,
217
1.08 E
~1 ~ 03P.~
_ --
C')-=:O.3,",~
• -! -----
--
--- ~~ - ""T'3.65 ---

--~
_ __ - --- ---
~r..:
C')
o (
co)
Transition.
curve
() (if required)
~ 1_ Total length of acceleration lane 25:1 Taper
(Function of design speed)
Figure 1.08.11
Expressway Entrance Terminal-Parallel Type
b. Exit Terminals area should be paved to provide a safe

The length of a deceleration lane is based on maneuver and recovery area.
three factors in combination: (2) Parallel Exits
• The speed at which drivers enter the A parallel exit begins with a taper fol
deceleration lane (leave the through lowed by a length of added lane. A typical
•
lane). design is shown in Figure 1.08.13.
• The safe speed of the ramp after trav
ersing the deceleration lane. This type of exit design has application in
locations where there is limited right-of
• The manner of decelerating. way adjacent or downstream from the de
(1) Taper Exits sirable location of the exit nose thus re
The taper exit beginning with an outer quiring the necessary deceleration in the
edge alignment break provides a clear in advance added lane.
dication of the point of departure from The length of a parallel deceleration lane
the through lane. The exit taper shall be is measured from the point where the
20: 1. Figure 1.08.12 shows a typical de added lane attains a 3.65 m width to the
sign for a taper exit. point where the alignment of the ramp
The length available for deceleration ex diverges from the alignment of the
tends from a point where the right edge of through lane. A portion of the transition
the tapered wedge is 3.65 m from the length (a long radius curve of about
right edge of the through lane to the point 300 m radius) may be considered as part
controlling the safe speed for the ramp. of the deceleration length. Minimum
Minimum deceleration lengths for various lengths for deceleration are shown in Ta
combinations of design speeds are shown ble 1.08.5 and adjustments for grades are
in Table 1.08.5. Adjustments for grades given in Table 1.08.4. Longer parallel
are shown in Table 1.08.4.
The width of the recovery area or the
lanes are more likely to be used properly,
therefore when they are used, lengths (
should be liberal.
distance between the inner edges of the
diverging roadways at the ramp nose is The taper portion shall be about 25: I to
shown as 6.65 m on Figure 1.08.12. This give the approaching driver a positive in
dication of the added lane.
Total length of deceleration lane

2.5 g
()
TranSition
~
Shoulder curve
Ramp control line

~ I (if required)
~ , 0.7 Shoulder \,
('").
t ~__
- de '
-
3.6St,1.0
I 1.0R
-_Taper 20:1
Approx 2 G
3.6S_~ _ _
~
o
co)
-r..:
C')
- r" -- -- -- ~-- --.l--- -- -- - - -- --
100
Recovery lane
Figure 1.08.12
Expressway Exit Terminal-Taper Type
(Suggested for High Speed, High Volume Exits)
(
218
1.08 E
2.5 Dimensions shown are in meters.
( Shoulder u
u
Total length of deceleration lane Taper 25:1
Ramp control line w I Transition curve

1.0 (if required) 3.65 3.0
7.3 -- -- == ==- "-== --== 7.3
100 1.0 R 3.65

Recovery lane
Figure 1.08.13
Expressway Exit Terminal-Parallel Type
c. Ramp Terminals on Curves allow drivers sufficient and safe maneuver

Both exit and entrance terminals shall not ing length and to have adequate space for
be located on curves if at all possible. signmg.
On expressways having design speeds of 100 In the case of successive exits, the distance
km/h or more and where it is necessary to between gore points must allow for adequate
~ locate either an exit or entrance terminal on signing. With successive entrances, the
a curve, the full length of the taper should merging maneuver of the first entrance must
be located within the limits of the curve. be complete before the second entrance.
Taper dimensions applicable to terminals lo In the case of an entrance followed by an
cated on tangent alignment with necessary exit terminal, adequate weaving length shall
adjustments for the curvature are suitable be provided.
for use on curves.
The distance between an exit followed by an
On highways and expressways having design entrance terminal shall be adequate to allow
speeds 80 km/h or less, the parallel type a vehicle on a through lane to prepare for
speed change lane shall be used for both exit the merge ahead after passing the exit.
and entrance terminals.
Distances shown in Figure 1.08.14 are mini
d. Ramp Terminal Spacing mum and should be increased whenever
Successive ramp terminals shall be spaced to possible.
Successive exits on an Successive exits on a ramp: Exit followed by entrance:
II ~I
expressway:
Minimum L=250 m. Minimum L= 150 m.
Minimum L=300 m.
If l.
-l
Entrance followed by exit: Successive entrances:
Minimum L according to weaving Minimum L to allow for accelera

requirements but not less than tion lane plus taper before sec
ond entrance. See Table 1.08.3.
300 m.
Figure 1.08.14
Distance Between Successive One-Way Ramp
Terminals
(
\,
219
1.08 E
6. Superelevation and Cross Slope nation types of vehicles (larger trucks) to
Superelevation rates, as related to curvature govern design.
and design speeds up to 60 km/h are given in

Table 1.08.6. Superelevation cOr1'lparable to
These design traffic conditions are shown in
the table under a broader operational classifi
(
open highway conditions are not appropriate cation.
on the ramp proper or forward terminal al
though the highest rate practical should be Widths under Case I: one-lane, one-way opera
used. Superelevation rates comparable to open tion with no provision for passing, are used for
highway conditions are appropriate for high moderate ramp volumes where the ramp road
speed (over 60 km/h) direct ramp connections. way is relatively short.
Table 1.08.6
Widths under Case II: one-lane, one-way oper
Design Rate of Change in Pavement-Edge
ation with provision for passing a stalled vehi
Elevation for Curves at Intersections
cle, are applicable to all ramps with moderate
to heavy traffic volumes that do not exceed the
25 capacity of a single lane.
Design Speed (km/h) and 40 50 60
30 Widths under Case III: widths are applicable
where two lanes, one-way traffic is needed to
Change in Relative Rate
handle the traffic volume and/or the ramp
Between Centerline and
roadway is longer than about 300 m.
Pavement Edge (7.3 m
•
Pavement) per 30 m Design widths for ramp pavements shown in
'ercent) 0.75 0.71 0.67 0.65 Table 1.08.8 shall be used. Design widths for
shoulders and lateral clearances on ramps are
The cross slope on portions of ramps on tan as follows:
gent are sloped one way at a minimum rate of
a. The sum of one-way ramp pavement
about I percent.
width and paved shoulder shall not exceed
The maximum algebraic difference at the the Case I width for the controlling traffic
crossover crown line at the edge of the through condition and ramp radius plus 3.0 m. The
lane and the ramp terminal pavement is shown paved shoulder width is the same for the full
in Table 1.08.7. length of the ramp. For example, with traffic
condition C and a 125 m radius the Case I
Table 1.08.7
Maximum Algebraic Difference in Pavement

shoulder-ramp-shoulder widths (using plus
3.0 m) may be 0.7-4.8-2.5 or 1.2-4.8

Cross Slope
2.0 or some other combination with an

Maximum Algebraic
8.0 m total. For the same condition but a
Difference in
Case II design, the combined width would
Design Speed of
Cross Slope at
be 0.7-6.6-0.7 for a total of 8.0 m since
Exit or Entrance
Crossover Between
Curve (km/h)
Traveled Way and
the ramp pavement width includes part of
Turning Roadway (mm)
the shoulder width. A wider paved total
width is unnecessary for passing a stalled
Jp to 30
30 to 50
0.06
0.05
vehicle and is undesirably hazardous as it
encourages two-lane operation.
(
I 50 and Over 0.04
b. For Case III one-way operation, the sum
7. Ramp Width (Pavement, Shoulder, Lateral of the right and left paved shoulder width
Clearance) shall not exceed 3.0 m.
Ramp pavement widths are governed by the c. Directional ramps with a design speed of
volume of turning traffic and the types of 60 km/h or more shall have a paved right
vehicles to be accommodated and the radius of shoulder of 2.5 m and a 1.2 m paved left
the ramp roadway. shoulder.
Table 1.08.8 shows values for three general d. Ramps shall have a lateral clearance on
design traffic conditions defined as follows: both the right and left outside the edge of
the paved shoulder of at least 2 m.
Traffic Condition A-Predominantly passen

ger cars with a small volume of trucks. e. Where ramps pass under structures, the
Traffic Condition B-Sufficient single unit total ramp pavement plus shoulders shall be
truck vehicles, 5-10 percent of total traffic, carried through and the lateral clearances
to govern design with some consideration provided from d.
for semitrailer vehicles. f. Ramps on structures shall have the full
Traffic Condition C-Sufficient bus and combi approach ramp pavement plus shoulder (
width carried over the structure.
220
(
Table 1.08.8
Design Widths for Ramp Pavements
Pavement Width. (m)

Case I Case II Case III
R One-Lane, One-Way One-Lane, One Way
Radius Operation Operation with Provision Two-Lane, One-Way
On Inner No Provision for For Passing a Operation
Edge of Passing Stalled Vehicle
Pavement
(m) Design Traffic Conditions Design Traffic Conditions Design Traffic Conditions
A B C A B C A B C
15 5.50 5.50 7.00 7.00 7.80 9.00 9.50 10.80 13.0

25 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.30 6.80 7.80 8.50 11.50
,..
9.50
35 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.50 8.50 9.30 10.50
45 4.30 4.80 5.30 6.00 6.50 7.30 8.30 9.00 10.00
60 4.30 4.80 5.00 5.80 6.50 7.30 8.30 9.00 9.80
80 4.00 4.80 5.00 5.80 6.30 7.00 8.00 8.80 9.50
100 4.00 4.80 5.00 5.50 6.30 6.80 8.00 8.80 9.30
125 4.00 4.50 4.80 5.30 6.00 6.80 8.00 8.50 9.00
150 3.80 4.50 4.80 5.00 6.00 6.50 7.80 8.50 8.80
Tangent 3.80 4.50 4.50 4.80 5.80 6.50 7.50 8.30 8.30
Notes:
If there is a stabilized shoulder, deduct shoulder width ill Case Il but minimum pavement width should be that for Case
I; deduct 0.5 m where shoulder is 1.0 111 or wider in Case Ill.
Traffic Condition A: Predominantly passenger car vehicles but some consideration for single unit trucks.
Traffic Condition B: Sufficient single unit vehicles to govern design but some consideration for semitrailer vehicles.
Traffic Condition C: Sufficient semitrailer. bus. or combination type vehicles to govern design.
221
'~·_~·~'GJ'··Z"7-"~mm~:i~'C~~'rri:i?~'It')i'it¢''''''48;fi'Sjt**~~~r:r "T 1m is =, ~ft¥"~~~"
...~-~~~.r"?~~~-;,:~~'~~:.: __'
1.09 A, B
Section 1.09 Structural Design of

Flexible Pavements
( A" General Shoulder Traveled way Shoulder"
I. Policy and Scope ct

A'sphalt concrete surface course (5 cm.
'-- mi~'g
, Pavement
This section outlines the MOC policies and
Base course"" \ Structure
procedures to be used in the structural design
of highway pavements. The procedures that Subgrade (30 cm)
follow require quantitative inputs from many
engineering disciplines. This section does not
In situ soil
provide details on highway planning, pave
ment monitoring, or pavement management
systems that may be needed to provide some of
the required inputs for structural design of
flexible pavements. When these inputs are re
" Asphalt concrete not required on shoulder surface courses
ceived from the MOC or others, it is the re for local and low volume roads.
sponsibility of the Engineer to assure himself "" Base course can include both asphalt concrete and
of their reliability. The procedures that are aggregate base.
provided in this section will result in consistent Minimum Base Course Requirements:
Expressways-15 cm asphalt concrete
structural performance of flexible pavements
•
Nonexpressways--5 cm asphalt concrete
only if reliable input parameters are used.

2. Minimum Structural Thickness
Figure 1.09.1
All highways will be designed to have a mini

Typical Pavement Section and
mum thickness of 5 cm of asphalt concrete on

Pavement Terminology
the surface course. In addition, the base course

beneath the traveled way of expressways shall
include a minimum of 15 cm asphalt concrete. 3. Design Responsibility
In all other highways, the base beneath the
The engineer shall be responsible for the fol
traveled way shall be a minimum of 5 cm
lowing:
thick.
• The determination of the minimum pave
All highways having a paved surface traveled ment structural section that will adequately
way shall have shoulders. The minimum de support the design traffic. See 2-1.09B 1
sign of the shoulder structural section shall through 2-1.09B6.
match the total thickness of the adjacent trav • An evaluation of the pavement structural
eled way except that the surface course of section and subgrade to determine that a suf
shoulders for local and low volume roads (less ficient quality and quantity of material is
than 50 average daily traffic) may be untreated above the in situ soil to prevent failure of the
aggregate. Where the ADT (20) is between 50 in situ soil. See 2-1.09B2.
\., :.:~f
and 200, a bituminous surface treatment is an
acceptable alternative to asphalt concrete
pavement on shoulders. All other shoulders
• An economical evaluation of equivalent al
ternate base and subbase materials. See
2-1.09B4 and 2-09B5.
shall have 5 cm of asphalt concrete surface and
either asphalt concrete or aggregate base B. Pavement Thickness Determination
course material.
1. Traffic Analysis
On urban highways where curbs or parking The primary traffic input needed to determine
lanes are provided, the structural section shall pavement thickness is the number of equiva
be uniform across the entire roadway. On lent 8-ton single-axle loads (EAL) that will
expressways a double chip bituminous seal travel over the pavement during a given time
shall be applied to the paved shoulder to pro period. To determine the EAL, the following
vide delineation. The chip seal shall not be items must be known or assumed:
considered part of the structural requirements.
a. Initial Pavement Design Period
Figure 1.09.1 shows a typical pavement struc
tural section and identifies the pavement termi The initial pavement design period is the
nology.
~
......
"
223
_ _ _ _ ~ ._ _ ~., - • • _ _ ~-'.... _ .~_ "U~~ -".'-,,...,,,__ ,,-~~. "-'• .,..-.,·- _ _ - ..... · _. .' " ' - . . : ...,..'"-c·,.._--... ~_" <O'....,.__ ~" ~ •. ".-.... , '-...,..",... ... "
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1.09 B
number of years from the completion of tain the ADT estimated percentages of
pavement construction and application of passenger cars, buses, single unit and
traffic until the first major maintenance multiunit trucks that are expected during
(usualIy overlay or resurfacing) is required.
A design period of 20 years shall be used for
alI pavement designs.
the design period.
d. Distribution of Traffic (directional and
f
lane)
b. ADT for Both the Beginning and Ending The design lane is the traffic lane which is
Years of the Initial Design Period expected to receive the greatest number of
The average daily traffic over the initial pe 8-ton EAL during the design period. Since
riod shalI be estimated from detailed traffic the number of EAL's is greatly influenced by
analysis that considers local economic the number of heavily loaded trucks, when
growth and user patterns. One procedure to user travel patterns indicate a primary
determine ADT is to use the estimated an loaded truck haul direction, the outside lane
nual growth and the growth factors given in of the haul direction shalI be designated the
Table 1.09.1. These factors multiplied by the design lane. The percentage of trucks and
initial ADT estimate (see HDM-I-2.08) will axle weights in the design lane should be
give the ADT expected during the last year individualIy analyzed. In other cases with
of the design period, ADT (20). the absence of specific data, Table 1.09.2
may be used for determining the relative
Table 1.09.1 proportion of trucks to be expected for the
ADT (20) Growth Factors
design lane.
( 1 +AG)
20
Table 1.09.2
100 Percentage of Total Truck Traffic
Annual
In Design Lane
Growth 0 2 4 5 6 7 8 10
Number of Traffic Lanes Percentage of Trucks
(AG) %
(two directions) In Design Lane
Growth 2 50
Factor 1.00 1.49 2.19 2.65 3.21 3.87 4.66 6.93 4 45
(GF) 6 or more 40
c. Percentage of Truck Traffic e. Amount and Distribution of Axle Loads
The amount and type of vehicles that will Within the Truck Traffic
use the pavement facility are critical to de The number and distribution of axle loads
termining pavement thickness requirements. within the truck traffic is needed to accu-
A localized traffic analysis is needed to ob-
Table 1.09.3
Typical *
Truck
Class
Type
SAL-Single Axle
TAL-Tandem Axle
Single Unit
Percentage
Total Trucks
Truck Class and Weight
Distributions
Percent of ADT
In Design Lane
•• Gross Vehicle
Weight (Ton)
Typical
Axle Loads (Tons)
EAL Per Axle
2.5 9.5
EAL Per
Vehicle
•
N.I 2 Axle 66 14.8 12 1.82

(2 SAL) 0.01 1.81
Single Unit 3.5 14.5
N.2 3 Axle 13 2.9 18 0.86
(I SAL, I TAL) 0.03 0.83
Multiple Unit 2.5 8.0 10.5
N.3 4 Axle II 2.5 21 1.16
(2 SAL, I TAL) 0.01 0.93 0.22
Multiple Unit 3.5 10.0 I \.5
N.4 5 Axle 10 2.3 25 0.53
(I SAL, 2 TAL) 0.03 0.18 0.32
Totals/Average 100 22.5 1.48
"Based upon 1977 Truck Study by Italconsult and a survey by ItalconsultlRiolDarHandash. Ministry of Communica
tion 1981.
""Based upon Truck Volume = 50% ADT and 45% Truck in Design Lane.
224
• :
.~,
"
1.0
rately determine EAL. These data are ob 8-ton EAL Loads
tained through traffic studies that include
Single axle 8-ton load equivalency (EAL)
( user vehicle configurations and actual vehi
factors for various axle loads and types may
cle weights for specified time periods. Table
be obtained from Figures 1.09.2 and 1.09.3.
1.09.3 presents average and typical ranges
The total effect of vehicles on the pavement
for type of truck and axle distributions. The
performance is the sum of all EAL. An ex
Engineer must assure himself of the applica
ample of the procedure to be used in esti
bility of this table to the roadway under de
mating the total 8-ton, single-axle loads
sign.
(EAL) for pavement thickness determina
f. Load Equivalency Factors to Convert tion follows.
Both Single- and Tandem-Axle Loads to
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Eight-Ton Load Equivalency Factors
Figure 1.09.3
Eight-Ton, Single-Axle Load Equivalency (EAL) Factors
, ...
1.09 B
Problem Statement: A four-lane (two lanes and upon approval of the MOC under provi
each direction) rural roadway is proposed. De sions of HDM-l-1.06BI3, the following equa
termine the total EAL for pavement design.
tion shall be used to determine the total num
(
Given
ber of equivalent 8-ton loads.
From Local Traffic Study (two-way traffic):

EAL = 1,220 ADT (0) + ADT (20)
where EAL = Total number of equiva
Initial Traffic 3,000 Vehicle/Day in 1983
lent 8-ton axle loads
Estimated Traffic 5,000 Vehicle/Day in 2003
ADT (0) = Initial ADT
Average percentage of trucks through design ADT (20) = ADT at end of 20-year
period is 50 percent. design period.
Truck Type and Axle Load Distribution: use 2. Soil Considerations
data from Table 1.09.3
The soils directly below a pavement structure
Number of greatly contribute to the overall performance
Trucks Average
Units/tOO EAL' Total of the pavement. The strength and variability
Truck Unit Trucks Per Truck EAL of this material must be considered in the de
Single Units termination of flexible pavement thickness re
Two Axle 66 x 1.82 - 120.12 quirements. The material may either be native
Three Axle soils such as in cut sections or may be im
or More 13 x 0.86 - 11.18 ported material from designated sources as in
fill sections. In either case, representative sam
I-
Multiunit ples of this material must be collected and
Three Axle 11 x 1.16 1·2.28 tested in the laboratory or in place. A mini
Four Axle 10 x 0.53 65.30 mum depth of 1.0 m below the top of the
Total EAL/100 Trucks = 148.88 subgrade surface should be considered when
I Individual values should be oblailled from derailed lruck
selecting representative samples. Testing must
lraffic and truck weighl sludy and analysis. only be performed on samples that are in a
condition that accurately represents the after
Procedure
construction condition of the soil directly be
For single unit (two axle) average GVW is 12 neath the pavement structure. Therefore, den
ton with 2.5 ton (20.8%) on front axle and 9.5 sity and moisture controls that are required
ton (79.2%) on rear axle. From figures 1.09.2 during construction must also apply to
and 1.09.3 EAL's are 0.01 and 1.81 respec remolded samples that are used for strength
tively. determinations.
EAL/truck is 1.82. The same procedure is The soil strength input value should be deter
then used again to determine the EAL for each mined by either using the California Bearing
of the other travel unit categories, i.e. single Ratio (CBR) MRDTM 213 or the Resilient
unit 3 axle, multiunit 3 and 4 axles. Modulus (see Asphalt Institute Manual MS-I).
Average Trucks Per Day = The soil support value used in the pavement
design shall be equal to the 90th percentile of
(3,000 + 5,000) x 50 = 2000 T
( 2 100'
k /D
ruc s ay
Average Daily Trucks in Design Lane =
the representative samples of either the natu
rally occurring soil below the subgrade or the
material proposed for subgrade construction.
(2,000) (.45) = 900 Trucks/Day (45% Table The lower of these 90th percentile values shall
1.09.2) be selected as the soil strength for pavement
Total Trucks in Design Lane for Design Period design. An example illustrating the determina
= (900 Trucks/Day) (365 Days/Year) (20 tion of the soil strength value is given below.
Years) = 6,570,000 Trucks The soil strength value may vary between sec
Total EAL for Pavement Design = tions within a project dependent upon eco
(6.570 X 106 Trucks) (148.88 EAL/100 nomic analysis of the entire pavement struc
Trucks) = 9.781 X 106 EAL ture, subgrade, and naturally occurring in situ
material.
Where detailed traffic analysis is not available
227
___ . .... ~ ._. . . . ~ -;:r.-. ,_.""~T"':'i'F~=.c·;-"'_·> ....

.:..;..~~.-- ;C"'=::.:~,.~,...··'-··,~'."~V - __
1.09 B
Example of 3. Base Course Thickness Requirements

Selection of Soil Strength Value In addition to satisfying the minimum struc
Field Samples and Laboratory Test Results
Borrow for Subgrade On-Site Material at Subgrade
tural requirements given in 2-1.09A2, all
pavements shall meet minimum base course {
thickness requirements for the local soil or
CDR CBR
borrow source conditions and estimated traffic
13 12 loads. Figure 1.09.4 shall be used to determine
25 18 minimum asphalt concrete base thickness re
30 8 quirements for the soil and traffic on
26 17 expressways. Figure 1.09.5 shall be used to
32 20 establish minimum asphalt concrete base re
quirements for traffic and soil conditions on all
Highest Lowes
roadways other than expressways. Figure
1.09.6 and Figure 1.09.7 shall be used to deter
Borrow CBR 32 30 26 25 13
mine the amount of crushed aggregate base
Percent of Tests 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Greater Than or
needed to meet requirements. When the as
Equal phalt concrete thickness values from Figures
1.09.4 and 1.09.5 exceed 15 cm and 5 cm re
On-Site Material spectively, 30 cm of aggregate base is required.
CBR 20 18 17 12 8
.'
Percent of Tests 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Greater Than or
iqual to
CBR Value
90th Percentile Values:
Borrow Material CBR = 20
On-Site Material CBR = 10.5
Soil Strength of CBR = 10 is Used for
Design
228
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. I I . I '_ ... l--' / _: v v I ", • J_ j..
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10 L...-...~,~ . .1
10' 5 6 7 8 910' 5 6 7 89
10' 5 6 7 8 910' 5 6 7 8 910' 5 6 7 8 910.
See Figure 1096 for Mr Equivalent 8- Ton, Single-Axle Loads (EAL)
crushed aggrega Ie base

'CBR '" '10.520
thickness
Figure 1.09.4
Asphalt Concrete Base Course Thickness Requirements
For Expressways
'0
N
V.J
0
100 ~
90 ~
80 B
70 1
60
50
40
30 ro
D..
::2
20 ~
vi
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4
3
-+
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2
I+i-t
----f-·--I--·-,-----,--, I, 1
10'10' 2 3
See Figure 1.09.7 for

Mr Equivalent 8-Ton, Single-Axle loads (EAl)
crushed aggregate base
thickness 'eSR ?' l'0.320
Figure 1.09.5
Asphalt Concrete Base Course Thickness Requirements
For Roads Other Than Expressways
r'
~
• r'"
10 2
9
4If ~! 4
3
D..
co
..~~·····1·t~·······
. ::"}oc
1v. .•.
~....< .•••.•••••
......,.. .....",." .,
: ··~t
t'" ,." ."",.",.""",,' ." "" "'"
'···f···1~···············.·········
.••••••. , <;'':- .~:
~
2 ~
~
a::l 10'
lD
U
~~ ::J
'0 9 E
CfJ 13_ c
7~
6
5
'ijj
Ql
~
<5
61 ~:
.-.:-=- ........
._••. <;=;._;. , ..
3
CfJ
- -~~-+.
i
_
-J_.. +- +- f-H-n-H-
. . ~ . Additional asphalt I I
---i--
concrete base
Figure 1 0 required
++
'lJ]Uft'
see
~ _IJJ I . j.fR
2
1 10'10' ,.
T
. -HI' Itt
. .i
I
I I
94
. - . +J
(a
...•. 3 • 5 6 7 6 910' 2
,
I I"
..
'
3 • 5 6 7 6 910
Equivalent a-Ton, Single-Axle loads (EAl)
Figure 1.09.6
Crushed Aggregate Base Requirements
For Expressways
10'
9
8
7
6
5
4
2
co
D..
~
·.1.5Crh~.*1
___ ~
_.. . :. _._
2Oc'T'-:'\..
~
··!f'·:"rntf1······1,
-__
,j' II"
. 'f··'···.I.~
- ---:..--t------
--~_.t-:.:
i '1
..:........L..- . ' .. ",
'
"·'· ,· ·" .
..•. _::
,'
.
~
~ll.
:: :~ vi
rr~
lD
U
=
10'
9
~
"0
E
10 2
9 f==+=~~~~~~d==t:=gj:4~
8 8 ~~+--+c-\t--'j,a;.~++H+h.--::>.,jL=+4A~
fA 7 C
6 1! ;1 '.l/K'I'\lrKI ~ ~
5
iii ~i ! \1 1\[.l.P(l! ~~~liIJ'
~
4 <5 ~
. ., _
,
'1' ':...
1---.. (...
.!
..
'. , ' " ~ '~+1""lf"'8""U"
. . '-c, ·.f· " . c,,+-' .::.,.
' I I·· (",.1:.:.
~""""'~~-:":':~"'bo-~+-++..+'",-"-.---~:·+:~-~~~dLLli.ttt·jt·"'.I. '. '.

CfJ
3
.+-~, concrete base required. .
.':""'+-+-_1.--+-..).::.+,++--1-+-1-++--' ~ see Figure 1.09.5 . . ,
2
.+_! >jt'
I
10' '
10" 2 3 • 5 6 7 8910' 1 3 • 5 6 7 6 910'
Equivalent a-Ton, Single-Axle loads (EAl)
Figure 1.09.7
Crushed Aggregate Base Requirements
.... '~,
For Roads Other Than Expressways
231
1.09 B
Example of Base Thickness Determination quirements. The total pavement section shall
Problem Statement: Minimum structural consist of the following:
thickness requirements are needed for a pro
posed expressway that is to carry 2.25 X 106
• 5 cm asphalt surface course
• 15 cm asphalt concrete base
(
8-ton EAL with a design soil strength CBR • 22 cm crushed aggregate base
value of 10.
4. Use of Alternative Materials
Procedure: On Figure 1.09.4, the intersection In addition to asphalt concrete base and
of the design soil strength value and the esti crushed aggregate base, a wide variety of mate
mated traffic falls to the left of the 15 cm as rials may be used to construct pavement struc
phalt thickness curve. Therefore, the minimum tures. Table 1.09.4 provides substitution ratios
asphalt concrete thickness is required. Since for determining thickness of other materials to
only a minimum asphalt concrete thickness is provide structurally equivalent pavement sec
required, determination of the minimum ag tions. These ratios may be used for that por
gregate base thickness is needed. On Figure tion of the pavement structure that exceeds the
1.09.6, the intersection of the soil strength and minimum structure thickness given in
EAL falls to the right of the 10 cm curve and 2-1.09A2. The total thickness of material
to the left of the 15 cm curve. Therefore, 15 cm above the soil layer must be equal to or greater
of crushed aggregate base is required. From than thickness values obtained from Figure
Figure 1.09.8, cover requirement is 42 cm. 1.09.8. An example of the use of substitution
Therefore, a minimum of crushed aggregate
•
ratios for alternative pavement structure de
~ is increased to 22 cm to meet cover re-
signs follows table 1.09.4.
Inrr-nTTITII, ,-
°r---r----'-----iTTT II I I I
I 50 CSR
10
40
I
r--.. 2~1
E
~
20
r---r- - _ r--r-- N2,
C
Ql
E r--r- r- i"[-H-l
r---~:12 .~r-
I
~
5 I ,--
1
I
-
0" 30
Ql
a: 1'--.... r------,.-.... r--r- r
.c
C. ~ r----- r-..
' r-- r-c- r- ~ ! r---,-... r-
-r--~
Ql ::.
o ..,
0 1'--,-.......,.. 10.
.r---. ~ -----r-- r- r--

'-'
E
E
.......["--
T" I
I --.... r----- r
-----r- (
E ~
~ i"- r-- N5
r- r-
~ 5
I" I ~I'
""
f'--..
" '........]'.
•
'N
r--~ I------r--
r-,
'
~ I~r--
6 1~3 ~ I~~~
'[" 1"'- I'-r- "
~
t---r-~,,~~ I" ~ I ~ 1 1 ~r--
10'
I '"", 4
1
5 6 7 8910' 345678910'
I N
2 3456789 0'
Equivalent B-Ton. Single-Axle Loads (EAL)
Figure 1.09.8
Cover Requirements
"
232
1.09 B
Table 1.09.4 To provide structurally equivalent sections, the

Pavement Material Equivalencies following equation must be satisfied:
(
Substitution
Ratio i
TA X SR B
SR A
_
-
T
B
Base Course
1 where TA = Thickness of Material A
Asphalt Concrete (Plant Mix)
SRA = Substitution Ratio of Material A
Asphalt Concrete (Road Mix) 1.75
TB = Thickness of Material B
Untreated Aggregates
2.5 SR B = Substitution Ratio of Material B
Crushed Aggregate
Natural Gravels 3 The thickness of lime-treated aggregates re
Treated Aggregate quired for 22 cm of CAB is
Bituminous-Treated (22 cm) (2) _ T
Aggregates 2 (2.5) - LTA
Lime-Treated Aggregates 2
Cement-Treated Aggregates 2 T LTA = 17.6 cm, use 18 cm
Subgrade If asphalt concrete base were substituted, the

Select Material (Soil) 5 required thickness would be
Bituminous-Treated Soil 3.5 (22 cm) (1) _ T
Lime-Treated Soil 3.5 (2.5) - AC
..
Cement-Treated Soil 3.5

T Ac = 8.8 cm, use 9 cm
i.\1i11ime/ers of material needed /0 replace olle millimeter The amount of lime-treated soil required to
of /he asphalt concrete pavemell/.
replace 30 cm of borrow soil is
Example of Alternative Pavement Designs (30 cm) (3.5) _ T
Problem Statement: Determine the most cost 5 - LTS
effective pavement section that is structurally T LTs = 21 cm

equivalent to the following: From Figure 1.09.8, a soil strength CBR of 10
5 cm asphalt concrete surface (AC)
requires a 42 em of cover for 2.25 X 106 EAL.
15 cm asphalt concrete base (AC)
Therefore, any of the following pavement
22 cm crushed aggregate base (CAB)
structural sections except Alternative B are ac
30 cm subgrade borrow
ceptable:
Design soil CBR = 10
Total traffic = 2.25 X 106 EAL

A B
5 cm AC surface 5 cm AC surface
Typical pavement section consists of 3.65 m
15 cm AC base 24 em AC base
travel way, 3.00 m shoulders and 4:1 fore
22 cm CAB 30 cm subgrade borrow
slopes.
Procedure: Since the asphalt concrete surface C D
and base requirements are at minimum levels 5 cm AC surface 5 cm AC surface
;(
established by 2-1.09A2, only the crushed ag
gregate base and subgrade are subject to alter
nate design.
15 cm AC base
18 cm LTA base
24 cm AC base
21 cm LTS
Determination of which alternate materials are E
to be compared should be based upon availa 5 em AC surface
bility, feasibility, and economic analysis. 15 cm AC base
Assume the asphalt concrete (AC) and lime 18 em LTA base
treated aggregate (LTA) meet these criteria for 21 em LTS
base material and the lime-treated soil (LTS)
meets criteria for alternative subgrade mate
rials.
233
1.09 B
5. Cost Comparison of Acceptable Alternatives

Quantity for Unit Price
Alternative A One Meter Length (Riyals)
-Cost
5 cm AC surface .6525 m' 160 104.40 (
15 cm AC base 1.9875 m' 150 298.13
22 cm CAB 3.0000 m) 50 150.00
30 cm subgrade borrow 4.2300 m) 15 63.45
- -
Total 615.98
Alternative C
5 cm A C surface .6525 m' 160 104.40
15 cm AC base 1.9875 m' 150 298.13
18 cm LTA base 2.4444 m' 110 268.88
30 cm subgrade borrow 4.2180 m' 15 63.27
- -
Total 734.68
Alternative D
5 cm AC surface .6525 m' 160 104.40
24 cm AC base 3.2016 m' 150 480.24
21 em LTS 2.8959 m' 80 231.67
Total 816.31
5
15
18
21
~rnative
cm
cm
cm
cm
E
AC surface
AC base
LTA base
LTS
.6525
1.9875
2.4444
2.9337
m'
m'
m'
m'
160
150
110
80
Total
104.40
298.13
268.88
234.70
--
906.11
•
In this case Alternate "A" is the least costly • Lowest unit cost.
and depending on the importance of the other • Local environmental conditions.
factors as identified in 2.109B6, may be the

• Variability of proposed material properties.
best structural section.
• Availability and local history of required
6. Pavement Structure Selection construction techniques.
The design process for pavement structures is • Level of performance that the pavement is
summarized in Figure 1.09.9. Final selection of to maintain.
the most appropriate pavement section shall • Routine maintenance requirements and
follow these steps and be based upon consider availability.
ation of the following items:
234
(
Step 1 I Obtain Traffic Information I

I:
Estimate
Step 2 8-Ton Equivalent
Single-Axle Loads
For Design Period
Step 3
L
Obtain~
In Situ Soil and
Borrow Source Soil.
Strength and Properties
l I
C
~ Step 4 I Determine
Soil Strength
For Design
-J
Step 5 L 1=
Establish
Highway Classification
I Expresswaysl I Nonexpressw~
.--- J J
I ~--------,
Step 6
Determine I Determine
Asphalt Concrete Base ' Asphalt Concrete Base
Thickness (Figure 1.09.4) Thickness (Figure 1.09.5)
{ Step 7
c:
Determine
Crushed Aggregate
Thickness (Figure 1.09.6)

~
Determine
Crushed Aggregate
Thickness (Figure 1.09.7)
;~1~
Determine
Determine
Step 8 Alternate Pavement

Alternate Pavement
Designs (Table 109.4)

Designs (Table 109.4)
I
Step 9
Select
Most Economical
Payement Design
L Select
Most Economical
Pavement Design
Figure 1.09.9
Design and Pavement Structure Selection
235
1.10 A, B
Section 1.10 Hydraulic Design
(
A. General
Hydraulic design is an important aspect of
also used. rj~ arch and elliptical shapes are
generally used Tii--lleu of circular pipe where
there IS IiITiited cover Of overfill. Arch culverts
highway engineering. Whenever water enters
have--appliciiiori-inolocations where less ob
or crosses the highway right-of-way, it be
struction to a waterway is a desirable feature,
comes necessary to estimate the flow and pro
and where foundations are adequate for struc
vide a means to safely convey that water. The
tural support. Box culverts can be designed to
structure required may be a small roadside
pass large flows and to fit nearly any site condi
ditch or a large bridge.
tion. A box or rectangular culvert lends itself
Estimating the flow rates is one of the more more readily than other shapes to low allowa
difficult problems. Guidelines for estimating ble headwater situations since the height may
the flow are provided in HDM-I-2.07. The be decreased and the total span increased to
hydrologic study must be completed before the satisfy the location requirement.
hydraulic design can be accomplished.
The material selected for a culvert is depen
The hydraulic design process consists of estab dent upon several factors such as durability,
lishing criteria, developing and evaluating al structural strength, roughness, bedding condi
ternatives, and selecting the alternative which tions, abrasion and corrosion resistance, and
best satisfies the established design criteria. water tightness. The more common culvert
Possible damages to the highway, the channel, materials used are concrete and steel (smooth
and surrounding properties must be considered and corrugated).
in the analysis.
Another factor that significantly affects the
Drainage structures of adequate capacity must performance of a culvert is the culvert inlet
be provided in order to minimize damages. In configuration. The culvert inlet may consist of
analyzing a structure the channel both up a culvert barrel projecting from the roadway
stream and downstream must be examined. A fill or ~ d to the embankment slope. Other
drainage structure which is too small may re inlets have headwalls, wingwalls, and apron
sult in backwater problems with flooding of slabs or standard end sections of concrete or
upstream property or damage to the highway. metal.
!L the chann~lj~__erQdible, the designer must 2. Design Considerations
sttidy=s~_()~r _in the vicinity of the brIdge or
culvert. The channel must be analyzed to de The hydraulic design of a culvert consists of an
fermiiie if a lining is necessary. analysis of the performance of the culvert in
conveying flow from one side of the roadway
The following subsections provide design crite to the other. The designer shall select a <k~gn
ria and procedures for culvert design, open -flood frequ~nJ;;Y, estimate the .designdi!?~bJ!rge
channel flow analysis, stream crossing design, for that frequency, and set an allowable
and channel stabilization. The hydraulic de headwater elevation based on the selected de
OJ
~'
sign of any drainage structure shall be docu
mented.
B. Culvert Design
sign flood and headwater considerations. The
culvert size and type can be selected after the
design discharge, controlling design head
water, tailwater, and allowable outlet velocity
1. Introduction have been determined.
>. ,-_. .... _-------
~
The function of a culvert is to convey surface a. Design Discharge

water across or from the highway right-of
way. In addition to this hydraulic function it The design discharge used in culvert design
must also carry construction and highway traf is usually estimated on the basis of a
fic and earth loads, therefore, culvert design preselected recurrence interval and the cul
involves both hydraulic and structural design. vert is designed to operate in a manner that
Hydraulic aspects ofculverfdesigri IS outTfried is in acceptable limits of risk at that flow
in this subsection. rate. Culverts shall be designed to accommo
date the following minimum recurrence
Culverts are available in a variety of sizes, intervals:
shapes, and materials. These factors, along
with several others, affect the capacity and Design Class Recurrence Interval
overall performance of the cuvlert. Culvert Expressway 100 Year (1 Percent)
sizes may vary from 0.4 m circular pipes up to Arterials 50 Year (2 Percent)
extremely large arch sections which are some Collectors 50 Year (2 Percent)
(
times used in place of bridges. Local 25 Year (4 Percent)
L The most commonly used culvert shape is cir Urban Storm Sewers 5 Year (20 Percent)
cular, but arch, box, and elliptical shapes are
237
1.10 B
Culverts shall be designed to pass floods If the outlet velocity of a culvert is believed
greater than those noted above where war to be detrimental, it may be reduced by
ranted by potential damage to adjacent
property, to human life, or heavy financial
changing the barrel roughness or adjusting
the barrel slope. If this does not give satis (
loss because of flooding. factory reduction it may be necessary to use
some type of outlet protection or energy
b. Headwater
dissipation device.
Culverts generally constrict the natural
Variation in shape and size of a culvert sel
stream flow that causes a rise in the up

dom have a significant effect on the outlet
stream water surface. The elevation of this

velocity. Slope and roughness of the culvert
water surface at the culvert entrance is

barrel are the principal factors affecting the
termed headwater elevation and the total

outlet velocity.
flow depth in the stream measured from the

culvert inlet invert is termed headwater 3. Culvert Flow
depth. In selecting the design headwater ele There are two major types of culvert flow: (1)
vation, the designer should consider the fol flow with inlet control and (2) flow with outlet
lowing: control.
• Upstream property damage.
For each type of control, a different combina
• Damage to the culvert and the roadway. tion of factors is used to determine the hy
• Traffic interruption.
draulic capacity of a culvert. The determina
•
Hazard to human life.
tion of actual flow conditions can be difficult,
• Headwaterlculvert depth (HW/D). therefore, the designer shall check for both
• Low point in the roadway grade line. types of control and design for the most ad
verse condition.
• Roadway elevation above the structure.
a. Inlet Control
The headwater elevation for the design dis

charge shall be at least 0.5 m below the edge A culvert operates with inlet control when
of shoulder elevation. The designer should the flow capacity is controlled at the en
verify that the watershed divides are higher trance by the following factors:
than the design headwater elevations. In flat • Depth of headwater.

terrain drainage divides are often undefined • Culvert cross-sectional area.
or nonexistent and culverts should be lo
• Culvert or headwall inlet edge configuration.
cated and designed for least disruption of
the existing flow distribution. • Barrel shape.
c. Tailwater Sketches to illustrate inlet control flow for
unsubmerged and submerged entrances are
Tailwater depth is the flow depth in the shown in Figure 1.10.1.
downstream channel measured from the in

vert at the culvert outlet. It can be an impor
A
ant factor in culvert hydraulic design be
cause a submerged outlet may cause the
culvert to flow full rather than partially full.
------
(
A field inspection of the downstream chan
nel should be made to determine whether Inlet unsubmerged
there are obstructions which will influence Water surface
the flow depth. Tailwater depth may be con B
trolled by the stage in another stream,
headwater from structures downstream of
the culvert, reservoir water surface ----------
elevations, or other downstream features. Inlet submerged
d. Outlet Velocity
c
The outlet velocity of highway culverts is
the velocity measured at the downstream
end of the culvert, and it is usually higher HW r:::",----------_=-_=-==:;7r-
's-.,----=;'§::_
than the maximum natural stream velocity.
This higher velocity can cause stream bed Outlet submerged
scour and bank erosion for a limited dis
tance downstream from the culvert outlet.
Permissible velocities at the outlet will de Figure 1.10.1
pend upon stream bed analysis. Inlet Control (
238
1.10 B
When a culvert operates under inlet control, 4. Performance Curves
the roughness and length of the culvert bar

Performance curves are plots of discharge ver
rel and outlet condition (including tailwater)
(
\
do not affect the culvert hydraulic perform
sus culvert headwater or elevation (Figure
1.10.3). Performance curves aid in the selection
ance. Headwater depth and the inlet edge of culvert type, including size, shape, material,
configuration determine the culvert capacity and inlet geometry that fulfills site require
with the culvert barrel usually flowing only ments.
partially full. An increase in barrel slope re
duces headwater to a small degree and any The designer shall plot performance curves for
correction for slope can be neglected for both inlet control and outlet control conditions
conventional or commonly used culverts since control may shift from the inlet to the
flowing with inlet control. outlet.
b. Outlet Control 3.5
In outlet control, the culvert hydraulic per
formance is determined by the following fac
///1/
tors: 3.0
(Wa~i I
• Depth of headwater. Q> ' I I

8/ I j /
• Culvert cross-sectional area.
• Culvert of headwall inlet edge configuration. 2.5
])'1
)1/ 11
c.
•
•
•
•
Barrel shape.
Barrel slope.
Barrel length.
Barrel roughness.
I
~
!..
2,0
/11/
)'/1/
• Depth of tailwater. '*
;;: 1.5 V 1/ /
J /
Culverts operating in outlet control may ~
flow full or partly full depending on various I
/f
combinations of the above factors. In outlet
1.0
/ //
control, factors that may affect performance

Ke = O.
appreciably for given culvert size and / / n " " ,,,
headwater are barrel length and roughness, / Le gth 60 In

/ -- -Inl t Cor trol
and tailwater depth. Typical types of outlet 0.5
1"" vLf III UI
control flow are shown in Figure 1.10.2. / Nc Tailv ater
1/
I£,r-
H~ ~B ""'S l.~:
~
A
o_
o 1.0 2.0 3.0
Discharge (0) m 3 /sec
4.0 5.0
·f
Figure 1.10.3
~/ "'
£L----------~---,~~---- C\\\vhhWY4I\I\'
Hydraulic Performance Curves

(1.0 m X 1.0 m Box Culvert with 35 G Wingwalls)
I -=---=--;;
/ _
Hydraulic grade line •
--
H
-L
........ _".-
~
=--~ ~ l~--
-;JW- -
S H
Figure 1.10.2
Outlet Control
239
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ,
Ministry of Communications --X
Headwater Computation Form (
Project: _ Designer: _
Date: _
Hydrologic and Channel Information Station: _

Sketch
Q = m3 /sec EL_
z_~
AHW = m
So=--
L= m
A+ ~TW_
EL ! So=
L=
_
_
EL 1T
Headwater Computation OJ
. 1'0'" c~ ~~~ -c
Culvert S
'6~
~u I
•
Description 0,11" Cootcol HW H + h, - LS, Cost Comments
Fw
Q -0
(Entrance
6~
-E0 I
Type) Size
K. H de dc;D TW ho I LS o HW U I I
Summary & Recommendations:
Figure 1.10.4A
Headwater Computation Form
(,
240
~
Headwater Computation Form
Project: Designer:
Date:
Hydrologic and Channel Information

Sketch Station:
Q= m3 /sec
AHW =
So =
L=
m
m
J~~L j - ~ ~
TW
EL ! So=
L= EL / T
Headwater Computation Cl
Culvert .!: Q).~
Description
Q Size
Inlet ConI. Outlet Control HW = H + ho - LS o ~::: ~.Q Cost Comments
~.
(Entrance -E0 I
Type) HW de+D TW O~
HW K. H de ho LS o HW
u
D 2
"tl
CII
c:::
.~,
Ul
iii
'':::
It)
0
,..
,..
Ul
~IO ,..
X
0
,..
,..
CII
,..
0
0
~
,..
N
0
,..
~
-=
CII
E
>
CII
~
C.J
~I~
-81
~
CII
Q.
en
en
..J
I
0
-
"0 ~
0U
Ul
:s ~ ~ 0 CII 0
-
CII 0 -:;:
X s::.
- -
c( ~ 0 0 C.J Cl ~
,.. s::.
51
u:::
~
~
~ <1!
,..
0
,..
0
l'll
s::. Cl
+ ~
u :I: 0
~ or: I-
== 5:
-
~ Ul ~
0
C.J
Ul
CII
a
~
CII
a
~
0
I
0
~
-
..J II g
CII
-g -
CII iii
CII :I:
== C
-
Cl
u::: u::: l'll iii ~
Q. iii
0
en ..J
~
~
<: Q. ~
0 C.J l'll
~
Ll. C.J >
~
Cl
~
l'll
..J
('
Summary & Recommendations:
Figure 1.IOAB
Headwater Computation Form-Example
l~
241
1.10 B
5. Procedure for Selection of Culvert Size mined from the appropriate

Step I-List design data (see suggested tabula nomograph (Figures 1.10.9
tion form, Figure 1.10.4).
• Design discharge, Q in cubic meters per sec
1.10.10).
h o = Vertical distance in meters (
from culvert invert at outlet to
ond. the culvert hydraulic grade
• Approximate length, L of culvert in meters. line.
• Slope of culvert (if grade is given in percent, So = Slope of barrel in meters per
convert to slope in meters per meter). meter.
• Allowable headwater depth, in meters, L = Culvert length in meters.
which is the vertical distance from the cul For tailwater TW elevations less than the
vert invert at the entrance to the water sur top of the culvert at the outlet, find
face elevation permissible in the headwater headwater HW by the above equation except
pool or approach channel upstream from the that
culvert.
• Allowable velocities in natural stream. h o = de 1
D or TW, whichever is the
• Type of culvert for first trial selection, in greater.
cluding barrel material, barrel cross where de = Critical depth in meters (Note:
sectional shape, and entrance type. de cannot exceed D) (Figure
Step 2-Determine the first trial size culvert. If 1.10.11-1.10.12).
•
'y trial size is too large in dimension because D = Height of culvert opening in
vI limited height of embankment, or availabil
meters.
ity of size, multiple culverts may be used by • Compare the headwaters found in Step
dividing the discharge equally between the 3(a) and Step 3(b), (inlet control and out
number of barrels used. Raising the embank let control). The higher headwater gov
ment height or the use of pipe arch and box erns and indicates the flow control exist
culverts with width greater than height should ing under the given conditions for the trial
also be considered. Final selections should be size selected.
based on an economic analysis. • If outlet control governs and HW is
Step 3-Find headwater depth for trial size higher than is acceptable, select a larger
culvert. culvert size and find HW as instructed
under Step 3(b).
a. Assuming Inlet Control

Using the trial size from Step 2, find the Step 4---Try a culvert of another type or shape
headwater depth (HW) by use of the appro and determine size and HW by the above pro
priate inlet control nomograph (Figures cedure.
1.10.5 through 1.10.10). Tailwater (TW) Step 5-Compute outlet velocities for size and
conditions are to be neglected in this deter types to be considered in selection and deter
mination. HW in this case is found by multi mine need for channel protection (2-1.1 OF).
plying HW/D obtained from the
nomographs by the height of the culvert D. • If outlet control governs in Step 3(b) above,
outlet velocity equals Q/A oo
(
If HW is greater or less than allowable, try
another trial size until HW is acceptable for where A o = The cross-sectional area of the
inlet control before computing HW for out flow in the culvert barrel at the
let control. outlet.
b. Assuming Outlet Control • If de or TW is less than the height of the

culvert barrel, use A o corresponding to de or
Approximate the depth of tailwater TW in TW depth, whichever gives the greater area
meters above the invert at the outlet for the of flow. A o should not exceed the total cross
design discharge in the outlet channel. sectional area, A, of the culvert barrel.
For tailwater elevation equal to or greater • If inlet control governs in Step 3(b), outlet
than the top of the culvert at the outlet set velocity can be assumed to equal mean ve
ho equal to TW and find HW by the follow locity in open channel flow in the barrel as
ing equation: computed by Manning's Equation for the
HW = H + h o - LS o rate of flow, barrel size, roughness, and slope
where HW= Vertical distance in meters of culvert selected.
from culvert invert at entrance Step 6-Record final selection of culvert, the
to the pool surface. size, type required headwater, outlet velocity, /
H = Head loss in meters as deter
242
and economic justification. Data can be com
"
1.10 B
piled in a variety of ways and should include cinity.

these items: • Hydrologic design computations.
( • Copies of all pertinent correspondence.

• Topography of site.
• Hydraulic design calculations and culvert
performance curves.
• Drainage area map. • Foundation investigation.
• Stream profile and cross sections. • Structure plans.
• Historical high water documentation. • Economic analysis of structure selection.
• Information on existing structures in the vi
4.00
70
3.50 ~ 60
50 (1 ) (2) (3)
8 6- 10 Example
3.00 40 7 8
6
7 a 1.2 m x 1.2 m box
30 7 0=4.8m 3 /s 0/B=4.0 m 3 /s/m
6
5 Inlet HW HW
6
2.50 5 D
(1) 1.83 2.2
20 4 r 5
(2) 2.0
t 4
(3) 2.16
2.4
2.6
•
4
3 t
t- 2 00
.
f- 10
3
....
3
- ----- - ---
6 2
1.50 1-5
-- t."a(1\?\~ - - ---tv :-4

---
~Io
1.50
1.5
1.5
--- --- ---

en 3
Q)
tv Q)
E
-..-
E tv E
a. 2
OJ
.S: ()
'Q)
.r::.
£ 1.00
Q)
en
...... '0
x '"E en
0 0.9
.0 E
'0 0.90
.S:
~ ~
E iii'
...... 1 .S: f- 0.9 f-- 0.9
0.8
OJ
Q. .r::.
'Q)
I 0.80 .r::.
0.80 a.
Q)
~ f-
is '0 f- 0.8 f-- 0.8
::r=
0.7
.~
0.60 tv ~
0.70 E «i f-
0.50 ~
Q) '0 I- 0.7 0.7
)! ~0.60
~
'"
.r::.
0.40
I
'"
Q)
0.6
f-
()
en Angle of
wingwall _
:a 0.30
flare
=-0.6 f-- 0.6
'0
0
0.5
~ C-
~
0.50 0.20
f-- 0.5 f-- 0.5

HW Scale Wingwall
0.4 I- D flare
0.40 0.10 (1) 33 G to 83 G
0.08 (2) 100G and 17G
0.4 f- 0.4 (3) OG
0.06
To use scale (2) or (3) project horl
0.05 0.35 0.35 zontally to scale (1), then use
0.30 0.3 straight line through D and O/B
0.04 scales.
Figure 1.10.5
Headwater Depth for Box Culverts with Inlet Control
('
"i:'
~c
243
(
Inlet face---a II edges:

0.083 m/m bevels 3704G (1:1.5) ~
4.0 0.042 m/m bevels 50 G (1:1) ~ ~
8
60
9
7
3.5 8
50 6
7
40 6 5
Q)
3.0
~ 5
30 4
Ol
c:
"E 4 Example
::J
2.5 I 3
20
---
B=1.2 m D=1.2 m
3 04.8 m 3 /s 0/B=4.0m 3 /s/m
15 Inlet HW HW
.....Vl ~Io 0.083 m/m

D
1.77 2.12
2.0 E 10 o 2 0.042 m/m 1.62 1.94
~ I
•
.S 9.0 1:: ~ 2
...---... 8.0
Cl
'iii
::r:
al~
I:. 7.0 .c
.£
0
~ 1.5
- .c
:2
:=
6.0
5.0
___ -
_ - --- -
2
0
-.::.
E
Vl
.E
Cl
'iii
.c
'0
1.5
1.5 Face
Bevel Angle
50G For d = 0.042D
3704G For d = 0.083DL
(ij
.0
'0 ____ ____
-------
--- --- -ta .
.S
.c
i5. 2
Vl
E
Height D in meters
.E ---- Q)
.0
Q)
"0 .£
.~ .c Face
::r: '0 2III i5. Bevel Angle
50 G For b = 0.0428
2Q) ~III
Q)
"0 3704G For b = 0.083B
E iii f-1.0
Q)
::r: a;
iii
a.
1.5 := 0.9
1.0 ~ I- 09
Q)
Q)
~ ::r: Face dimensions band d of bevels
III
0.9 .c
u
1.0 o8 are each related to the opening di
Vl 0.9 0.8 . mension at right angles to the
is 0.8
edge.
08
0.7
0.7
0.6 0.7
0.7 0.5
004
0.6 r
O6
.
-0.6 0.3
0.5
L
0.5
(
0.2
Figure 1.10.6
Headwater Depth for Inlet Control
(Rectangular Box Culverts 100 G Headwall)
244
(1 ) (2) (3)
~
6 Example
r-u
1--5 I D=0.90m 0=2.0 m3 /s
.-6 ~5 HW
Inlet HW
l I- 0
1--4
~5 1--4 (1 ) 2.15 1.94
(2) 1.60 1.62
1.==4 1.65
1--3 (3) 1.63
1--3
~3
-
1--2
2
....1 - - - -
.-/'"1--2
//
I-- 1.5 1-1.5
~9,e//
~
//
~~
---
rn
ID
Q)
I-- 1.5
I-
E I
ell
'6
.S 1--1 1--1
.r:::
a.
OJ 1--1 l
"C
I-- 0.9 I-- 0.9
ID
co ~0.9
it
"C
ell
OJ
J: I-- 0.6 I- 0.6

I-- 0.6
I
0.7
F'0.7 HW Scale Entrance
~0.7
0 Type
(1) Square edge
with headwall
(2) Groove end
~ 0.6 with headwall
I-- 0.6
~06
(3) Groove end
projecting
l-
I-
To use scale (2) or (3) project

0.5 horizontally to scale (1). then use
0.5 straight line through 0 and 0
L- 0.5
scales. or reverse as illustrated.
0.30
Figure 1.10.7
Headwater Depth for Concrete Pipe Culverts
With Inlet Control
245
·~-·---·""'"'''''''''''_·''''''-''·''-''--~~'''-'.'''''·~.-_~·'~d·~'.\J&..'1i:f...-.e~~ a.. ::H- 'it1i.~.~ ....
4.50
4.00
A B
100 Q)
b a c d Entrance
80
.5
~I I- 3.6 f- 3.0 D 5 5 D ---,=ype
c 0.042 0.063 0.042 0.083 A
3.00 I- 60 ·2
::;1 I- 3.0 0.083 0.125 0.042 0.125 B
I
40
Beveled Ring
Minimum 333 G
30 I I ~2.0
//1- ~::
20 d
2.00 ~ I- 1.5
10
/
/ -- "
~
~ 6
*
1.50 5
E 4
/ Vl
/' Qj
.c 0Q)
Qi
0 Vl
3/
......... E
til
I--- 1.0
~ L1.0
t: E
/2
Q)
> .c.
"3 .c:
u /0 a.
'0
Qj 1.~ / ia; 1
-8 ~ 0.9
Qj
f-0.9
Qi .c: 10
E
til ~.90 u
rn 0.80 ~
is is
0.60 i
I
~0.8 I- 0.8
0.80 0.50
0.40
0.70 L 0.30
I LO.7
~0.7
0.60 ~ 020
~06 L
•
Example
0.6 D=0.90m Q=20m 3 /s
I Inlet HW HW
~ 0.10
0.50 D
0.08
A 1.92 1.73 .,;'"
006 B 1.72 1.55
I LO.52 L 0.52
0.05
0.40 t- 0.04
0.03
0.30
Figure 1.10.8
Headwater Depth for Circular Pipe Culverts
With Beveled Ring Inlet Control
1: ..
246
(
200
~W-r=-[---~ [" _
1_ -- h.
100 Slope s. ---- 0 ,\
Submerged outlet culvert flowing full

80
HW = H + ho - LS o
60
50
40 0.10
30 3.5 x 35 12
10
3.0 x 3.0
20 8 0.20
2.5 x 2.5
6
0.30
5 -t-t;l
~o ~
2.0 x 2.0 I k; '2"
t
10 4 fl~O DAD
u
OJ
8
3
-t-t;l
~Q,>
·S
~ 050
E
VJ
......
6 E 1.5 x 1.5
.S '"E
I ~
c:
060
.S 5 x
o
2
£
i- I=- 0.80
Q 4 . .:: _ 9..~~3~sec .8 I--:::::::L""eolT''---::- 'tJ

~ _;,j tll
-- - --
OJ \<.e""o.2 ,,<0<:>
OJ
tll
1:' 3 ::;) I
--
tll 1
.s::
u
g 1.0 x 1.0 Co
VJ '0 "3
o 2 c: 0.80
en
c: -,':3
!:) H~2.2m _
o tll
.~ 0.8 x 0.8 13
OJ 0.60 ~
E '0
o 0.50 tll
3
~
DAD <t: 4
0.6 x 0.6
0.80 5
0.30
0.5 x 0.5 6
0.60
0.50 8
(' DAD
~
Q)
~ 0.30
0>
c
'1:
:;
f-
0.20
0.10
Figure 1.10.9
Head for Concrete Box Culverts
Flowing Full, n = 0.012
247
80
60 -
•
50
Slope So--- 0.1
Submerged outlet culvert flowing full
HW=H+ho-LSo
3.0 0.2
20
0.4
8
~ 0.5
'j,\)
0.6
,,<:> ((9
1.5
bo\) ~
,,\)
.,\) ~
.S: 0.8
l'?
(Il
'j,~
,,\) e:> ~. I
~?,.
3 ~ c;)
l>'
co\)
"0
~
ell
rn
O""'3.0 --....
~ .S: ____ :::.------
L==80 -<a5 Ql
I
~ ---- 1<..",,1).2
~
2(Il
~ [080
--- ----
---.....
H:O: 3'2rn
-----.::: ---- <§l
,<01)
2
----\---.....
----
0.70
3
0.80 0.60
4
050 5
Figure 1.10.10
Head For Concrete Pipe Culverts
Flowing Full, n = 0.012
248
•
-I ,
I '
. I
.. i
t j o
1.0
.!- -
r 1-. -I- . --f-. -f---t-~
f--t - I __ .. _.I--!- -!-
_I_+ +-+-I-+-+-+-l--1--+-+-+---i
I
t -+-+-+-+--+--+-+-+--+--I
_.. r . f--l--I
. _.I---I--f-
.1 'lIt: . ',I . t Jj I~.i\ k . f~ I . Ii' ~;; I j ; i it·1'· J....

1 -L -
.1--1- -!--I---!-
l j,
t-t -I - + t -+--J--+--+--I
11
j ttl' i t I... -I--f-+-+-+---+--ll.-f-
i : /.,
I Ii,
1.1-
j 1
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6 t.ri -.i M N
SJ8\8W UI 'p SJ8\8W UI 'p
)
0.75 I I i i i I I i i i I i i i I I i
'J)
Qi
~ 0.5 I iii I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I : ~:oJ,.1""f"1 I i I I I I II I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I r
.!:
u
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U , .
i I
r .
, I ...
o I ! I !! [I t I I ! ! ! , ! I I! I I ! ! I
•
0.5 1.0 1.5
Discharge (0) in m3 /sec.
1.5 I i i i i i i I i i i • i I
I I
~
E
~
~
~
E::
.!:
u
1.0 I I i I I I I I I I I i I I I I I I I I I I i I I I I I I I I I I Li--1-f'1= I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
.l--'
;j;;;iii
•
,g 0.5 I I I I I I I .><r....l4 I I I I I I I I I I I : I I I I I I I I I I I I I-r FTlT FTTT rT I-I TF I I I I I I I I I I
(5
o 2 4 6
Discharge (0) in m3 /sec
Figure 1.10.12
Critical Depth Circular Pipe
250
1.10 D
Table 1.10.1.
*Note: "End Section conforming to fill slope." made of
Entrance Loss Coefficients, Outlet Control,
either metal or concrete. are the sections commonly avail·
able from manufacturers. From limited hydraulic tests
( Full or Partly Full
V2
Entrance head loss He = k e 2g
they are equivalent in operation to a headwall in both
inlet and outlet contro/. Some end sections. incorporating
a closed taper in their design have a superior hydraulic
performance.
Type of Structure and Design of
Entrance Coefficient k. 6. Protection
Pipe, Concrete a. Debris Control
Projecting from fill, socket Accumulation of debris at a culvert inlet can
end (groove end) 0.2 result in the culvert not performing as de
Projecting from fill, square signed. The consequences may be damages
cut end 0.5 from inundation of the road and upstream
Headwall or headwall and property. The designer has three options for
wingwalls coping with the debris problem: (1) retain
Socket end of pipe the debris upstream of the culvert, (2) at
(groove end) 0.2 tempt to pass debris through the culvert, (3)
Square edge 0.5 or use a bridge.
Rounded (radius = /2 D) 0.2 If the debris is to be retained by an upstream
Mitered to conform to fill structure or at the culvert inlet, frequent
maintenance may be required. If debris is to
Ie slope
*End Section conforming to
fill slope
Beveled edges, 37 G or 50G
0.7
0.5
0.2
be passed through the structure or retained
at the inlet, a relief opening should be con
sidered either in the form of a vertical riser
Side-or slope-tapered inlet 0.2 or a relief culvert placed higher in the em
bankment. It is often more economical to
Pipe, or Pipe-Arch, Corrugated Metal construct debris control structures after
Projecting from fill (no problems develop, since debris problems do
headwall) 0.9 not occur at all suspected locations.
Headwall or headwall and
wingwalls square edge 0.5 The design of the debris control structure
Mitered to conform to fill must be preceded by a thorough study of the
slope, paved or unpaved debris problem. Among the factors the de
slope 0.7 signer must consider are the following:
*End Section conforming to • Type of debris.
fill slope 0.5 • Quantity of debris.
Beveled edges, 37 G or 50G 0.2 • Expected changes in type and quantity of
Side-or slope-tapered inlet 0.2 debris due to future land use.
Box, Reinforced Concrete • Stream flow velocity in the vicinity of cul
Headwall parallel to embank vert entrance.
{ ment (no wingwalls)
Square edged on 3 edges 0.5
• Maintenance access requirements.
• Availability of storage area.
Rounded on 3 edges to
• Standard plan maintenance for debris re
1
radius of 12 barrel moval.
• Assessment of damage due to debris clog
dimension, or beveled
ging, if protection is not provided.
edges on 3 sides 0.2
Wingwalls at 33 G to 83 G to barrel b. Buoyancy
Square edged at crown 0.4 The forces acting on a culvert inlet during
Crown edge rounded to high flows are variable and highly indeter
radius of /2 barrel minate. Vortexes and eddy currents cause
scour which can undermine the culvert inlet,
dimension, or beveled erode the embankment slope, and make the
top edge 0.2 inlet vulnerable to failure. Flow is usually
Wingwalls at lOG to 28 G to barrel constricted at the inlet and inlet damage or
Square edged at crown 0.5 lodged drift can accentuate this constriction.
Wingwalls parallel (extension The large unequal pressures resulting from
of sides) this constriction are in effect buoyant forces
Square edged at crown 0.7 which can cause entrance failures, particu
Side-or slope-tapered inlet 0.2 larly on corrugated metal pipe with mitered,
251
1.10 C
skewed, or projecting ends. The failure po C. Open Channels

tential will increase with depth of the poten
1. Introduction
tial headwater (which may be increased by
debris blockage), flatness of the fill slope
over the upstream end of the culvert, and
An open channel may be a natural or man
made channel in which water flows with a free
(
the height of the fill. surface. Open channels are the primary facili
ties for conveying surface runoff. Open channel
Anchorage at the culvert entrance helps to hydraulics is of particular importance to high
protect against these failures by increasing way design, because of the interrelationship of
the dead load on the end,ofthe culvert, pro channels to all highway hydraulic structures.
tecting against bending damage, and by pro
tecting the fill slope from the scouring action The hydraulic design process consists of estab
of the flow. The following two general ap lishing criteria, developing and evaluating al
proaches are recommended to prevent fail ternatives, and selecting the alternative which
ure caused by buoyancy: best satisfies the established criteria. Capital
investment and probable future costs including
• Provide a standard concrete headwall or
maintenance and flood damages to properties,
end wall to counteract the hydrostatic up
lift. traffic service requirements, and the stream
must be considered in the design process. The
• Provide a concrete anchor block, strapped detail in which risks are considered should be
to the inlet end of the culvert, to counter commensurate with the flood hazard at the
act the buoyancy forces. site, economics, and current engineering prac
Sedimentation
I
Sediment may be deposited within the culvert
barrels. This deposition usually occurs at flow
rates smaller than the design flow. The deposits
may be removed during larger floods depen
dent upon the relative transport capacity of
tices.
Highway related channel work is generally lo
cal in nature and should not be associated with
extensive modifications referred to as channeli
zation projects. The hydraulic engineering as
pects of open channels are discussed in this
•
flow in the stream and in the culvert compac subsection. Channels along, across, approach
tion and composition of the deposits, flow du ing, and leaving the highway are included.
ration, ponding depth above the culvert, and
2. Criteria
other factors.
Channels involved with highway location, de
Culvert location in both plan and profile is of sign, and construction range in size from road
particular importance to the maintenance of side ditches to rivers. Design criteria must con
sediment-free culvert barrels. Deposition oc sider the type of channel as well as the class
curs in culverts because the sediment transport and type of road system.
capacity of flow within the culvert is often less

than in the stream. The following factors con a. Roadside and Median Ditches
tribute to deposition in culverts: The hydraulic capacity of the standard road
a. At moderate flow rates the culvert cross side ditch shall be sufficient to contain the
(~
,ection is larger than that of the stream, thus estimated runoff from a IO-year frequency
the flow depth and sediment transport ca storm. The estimated runoff for the 2-year
pacity is reduced. frequency storm is to be used for determin
ing the needs, type, and dimensions of spe
b. Point bars form on the inside of stream cial channel linings for erosion control.
bends and culvert inlets placed at bends in
the stream will be subjected to deposition in b. Drainage Channels
the same manner. This effect is most pro Drainage channels are defined as those man
nounced in multiple-barrel culverts with the made channels other than standard roadside
barrel on the inside of the curve often be channels which may convey live streams
coming almost totally plugged with sedi and/or surface runoff. These channels are
ment deposits. usually trapezoidal sections and may be
c. Abrupt changes to a flatter grade in the natural or lined.
culvert or in the channel adjacent to the The hydraulic capacity of these channels
culvert will induce sedimentation. Gravel shall be sufficient to contain at minimum the
and cobble deposits are common down IO-year frequency storm runoff. For drain
stream from the break in grade because of age channels that cross the roadway, the
the reduced transport capacity in the flatter hydraulic capacity shall be sufficient to con
section. tain the 25-year frequency storm for local
252
1.10 C
roads, and the 50-year frequency storm for nonuniform unsteady flow, most hydraulic
arterials and collectors, and the lOO-year computations are made with certain simpli
/ frequency storm for expressways. The needs, fied assumptions which allow the applica
(
\ type, and dimensions of lining shall be based tion of steadY, uniform, or gradually varied
on the appropriate frequency storm. flow principles and methods of analysis.
c. Wadi Modification Use of steady flow methods assumes that the
Modification of existing wadis shall be mini discharge at a point does not change with
mized to the fullest extent practical. If modi time; and the use of uniform flow methods
fication is unavoidable, a detailed evaluation assumes that there is no change in velocity,
shall be made and documented with consid magnitude, or direction with distance along
eration of the environmental, hydraulic, a stream line. Steady uniform flow is thus
legal, and geomorphic aspects involved. characterized by constant velocity and flow
rate at each section along the channel.
Modified and/or relocated natural channels
shall duplicate the existing stream charac Steady uniform flow is an idealized concept
teristics as nearly as possible. These charac of open channel flow which seldom occurs
teristics shall include the stream width, in natural channels. However, for most prac
depth, slope, bank cover, side slopes, and tical highway applications the flow is consid
flow and velocity distribution. ered steady and changes in width, depth, or
direction are sufficiently small that flow can
The hydraulic analysis shall include a range be considered uniform. The changes in
of flood discharges for the average daily flow channel characteristics occur over a long
~
or mean annual flood, up to and including
the lOO-year frequency flood. A rating curve
distance such that flow is gradually varied.
For these reasons, use of uniform flow the
for the existing condition shall be prepared ory is usually within acceptable degrees of
and used as the basis of comparison for the accuracy.
proposed design.
In open channel flow, critical depth is that
3. Hydraulics of Open Channels flow depth in which the specific energy is a
The major objectives of open channel hydrau minimum. Specific energy in a cross section
lic analysis are as follows: relative to the channel bed is expressed as:
• Documentation of existing conditions. V2
• Analysis and documentation of the effects HE = d +
2g
alternate designs will have on existing condi
where HE = Specific energy in meters
tions. d = Depth of flow in meters
• The design of a proposed facility. V = Velocity of flow in meters per
Water surface profiles, and velocity and flow second
g = Acceleration of gravity in me
distribution are of primary concern in achiev ters per second squared
ing these objectives.
By plotting specific energy head against
a. Types of Flow
:(
depth of flow for a constant discharge, a
....
Open channel flow is usually classified as
uniform or nonuniform; steady or unsteady;
specific energy diagram as illustrated in Fig
ure 1.10.13 is obtained. When specific en
and subcritical, critical, or supercritical. Of ergy is a minimum, the corresponding depth
these, nonuniform, unsteady, subcritical is critical depth. Flow depths less than criti
flow is the most common type of flow in cal are termed supercritical flow, and depths
open channels. Due to the complexity and greater than the critical depth are termed
difficulty involved in the analysis of subcritical flow.
253
1.10 C
3 I I I I I I ~
Ho = Specific head m
d = Depth of flow m
de = Critical depth m
V = Velocity - m/sec
(
21 I I I b/ I I
Subcritical flow
mild slopes
d
de
Critical depth
•
o 2 3
Ho
de
Figure 1.10.13
Specific Energy Diagram
(
The distinction between subcritical and ence of some upstream control.
supercritical flow is important in the anal
The Froude number

ysis of open channel flow. Supercritical flow
is often characterized as rapid or shooting, V
Fr = -
with flow depths less than critical depth, y!gd
whereas subcritical flow is tranquil and slow
uniquely describes these flow regimes. The

with depths greater than critical. The loca
Froude number of critical flow is equal to
tion of control sections, and the method of
one. Values greater than one indicate
analysis will depend upon which type of
supercritical flow, and values less than one
flow prevails within the channel reach being
indicate subcritical flow.
studied. Channel control sections are geo
metric and physical characteristics of the b. Open Channel Equations
channel reach which stabilize, control, or

The following equations are most commonly
otherwise regulate the flow and depth in the used to analyze open channel flow.
channel such that a given discharge is
uniquely defined. Subcritical flow is con Manning Equation:
trolled by a downstream control section
V =IR2/3 S1I2
while supercritical flow is under the influ n
(,
254
1.10 C
Energy Equation: The conveyance equation is a convenient
VZ VZ method for analyzing the flow velocity and
/ dl + Zl + ~
2g
= d z + Zz + -2-
2g
+ HL distribution where the cross section consists
(
\ of multiple subdivisions as in Figure 1.1 0.14,
Continuity Equation: each with a different n value or geometric
Q= AV character. The continuity equation and the
Manning equation are used to compute
Conveyance Equation:
channel discharges directly for a given or
Q= KS~!2 assumed depth of flow.
where Q = Discharge in cubic meters Flood Stage
per second
A = Cross section of flow area in
square meters
R = Hydraulic radius = ':p
WP = Wetted perimeter of flow
area in meters
V = Mean velocity in meters per
second Figure 1.10.14
So = Slope of channel bed in me Hydraulic Subdivision of Flood Plain
ters per meter

S = Slope of energy grade line in c. Analysis of Open Channel Flow
~. n
meters per meter
= Mannings roughness coeffi
cient
When analyzing open channel flow, sev
eral factors should be considered:
d = Depth of flow at a point in • Stage and depth.
meters • Channel roughness, geometry, and align
Z = Elevation or height above ment.
some datum in meters • Waterway area.
HL = Energy head loss in meters
• Conveyance.
K = Conveyance factor = -1 AR2!3 • Energy grade line and water surface
n
slopes.
There is no exact method for selecting n • Discharge.
values in Manning's equation as this coeffi • Velocity.
cient expresses the resistance of flow which
consists of many variables. The factors af • Flow distribution.
fecting Manning's (n) include the following: • Drift and debris.
• Surface roughness. The stage-discharge relationship shall be de
• Vegetation. veloped during the analysis and design. The
discharge of the stream is computed for vari
• Channel irregularity.
ous depths. The depth versus discharge is
(- •
•
Channel alignment.
Scour and sedimentation.
then plotted in graphic form (sometimes
termed a rating curve) giving the designer a
• Obstructions. visual display of the relationship. A stage
• Size and shape of channel. discharge curve is shown in Figure 1.10.15.
• Flow depth and discharge. The designer can use the stage discharge re
lationship to evaluate a range of conditions.
• Seasonal changes in vegetation.
Reasonable estimates of velocity and flow
Table 2.07.1 ofHDM-I-2.07 contains values
distribution are usually made by using basic
of n for various channel types.
hydraulic principles. The analysis of open
The Manning equation is used for open channels having irregular or compound sec
channel analysis where uniform flow exists tions is best accomplished by dividing the
or can be reasonably assumed. Nonuniform cross section into subsections of reasonably
or varied flow requires the use of methods uniform or average vegetal and geometric
other than or in addition to the Manning characteristics (Figure 1.10.16). The mean
equation. The energy equation is used to an velocity of each subsection may be com
alyze flow where changes in the flow resist puted by use of the Manning equation, and
ance, size, shape, or slope of channel occur the total discharge computed by a summa
(gradually varied flow). The energy balance tion of the discharge in each subsection
concept of the energy equation is especially computed by use of the continuity equation.
useful for computing water surface profiles. The total discharge may also be computed
255
1.10 C
by use of the conveyance equation from plain, and for design of slope protection and
which the sum of discharges in each channel geometry. The results of this proce
subsection is obtained. dure are also useful in selecting bridge loca
The subsection velocity and discharge values
tion and length, and for verifying the need
for such structures as relief bridges and spur
(
can be used for estimating scour potential
dikes.
within the stream channel and on the flood
62.0 I i ! I i I
I
I
, r
I
1-++ f-L W-
I I i -t- -t-- +~i-+>---j-
'-+--!, 1->--+ +t
I I I II r
I I i I
I • I
I I ! !
I i , ' I ! I , I I
, , i I I I
61.5 , i , I ::;;;
I I I :,...
I : , , , i--'
! i I I
-'....
I
I ,
I I ; I I
II i I i I , ~ I
! I I !~ i
, r I I , I
I I I l.A"" , , I I
,
i ! I
"...-1' I I' T i
~ ,
E ~ I I 1,..-,
•
! : I I
, .Y , 1
I I
I r
.;l 61.0 ~ : ,
I I I
'"
U5 I I
-+-
I I b I
I
I
I
i I 1
r I
r r
i
I
'"
-
r ,
I Vi I r
~! : ,
~ I I
'./( i I
~--i-----t-
-;----~
I /, I I I
/' -~ 1-------, ---+
I •
i
I
I /' I I I I
-< A , ! I
60.5 /r ,
: I I
, I I
/ 1'- ,
----r- ~--i-'
I
/ I , i
---i-~ ~_~--i- -~";',-
I i
~ ,
/
I
/ I
- --+- ,
i
i
!
~~- --'----t--
, '
--- f---t-'~-
+---o------"~
I
r--+-~
- - - ----+-- ~-+--+-
~--,~-~- ------+-~
I
•._-<--
I
,
60.0
o 10 20 30 40 50
Discharge (m 3 /s)
(
So = 0.02
n = 0.035
Elevation = 60m
I.. 4m • J
Figure 1.10.15
Stage-Discharge Curve
256
~iJSiiFHSO/W7fjjf55i"..t·-5~-lf*¥;:i.?i?~~.;'.f "" .. r--;;;.:,/ - ,~i'':~~j:!''''~"K''''''-''''-·'-:sK".,.~",;~~·~o_",.-,,- ~"'-~~1":~ •..:.rY'~:?;~:-;;:':.~~~~l>~'"1(;:--f",,~:::;~_.~~i~tW~:·<c':::=:,-,io~~~;'~>_~:;J..""":.'f:;,-~:~,'"=-__-,~- 1
1.10 D
Flow Distribution, Percent crease flood damage to properties up
'.
o ~ 100 stream of crossing. The amount of back
I , ,!, I, ! I I
water permissible will vary with the site,
depending upon the flood conditions ex
u isting at the specific site and the damages
.....5l to upstream properties. The designer shall
-of:
Ql use the I percent (IOO-year) flood on
ilia>"
"3~ expressways, 2 percent (50-year) flood on
E'"
::>.e: arterials and collectors and the 4 percent
UU
~B (25-year) flood on local roadways with
backwater limited to 0.3 m as an aid in
selecting the waterway opening and
crossing profile.
• Velocity through the structure that will
Figure 1.10.16
not damage either the highway facility or
Flow Distribution Diagram
increase damages to downstream prop
erty. The acceptable average velocity
4. Channel Stabilization should be based on the characteristics of
the individual site. These characteristics
Channels of appropriate size and type must be include the following:
designed to convey the runoff. These channels
must be stable so that excessive erosion and/or (1) Natural stream velocity.
<,'Ii"'
\~ scour does not occur along the channel bottom (2) Bed materials.
or channel banks. Stabilization of the channel (3) Soil types.
may require protecting the channel with some (4) Foundation materials.
form of lining. Rock riprap, concrete, and veg (5) Risk considerations from backwater
etation may be used as means for permanent
and scour.
stabilization and protection. Subsection F dis
• Maintain existing flow distribution to the
cusses the design of channels.
extent practicable. This will help mini
D. Bridge Waterways mize damage to property by either ex
cessive backwater or high local velocities
1. General and will avoid concentrating flow in areas
a. The hydraulic requirements of stream which were not subjected to concentrated
crossings must be recognized and considered flow prior to construction.
in the analysis and design of bridges. Several • Piers and abutments designed to minimize
features are important to the hydraulic per flow disruption and potential scour. The
formance of a bridge: number of piers in major channels should
• The approach fill alignment, skew, and be minimized and piers should not be lo
.. profile. cated in the channel of small streams.

• Bridge location, skew, and length. Piers shall be oriented with the flow so
"""''"",.'r'I., they do not contribute significantly to
f, :.- «"
• Span lengths for bent and pier location
'. ~- ~~ :;~ bridge backwater. The type of abutment
and design.
used has little effect on the total backwa
• Foundation design. ter except where the flow section is se
• Superstructure configuration and eleva verely contracted by a short bridge. Ori
tions. entation of abutments is usually the same
b. The hydraulics of bridge waterways shall as for piers.
include consideration of the total crossing • Adequate freeboard at structure and pier
including approach embankments and struc design to pass anticipated debris. Solid
tures on the flood plains. The hydraulic piers do not collect as much debris as a
analysis involves determining the backwater pile bent or a multiple column bent.
associated with each alternative profile and Rounding or streamlining the leading
waterway opening, the effects on flow distri edges of piers helps to decrease the ac
bution, velocities, and the scour potential. cumulation of debris and reduces local
scour at the pier.
2. Design Criteria
b. The design flood is not a part of the crite
a. Criteria to be used in the hydraulic de
ria for design. Flood magnitudes ranging
sign of stream crossings shall be based on
from the mean annual, 2.33-year, through
the site-specific conditions of each location
the lOO-year flood or the flood of record,
and shall consider the following:
whichever is larger, shall be analyzed and
• Backwater that will not significantly in- the results compared to the criteria previ
ously established.
257
1.10 D
3. Hydrologic Analysis tained to provide an accurate representation

In order to proceed with the hydraulic design of the channel and flood plains. If a stream
of a structure for a waterway crossing, the de
signer must first estimate flood frequencies.
control section, such as a constriction, con
fluence, or dense vegetal cover exists down (
Data needs for the hydrologic analysis are stream of the crossing site, cross sections
largely dependent upon the methods used to shall be obtained so that a water surface
estimate flood flows. Information on flood profile can be computed beginning at the
flows, drainage basin characteristics, high control section. Cross sections shall be ex
water during past floods, flood history at ex tended laterally to include the total flood
isting structures, channel geometry, and pre plain for the design and larger floods. The
cipitation are commonly needed hydrologic cross sections shall be normal to expected
data. More detailed information and a dis flood flow directions and not necessarily
cussion of applicable methods are covered in normal to the stream channel. The number
HDM-1-2.07. of sections required is dependent upon flow
conditions at the site. Guidance should be
4. Bridge Versus Culvert sought from the Hydraulics Engineer who
The waterway crossing may be of such size will be responsible for the analysis.
that the waterway opening can be provided for b. Data on land use and vegetal cover
by either culverts or a bridge. Estimates of should be obtained for use in assessing
costs and damages associated with each will roughness characteristics for use in convey
:'1dicate which structure alternative should be
•
ance computations. Photographs (ground or
_iected. aerial) of the channel and flood plains and
a. Bridges have the following advantages: descriptions are necessary for use in the
analysis. A site inspection by the designer
• Less susceptible to clogging with drift and
shall be made to insure a good estimate of
debris. roughness coefficients. General character
• Waterway increases with rising water sur istics helpful in making design decisions
face until water begins to submerge super shall be noted. These include soil types in
structure. the stream bed, banks, and over bank areas
• Scour increases waterway opening. and stream bed material gradation if possi
• Widening does not usually affect hydrau ble. Evidence of drift and debris (size and
lic capacity. volume), bank caving, headcuts, and other
conditions which would affect abutment and
b. Culverts have the following advantages:
pier location, orientation, and type, shall be
• Requires less structural maintenance than recorded. Photographs of the channel and
bridges. stream bed can be a valuable aid to the de
• Capacity increases with stage. signer and can serve as excellent documenta
• Capacity can sometimes be increased by tion of existing conditions.
installing improved inlets. c. Water surface elevations of the stream at
• Usually easier and quicker to build than the crossing, must be made and a stage dis
bridges.
• Scour is localized, more predictable, and
charge curve developed showing how the
normal water surface elevation of the stream
(
easier to control. varies with the discharge. Stage discharge
• Storage can be used to reduce peak dis relationships shall be established for a range
charge. of flood magnitudes, usually the mean an
• Grade raises and widening projects some nual flood through the I percent (lOa-year
times can be accommodated by extending flood) or flood of record, whichever is larger.
culvert ends. Stage discharge relationships are commonly
5. Hydraulic Analysis estimated either by water surface profile
computations or by single section analysis.
The hydraulic design of a stream crossing is a Single section analysis assumes:
trial and error process in which alternative wa
terway opening designs are tried for each high • Steady uniform flow in the streams.
way gradient alternative. There is a variety of • Cross section, slope, and "n" values used
information required and steps to be taken in are reasonably representative of the
the hydraulic analysis. stream characteristics for the channel
reach under study.
a. Cross sections of the stream channel and
A more reliable method of establishing stage
flood plains are required to establish the
discharge relationships is by water surface
stage discharge relationships and convey
ance. Sufficient cross sections should be ob
profile computations which account for vari
\
258
I.lO D
ations in cross section roughness and chan • Determine the stage of the stream at the
nel flow. bridge site for the design discharge (2
I( The stage discharge relationship is usually 1.1OC).
\ presented in a stage discharge curve. From • Plot a representative cross section of the
this curve the designer can determine the stream for the design discharge. If the
elevation of the water surface for various stream channel is essentially straight and
flood discharges. Figure 1.10.15 shows an the cross section substantially uniform in
example of a stage discharge curve. the vicinity of the bridge, the natural
cross section of the stream at the bridge
d. The flow distribution shall be analyzed.
site may be used for this purpose.
Flow distribution refers to the proportion of
the total flow in the stream that is conveyed • Subdivide the cross section plotted above
by each of the various subsections of the according to marked changes in depth of
cross section. The analysis of flow distribu flow and changes in channel roughness.
tion will reveal sections where the flow rates Assign values of Manning's roughness co
are relatively high and sections which are efficient, n, to each subsection.
relatively ineffective in conveying flow. This • Compute conveyance and then discharge
information is necessary to properly locate in each subsection.
bridges or other openings on the flood • Using cumulative conveyance and dis
plains, determine bridge lengths, locate charge, compute slope of the stream.
overflow sections, and approach roadways, Should the computed slope vary more
and evaluate the need for and location of than 25 percent from the actual slope, the
~
spur dikes and other protective features to
be incorporated in the design.
roughness values shall be reassigned and
the conveyance recomputed.
Flow distributions usually will vary with • Plot the natural cross section under the
stage and discharge and should be deter proposed bridge, based on normal water
mined for the various flow rates of interest surface, for the design discharge. Com
in the design of the crossing. The results pute the gross water area including the
should be carefully examined and when area occupied by the piers.
possible compared with observed flows to • Compute backwater upstream from a
determine whether the computed flow distri bridge constricting the flow using the for
bution is reasonable. mula:
e. Proposed structure alternatives should be hf=K*0:2 V~2 +0:, [(An2)2_(An2)2]V~2
analyzed. In cooperation with the Bridge 2g A4 Al 2g
Engineer, the Hydraulics Engineer helps se where hi =Total backwater in meters
lect span lengths, pier type and size, abut K* = Total backwater coefficient
ment type, and roadway profile. The loca 0: 1& 0: 2 =Kinetic energy coefficients at
tion and orientation of piers and abutments section 1 and section 2
must also be selected. If a proposed design Figure 1.10.17A shows the loca
does not satisfy the criteria as outlined or tions of the cross sections 1
the existing conditions are adversely af through 4.
'C'
fected, another alternative shall be analyzed. A n2 =Gross water area in constriction
measured below normal stage in
f. Backwater calculations shall be made for
square meters
a range of discharges and for each profile Vn2 =Average velocity in constriction
and structure alternative. Backwater esti in meters per second
mates are an aid in selecting the waterway A4 =Water area at section 4 where
opening and crossing profile. normal state is re-established in
There are several methods currently used to square meters
calculate backwater at bridge constrictions. Al =Total water area at section 1, in
Most of these methods have been written cluding that produced by the
into computer programs since the equations backwater in square meters
used are complex and often require trial and To compute backwater, the following steps
error solutions. are required:
The following is a brief step-by-step outline • Estimate the approximate value of hI from
for determining the backwater produced by the formula below.
a bridge constriction:
h *1-- K* 0: 2 2g
Vti2
• Determine the magnitude and frequency

of the discharge for which the bridge is to
be designed (HDM-I-2.07).
259
1.10 D
• Determine value of Ai • If piers are involved, compute value of J,

• Determine value of 0:: 1
ratio of area obstructed by piers to gross
0::
1
IqV2
Q V2 nl
area of bridge waterway below normal water
surface at section 2 (J = ApiA n2 ). (
• Obtain incremental coefficient, D,. K p from
where q = Qk
Figure 1.1 0.19.
Ki
• If eccentricity is severe (e > 0.8), compute
value of e and obtain incremental coeffi
v ~ =
a cient, D,. K e from Figure 1.10.20.
Q = Total discharge in cubic meters
per second. e = 1- g: where Qc < Qa
Vni = Normal velocity at section 1.
K i = Conveyance at section 1.
k = Conveyance at each subsection.
e = 1- g: where Qa < Qc
a = Waterway area for each • If a skewed crossing is involved, observe

subsection. proper procedure in previous steps and ob
Plot natural cross section under proposed tain incremental coefficient, D, K s , for
bridge based on normal water surface for proper abutment type from Figure 1.10.21.
discharge and compute A n2 (including area • Determine total backwater coefficient, K *,
occupied by piers). by adding incremental coefficient, K b.
, Compute bridge opening ratio, M.
where M =
Qb
Qb
Q
= Discharge
in portion of chan
nel within projected length of
bridge at section 1 (Figure
K * = K b + D,. K p + D, K e + D,. K s
• Estimate 0:: 2 from Figure 1.10.22.
• Compute backwater from expression given
previously.
• Determine distance upstream to maximum
backwater from Figure 1.10.23.
•
1.10.17B).
• Obtain value of K b, backwater coefficient, • Convert backwater to water surface eleva
from base curve on Figure 1.10.18. tion at section 1 if computations are based
on normal stage at bridge.
260
~~'-'''''!""~~'.... ..::,. 4~,:-~_. __-~..-;i __ ~ __'-"';'._, -~-__ .--....-..-- ~.,";;~.J.;:.. '~~7"'-' "'llr "~_' '-C'.~_~-.4i~... ~:.:~~ ....... - fiii'-i;-.,
( A W.S. Along bank

Sect. Sect. Sect.
J,LCX:' (~; ) 2 3
hT
h;
iYl
Flow_ h*3
Actual W.S. on <t
Y4
So
1= ---L'--2- -----:i:- L -
23
.14 L -4
3
.1
Profile on Stream ¢.
B
14 W
• Section 1
Q-
Y-<,-.)~'/2<'"- c
I~--
1-
r----- b Normal
Qb
-
w:s:=:""
~ ,Q.
-+ -
--~ >d7/-"
I... b .1
W.S. with backwater
-+-~/:~('-070tffj;jjj;;"
~%&W~A~
Section 2 "
~
1-.-t~.l~'~
Sect.
Q
c
I I
0
I~
W
I
_g:-_ _~------;::::-----l
~Qbj - ~ 'I
I
* - -.\
I I I •
L l -2
I
Sect.
~
2 o
u::
Sect.
3 ..
1- L2-3 I;:t=±i
j
Plan at bridge
Figure 1.10.17
Normal Crossings: Spill.Through Abutments
.....
261
(
3.0
IIIIII1 ; ~?otii I
~-
2.8
f\. ~ IIIII,~~G~
2.6
2.4
'\ III11I11111111
100G Wingwall
- I--
IIIIIIIIII~
j
2.2 I"" ",-' "
2.0
~ y-100 G WW sOG Wingwall
"~,K I
1.8 V:-33 G WW IIIII/IIIIIIIIII?
~
For lengths up to 60m ~~
" y
-:t 1.6 --
1.4
" ~~ r--....
1.2
All spill-through
or SOG and 67 G WW
"..../'" ~
'"~~t'-...
1'-.' I'-.
111111111111lll\'
Spill-Through
•
abutments over "
60m in length
0.8
~~
0.6
~~
............ :-......
~~
-
0.4
0.2
R ~
~~
o
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Figure 1.10.18
Backwater Coefficient Base Curves (Subcritical Flow)
262
(
"
~~pr~TWP~ An, based on

length b
Wp
h n2
N
Width of pier normal to flow-meters
Height of pier exposed to flow-meters
Number of piers
Normal Crossing Ap INWp h n2 = total projected area of piers normal
to flow-square meters
An2 Gross water cross section in constriction based
on normal water surface.
(Used projected bridge length normal to flow for
skew crossing)
J
Ap
An2
Note:
~
Sway bracing should be included in width of pile bents.
0.4
0.3
:>:::"
<l
0.2
('.. M
.20 .40 .60 .80 1.0
1.0 I I I I I ,
0.1 0.91 I I 17~
I 11 £//1,"/ 1/1 A 0>

0.81 I I J~I I I
0.71 I ,"II:hSV I I I I
0.6
6K p l= 61<0 I 0.5' , ~ , , , , , I
0....... I I I I I I
o .02 .04 .06 .08 .10 .12 .14 .16 .18

J
Figure 1.10.19
Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Piers
"
263
(
I~ Q. .,
I I I I
III I I I I I I I I I I I ) " I I
e = (1- g:)
Where Q c < Q. or
e = (1- g:)
Where Q. < Qc
0.20
0.16
e 1.0
r--
~ ....
•
.........
0.12 ~
~
I
e = 0.95
-
~
~
<J
0.08
r--- r--- ...... ~"\
~
r--.... I\.
-- ""
e = 0.90
0.04
~ \
e = 0.85
I
r-- i-- l\
e
I
0.80 0 ::::..~
(
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
M
Figure 1.10.20
Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Eccentricity
</>=0
o
-0.1 1"""""""= I
-0.2 i"""" I I,",",..-r I I '"'"' ........ '.... .c
~
<J
-0.3 I 7"t"" I 17/ J,.L I
-0.4 I I ",/ I :/' I I
~ -0.5 1:,/ 1:/ I I " I
-0.6 Ie I I I I
0.2 I I I I
0.1
-0.1
-0.2 I j' ./
~
<J
-0.3 I / I
t -0.4 I /1 I
-0.5 I' I I I , , I I I
-0.6 0.3
I I , I , I I
' I I I , I I ~
0.4 0.5 0.6
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
B
M
Figure 1.10.21
Incremental Backwater Coefficient for Skew
265
3.4
3.0
(
1.4
Figure 1.10.22
Aid for Estimating a:
•
2
1.2
1.0
~I.c
Figure 1.10.23
Distance to Maximum Backwater
266
1.10 D
g. Average velocities in the waterway cross

ing opening shall be determined. Most
( stream crossing velocities are higher than
\ velocities in the natural stream because of
contraction of the flow prism by the ap
proach fills, bridge piers, and in some cases,
bridge superstructures. The designer should
determine the average velocity through the B. Round nose
opening and compare that to the average
velocity in the natural channel.
h. The design flood and waterway opening
selected shall not create undue damage by
backwater or scour. The design flood is the
peak discharge and stage of the flood associ
ated with the recurrence interval selected for
[e C. Cylinder
design of the highway structure. The design
flood selected in the result of comparing a
range of flood magnitudes and their effects
on the proposed design. Economic analysis
of each alternative design should be com
pared when selecting the design flood and
waterway opening.
i. Estimates of scour depth at the piers shall D. Group of cylinders
be made. Pier shape and pier orientation
shall be considered when computing scour.
The equation to be used for estimating scour
at piers is
Y s _ 2 2 (~)0.65 F
YI - . YI r1
0.43
where Y s =the estimated scour depth (m)
Y =thej upstream flow depth (m)
F rJ = the upstream Froude number E. Sharp nose
a = the width of pier (m)
The scour depth can be reduced for pier shapes Figure 1.10.24
different than square-nosed piers (Figure Common Pier Shapes
1.10.24). Reduction factors are listed in Table

1.10.2. Pier alignment other than parallel with
flow direction will cause more scour because, Table 1.10.2
in effect, the dimension "a" increases. Factors Reduction in Scour Depths
C'
in Table 1.10.3 shall be used as multiplying
factors when piers are skewed to the flow.
For Equal Projected Widths of Pier
Type of Pier ¥slY s (Square Nose)

The maximum depth of scour at piers is 1.3
times the estimated scour depth once all the Square nose 1.0
other factors have been applied/or (Ys ) max = Cylinder 0.9
1.3 [Ys x Reduction for Shape x Multiplication Round nose 0.9
Factor for Skew]. Sharp nose 0.8
Group of cylinders 0.9
Table 1.10.3
1
4
I .1 Multiplying Factors for Scour Depths
With Skewed Flow Direction
Ta
Angle of Skew
In Grads {/a=4 {/a=8 {/a=12
L A. Square nose
0
16
1.0
1.5
1.0
2.0
1.0
2.5
33 2.0 2.5 3.5
50 2.3 3.3 4.3
\
\
100 2.5 3.9 5.0
267
j. Investigate need for spur dikes. Spur dikes To determine the length of spur dike recom
are used to align flow from the flood plain with mended, obtain the discharge ratio Qr/Qloo,
the waterway opening and to minimize scour where Qr = Lateral or flood plain flow (Qa
at the abutment by moving the turbulence
causing scour upstream to the end of the spur
or Qc) measured at section 1 in
cubic meters per second
(
dike. Spur dikes are usually smooth extensions Q100 = Discharge in 30 m of stream
of the spill slope on the upstream side and are adjacent to abutment, meas
made up of earthen embankment. The sug ured at section I
gested shape of spur dikes is elliptical and shall

Then proceed to Figure 1.10.25 using the dis
follow the equation shown in Figure 1.10.26.
charge ratio determined and find Ls, length of
The length suggested varies with the ratio of
spur dike in meters. If L s is less than 15, no
flow diverted from the flood plain to flow in
spur dike is required. Figure 1.10.26 is the plan
the first 30 meters of waterway under the
and cross section of a spur dike,
bridge.
20.0
~ ...... 100'
V 1./
l/v V V
v V VI' I..--'
10.0 ..... V /v ........1..--' ......
/v
•
o
B,O .... 1/
,v / ./ ......
7.0 I'N" I~ 1./ 1/
..... "l' 1./ 1/
6.0 1/ W ' n V ... 1/
1/ -..If"Y' ~ .... ...... V ./
5.0
/ V IIc:i v'" n../ ......... ...... ........ ./
/: I~ -?'.i' V V ...... V i.oo'"
V /' . ,~ ~~ y;. ......... V ./ .......""
4.0 '"... I.-'"
Y Lv V
)/I'
V V~ V
V v
/v ~
ty'
l/ I....... l~
'"
~
lr...... ,~
v
Do P.L/ . /I-"" I..--'
3.0 ~ V ~ I <'l V
V ~ 1./ ~ P v, ~ V V ... I..--' v
J 1/ V l/ 1/ ~ .d Lv -?'. ...V
,; ~ ,;
~ ~.~ I~ ~ '"'!> .V
V l/ " ./ / V /
0
2.0
J
V ~
./
1/
/
/
V
""
j
~
1/
~
1/
V
~
~ \~ ~ .
-..l ~ lIe:;; V
~
~<:l '7
/
1./
../
l/
~V
a..... J V V V V l/ l./ ~
Ili"
l\~ V '2.. V
u. 1/
V v V V 17 f;> V l?
0 ./ / / ./ ~ oJ \~
1.0
/ V/ V ,/ / V ~
/
~
l/
/'
... ~
J.9
0.8
0.7
7
I
1/
/
/
1/
'7 ./
,.....
/ // (
1/ / '/ ./
0.6 J 1/ V
I 1/ / ,/ 1/ For dikes on 50 G skew bridges, increase
L. by at least 50% on obtuse angle of
0.5
/ V l/ ~
approach, as shown above. For angles
il I 1/ / .J under 50 G increase L. proportionately.
1/ J / .J
0.4
rJ 1/ j /
0.3
I J 1/ /v
77 ::::::::tiR'\- !..
/ I - OF
0.2
V l
J 1/
rl ) , , , I I
1/
0.1
~
15 30 45 60 75 90
L.-Length of spur dike (m)
Figure 1.10.25
268 Spur Dike Length
1.10 D
( X2
--+
Y2
1
\
Ls2 (0.4 LS)2
Protection l .
~
..··0 .
0'.·'
o··~
.o·:c:.
L. ·0·
-,let , , , , , , , , ,
-
B = 0.4 Ls
~. ~ I i i I 1 1 ! 1 1 1 1 1
Figure 1.10.26
Plan and Cross Section of Spur Dike
k. Investigate need for rock riprap slope pro the abutment face in meters
tection. Riprap at the abutment is usually k = Representative particle size
placed on the slopes under the structure end of the riprap in meters. Use
and around the corners under the embankment the size of which 65 percent
to guard against progressive erosion of the em of the riprap is smaller than
bankment. To = Critical shear on the abut
ment slope in kg/m 2
The median size of riprap for use as slope pro
Ss = Specific gravity of the riprap
tection can be estimated from the following
with respect to water
formulas:
"y = Specific weight of water in
V2
c
.~
To=
[5.75
P
log (12.27~o)] 2 1]
A
kg/m 3
= Stability number
Streamline angle as flow
=
1]
21 To passes over the riprap.
Measured from the horizon
(Ss - I) "y k
tal in grads
() = Side slope angle of the riprap
f3 = arctan [ 2 Sill
. cos
()
A ]
in grads
1] tan cP + sin A cP = Angle of repose of the riprap
in grads
hl= h- ( I + Sin (A+,8)) f3 = Angle measured from the
2 normal of the abutment slope
S.P. = cos () tan cP to the direction of particle
1]1 tan () + sin () cosf3 movemnt in grads
1]1 = Stability number for the rip
where V = Average channel velocity rap on the embankment
through the construction in S.P. = Safety Factor. Failure can oc
mls cur if this value is less than
p = Density of the water III one
kg-sec 2 D so = Particle size of riprap grada
m4 tion, of which 50 percent, of
Yo = Average depth of flow past the mixture is finer
269
1.10 E
To use these equations, an estimation of a used in arriving at the selected design. This
riprap size Uk" is used to determine the cor should include the results of studies of alterna
responding safety factor. If the safety factor tives and reasons for rejection, as well as:
is less than one, a larger riprap size or flatter
slope is required. A final safety factor of 1.3
• Copies of all pertinent correspondence. (
• Topography of site.
shall be required.
• Drainage area map used.
Tables 1.10.4 (side slope of 2:1) and 1.10.5 • Structure plans.
(side slope of 3: 1) may be used as a guide for • Stream profile and cross section.
the selection of the mean size of rock riprap
necessary for slope protection. These tables • Historical high water documentation.
are based on stone density of 2650 kg/m 3 , an • Information on existing structures in the
angle of repose of 45 G, and a streamline an vicinity.
gle of 5G• • Hydrologic design computations.
• Hydraulic design calculations.
Table 1.10.4
• Scour investigation.
Minimum D so for Rock Riprap Slope
• Riprap investigation.
Protection (Side Slope 2:1) in Meters
The amount and detail of documentation for

Yo V
(m)(m!s) 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 each stream crossing should vary with the im
portance of the crossing.
1.0 .15 >.90 >.90 >.90 >.90 >.90
".0 .15 .60 >.90 >.90 >.90 >.90

E. Low Water Crossings
J.O .15 .30 .75 >.90 >.90 >.90
4.0 .15 .30 .60 >.90 >.90 >.90 1. General
5.0 .15 .30 .45 >.90 >.90 >.90 a. Low water crossings are road-stream
6.0 .15 .30 .45 .90 >.90 >.90 crossings designed to allow flooding ap
7.0 .15 .15 .45 .75 >.90 >.90 proximately once a year. For that reason,
8.0 .15 .15 .45 .75 >.90 >.90 low water crossings shall only be used on
9.0 .15 .15 .30 .75 >.90 >.90 local roads where the predicted 20-year av
10.0 .15 .15 .30 .60 >.90 >.90 erage daily traffic is less than 100. In these
Note: types of locations, the low water crossing
Ss = 2.65 A ~ = 5G can provide an economical alternative to
e = 30G cf> = 45 G bridging the waterway.
b. In some areas streams carry little or no
Table 1.10.5
water except during sudden severe storms.
Minimum D so for Rock Riprap Slope Protection
Structures adequate to carry the large infre
(Side Slope 3:1) In Meters
quent floods may be prohibitively expensive.
Yo V c. Highway grades and constrictive
(m)(m!s) 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
waterways may cause flooding in broad flat
'.0 .15 .30 .75 >.90 >.90 >.90 valleys. Stream crossings built to handle the
2.0
3.0
.15
.15
.15
.15
.30
.30
.75
.45
>.90
.90
>.90
>.90
peak flows can be large. The low water
crossing permits a large natural waterway
(
4.0 .15 .15 .30 .45 .60 >.90 which minimizes the flooding of adjacent
5.0 .15 .15 .15 .30 .45 >.90 lands.
6.0 .15 .15 .15 .30 .45 .90
d. Low water crossings include the follow
7.0 .15 .15 .15 .30 .45 .75
Ing:
8.0 .15 .15 .15 .30 .45 .75
9.0 .15 .15 .15 .30 .45 .60 • Irish Crossing (or dips)-formed by low
10.0 .15 .15 .15 .30 .45 .60 ering the highway grade to the streambed
level from bank to bank. Commonly used
Note:
across dry drainages or where the day to
Ss = 2.65 A ~ 5G
day steam flow is low. Figure 1.10.27.
e= 30 G cf> = 45 G
• Vented Irish crossing (or dips with
culverts)-formed by partially lowering
6. Design Documentation the highway grade for floods and provid
Design data should be assembled in an orderly ing culverts to handle the day to day flow.
fashion and retained for future reference. The Commonly used when day to day flow
permanent record shall include all material exceeds a fordable depth. Figure 1.10.28.
270
-_ __""4 __....._" ......... ,.,,,,, _ ,"". ~~"'-;'.'~~~...;"'-"':::'_'';''''''''"._.', ._~ ;;:':~"'-::.~_._
. ~:_... c;:-<":""'::_:,~-':·' ...
~:"-: "'~-}~ -::,._",~~.,_. ,:",-o.ti :-..~- ·_-;'~l"..~""illIill~,(.£~iJ'~"':;:MII"3·II'~!llt _ _... .... _
1.10 F
(a) Irish crossing on natural streambed. • Design low water crossings for the mean
I.. Roadway • II Roadway guide
posts
annual storm.
(
("J
--- Streambed
Flow
• Design structure to prevent failure for the
25-year storm.
3. Irish Crossings
a. Irish crossings may consist of an
unsurfaced crossing on the natural bed of
(b) Irish crossing with downstream boulders. the stream or the ford may be surfaced with
Roadway guide concrete asphalt or gabion. Irish crossings
Roadway _I I.
posts placed on the natural bed of the stream are
Loose or
grouted ' commonly leveled for the width of the road
boulders way. This is accomplished by placing a row
.::~. of boulders along the downstream roadway
Streambed
edge and filling behind the boulders with
gravel. Another method may be to use
gabions along the downstream edge.
(c) Irish crossing with downstream gabion.
Roadway guide b. After the stream gradient has been
;.
posts changed with boulders or gabions, down

Rock filled
gabion stream erosion usually accelerates. Ade
quate imbedment of the boulders or gabions
and additional boulders for stream energy
Streambed dissipation are usually required.
4. Vented Irish Crossings
a. Vented Irish crossings create a very signif
Figure 1.10.27
icant velocity barrier with severe erosion po
Irish Crossing
tential. A sloped culvert entrance and sloped
embankment catch less debris than a vertical
embankment and tend to clean themselves
during high water. A splash apron along the
downstream edge of the crossing will move
the scour hole further downstream prevent
ing undermining of the roadway and
Plunge pool
culverts. More sturdy vented Irish crossings
-L are cast-in-place concrete structures, and en

cased culverts.
15-20 cm b. Erosion downstream and around ends of
..
the structure causes major maintenance

(b) All asphalt cover. problems and even failures. Debris carried
by the stream contributes to erosion prob
lems. Cutoff walls and riprap should be car
ried far enough along the roadway to protect
against high water.
F. Stable Channel Design
~~
Culvert with end sections 1. Introduction
Roadside ditches and small drainage channels
~% are an important part of the drainage system.
Precautions must be taken to insure that these
channels have adequate capacity to carry the
Figure 1.10.28
design flow and are stable enough to resist se
Vented Irish Crossing
vere erosion or scour. Erosion, should it occur,
can cause unsightly and unsafe conditions.
2. Design Criteria In order to reduce the amount of erosion oc
The designer shall use the following criteria for curring, the channel must be protected with a
stable lining. There are a wide variety of chan
investigating and designing low water cross
,:
ings: nel linings that may be used to stabilize the
channel. Vegetation, rock riprap, and concrete
~
271
1.10 F
lined channels are often used as a means for side slopes and the bottom width, is easily
permanent protection and stabilization. constructed.
This section will outline design criteria recom
mended for design of small drainage channels
V-shaped channels are susceptible to erosion
and have low hydraulic capacities. The
(
as well as discuss some of the advantages and natural process of erosion and siltation will
disadvantages of the various linings. Design usually shape an unlined trapezoidal chan
procedures and appropriate design charts are nel to an approximate parabolic shape.
also included. Local soil conditions, grade (slope) and flow
2. Design Considerations depths within the channel are usually the
a. There are many factors that must be con primary consideration in channel design;
sidered in design of a drainage channel. A however, terrain and safety considerations
design frequency must be selected for the will have considerable influence. Unlined
channel lining. The frequency will vary for channels are seldom constructed with side
the class of road and the type of channel slopes steeper than two horizontal to one
(roadside ditch, small drainage channel, vertical. A rectangular shape is the most ec
etc.). In addition the grade, channel align onomical to build, but the use of this shape
ment, channel shape, and freeboard are im is normally limited to areas with limited
portant considerations. right-of-way or in areas outside the clear
recovery zone (see 2-1.15) where safety
• Grade hazards can be minimized.
The grade or vertical alignment of the ditch
must be considered. The grade affects both
the size of the channel required to carry the
flow and the velocity at which the flow oc
curs. The vertical alignment of a new chan
nel should be as consistent as possible with
• Design Frequency
Roadway ditches shall be designed for a 10
year frequency storm. Small channels and
stream realignments shall be designed for a
100-year frequency on expressways, a 50
year frequency on arterials and collectors
•
the profile of the existing channel. If the
and a 25-year frequency on local roadways.
grade is changed considerably, erosion or
deposition may occur. Erosion will occur • Freeboard
when the new channel is steepened from a Freeboard is the vertical distance between
flat approach grade and deposition will oc the level of the water surface at design flow
cur when the grade is flattened from a steep and the top of the channel. For roadside
approach grade. The grade will vary with ditches 0.2 meter of freeboard shall be pro
the roadway profile. However, the minimum vided. For small channels 0.3 meter of free
grade should be approximately 0.5 percent, board shall be provided.
with the grade kept constant or increasing in

the downstream direction to prevent deposi b. Channel Linings
tion. Channel linings are used primarily to resist
• Channel Alignment the erosive forces of flowing water. Linings
A straight channel is the best alignment

since it does not provide any obstacle to the
may also help improve the hydraulic effi
ciency of the channel and reduce mainte

nance. Channel linings vary in durability,
flowing water and offers less opportunity for hydraulic roughness, cost, and appearance.
the water to pick up a large amount of Linings may be classified as rigid, such as
bedload material for deposition further concrete; or flexible, such as rock riprap.
downstream. Any required changes should

be as gradual as the right-of-way ap.d terrain Rigid channel linings have a high capacity
permits. Changes in alignment should be for small cross sectional areas since they are
made in sections with flatter grades. A grad generally quite smooth and thus have a low
ual change in alignment will reduce the an hydraulic resistance. However, these smooth
gle of attack on the channel side slope. linings usually cause higher flow velocities
with scour occurring at the end of the lining.
• Channel Shape They also inhibit natural infiltration. The
Channel shapes are generally determined for initial construction cost of rigid linings is
a particular location by considering the usually greater than the cost of flexible
available right-of-way, terrain, and quantity linings. Maintenance costs may also be high
of flow to be conveyed. Channels which do because rigid linings are susceptible to dam
not require a rigid lining at the time of con age by hydrostatic uplift, undercutting, and
struction are usually of a trapezoidal shape. erosion along the edges of the lining.
This shape, depending on the dimensions of Rigid linings may be undesirable in areas (
272
1.10 F
where water quality considerations are of seeding. Sod is generally more expensive
major concern. Runoff contaminates may be than seeding, but it has the advantage of
r; transported to the receding waters whereas providing immediate protection. Some type
vegetative or flexible lining may filter the of temporary lining is often required to pre
"
contaminates from the runoff. vent the seed and channel from eroding until
vegetation is established.
Flexible linings are less expensive to con
struct, have self-healing qualities which re In order to determine if a channel lining will
duce maintenance costs, permit infiltration be necessary, the capacity of an unlined
and exfiltration, and present a more natural channel shall be made. Figures 1.10.29 and
appearance and safer roadside. Flexible 1.10.30 allow the designer to calculate the
linings are limited in the depth of flow which channel capacity. The procedure for deter
they can accommodate without erosion oc mining capacity is outlined in the section
curring, and thus have limited capacity. below. A guide for determining the soil
erodibility is as follows:
However, the required capacity can gener
ally be obtained by a minor adjustment in • Sandy, noncohesive soils tend to be very
the channel geometry. Various species of erodible.
grass may be used as permanent flexible • Large grained gravel-clay-silt mixtures are
channel linings, if flow depths and soil types erosion resistant.
..
are within acceptable limits for vegetation. • Mixtures of sand, clay, and colloids are
The turf may be established by sodding or moderately erodible.
""l]11Tdilii! i!l!l!iir'i1··!'I!!!J!''' "'!,'''!! ! ! I! "i !1!!!I"t:U'!I~~1'i!LJ;:inilT

, ~ ! ! I ':!: I' 'I ',I':I'i'l :: 1 ! 1i .... .. ...il11"WJ11 t J::!!j:;:j;;~I:;:
1; • •••• . . I •• . ~ _ •. -1_ ..• 1 •••
I'"
.60 , ~il""I!'!J:'!l! ! I! iil::'I!!!1!!!!., "!!!'I'o:!I' !,IA:!'Ji:iib'
. ...
~
.40
.30
E
-j
....t··· ..
I
..... ....··.!:
.,.. :: :"::r:·
.. ",:1::::j::
"0
£
E .20
_
.. \.. "",... . . . . . - . ; ; ; ; ; .
'1
·1'
rx·· ....
.. .. '"
.
'"
"N".. . .
""Q"
~
.
11=
g-
o
'j'
.
.~t-..."
'I~
.... .... "~~9;
~~
"'1
.
.
I.r"' ~~ ..
~ ;. .. · i ' - " " ; ' < h
- , ........ ·">-'h
t..: .10 'i' '- K ,. !!!' !'~I

.~ .08 ii' i " " "'~/rJ,y ~K ' , , J
:...••••
. ':'
( Cll
""
"'" .06
.,.
'0'
.05.......
.. '
..
I
' ~~s_·:
x
...;:'/ .
~
"
" ". '.:'

I........
"I . ~
.• "
.....
I
'.1
·,1::::1
.. ... I:::~
iiii;;,
.
.04 i •• ' , : ? .':.'i ""i-.. : t i: ,
.03 '1' :::: ". .:: ..... " t-...:

.. :.. .,
1 1···T.'1'ClI
'1"::/ ::~
.I , ~
.....:: ~ . :::..
:~
'~I
'j:1'
..L - . ••• 'Is; • ' . "' ' ..
.02 I I II1
I I1 I111 I 1·1 .. 1111·1·1 ....••• ",,-. . . ..i";. .
.0003 .0004 .0006001 .002 .003 .004 .006 .01 .0203 .04
Channel Slope, So (m/m)
Figure 1.10.29
Maximum Permissible Depth of Flow (d max )
For Unlined Channels
273
1.10 F
3.0
a. Perform hydrologic computations.
/ b. Select design flow for lining material.
2.5
Cha nel lope, So
V
/' c. Estimate soil erodibility.
d. Define channel shape, slope, and maxi
('
n~ mum top width.

/'
/ IN>"'"
/ e. Select least costly lining material availa
2.0
ble.
Ui" / V ./
f. Determine d max for the selected lining,
V ~
""
>
E
1.5
/ /' ./ slope, and soil erodibility from Figure
1.10.31.
~
'0
0
/ V ./
V g. Determine hydraulic radius, R, and area,
Qi V V V A, for the selected channel geometry and
> / ./
1.0 d max .
V/ ~ ,/'
h. Determine velocity from R and slope, So,
/,i j from the Figure 1.10.32.
0.5 i. Determine the allowable discharge, Q =
!II AY.
f j. If the allowable Q is much greater than the
.0
o design Q, the channel is overdesigned. If Q
o 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.24 0.30
is less than the design Q, the lining is inade
Hydraulic Radius, R (m) quate. In either case, select another channel
size and return to step (e) or select another
Figure 1.10.30
lining material and return to step (t). Also,
Flow Velocity for Unlined Channels
consider the feasibility of additional inlets to
reduce the flow in the channel.
3. Flexible Lining Design
The computation sheet, shown in Figure
The design procedure for flexible channel 1.10.33, has been developed to facilitate the
linings and the design procedures for providing above design procedure.
protection are outlined in the following steps:
to
( ','
"
274
.05
.02
.01
\
:[
"0
E
.005
J::.
a.
QJ
0
~
0
u::
E
::J
E
x .002
co
~
.001
-r .0005
.004 .006 .01 .02 .03 .04 .06 .08 .1 .2

Channel Slope So (m/m)
Figure 1.10.31
Maximum Permissible Depth of Flow
For Channels Lined with Rock Riprap
275
')
v= 20.76 R2/35 0 1/2
n =
0 50 1/6
0.04817 0 50 1/6
I I I I I 7
/ I I
)
-;;;
E
> 3
.i
'0
o
Qi
>
o
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Hydraulic Radius, R (m)
Figure 1.10.32
Flow Velocity for Channels Lined with Rock Riprap
(Slopes (So) = 0.01 to 0.10, D so = 0.1 m to 0.5 m)
-)
276
_-'~--_ ....._-' --=-:~~~ ~~'.'-J--'--"-o:'"-~ ~,_)..I!"~"- ,.~.~ . ' c -~.

(

Ministry of Communications -1
Project Date:
Station To Station Designer:
Drainage Area = ha
Hydrologic Computations:
Design Flow: Q = m3 /s
Channel Slope: So =
Max. Top Width: m
Channel Description:
Lining dmaJ( B A R V Q=AV T Remarks
~
(
'"
Figure 1.10.33
277
1.10 F
4. Rock Riprap If concrete-lined channels are used, the effect
Riprap is graded stone placed on a prepared of the high velocity flow at the channel outlet
channel in such a way that segregation will not

take place. Rock riprap is a flexible lining that
must be considered and some provision made
to dissipate the excess energy. Otherwise, ero (
may be used not only in small drainage chan sion might occur at the channel outlet, result
nels but also larger streams. Riprap is flexible ing in damage to embankment slopes or under
and will adjust itself to uneven settlement or mining the channel outlet.
minor erosion of the bed material. The appear As was pointed out earlier, concrete-lined
ance of the channel is natural and vegetation channels are also susceptible to damage by
may grow through the rocks, adding some hydrostatic uplift, undercutting, and erosion
structural stability to the channel. on the top of the lining.
The resistance of riprap to displacement by Concrete-lined channels built on steep slopes
flowing water depends upon many factors. The shall be anchored to the subgrade by cutoff
most important is that of depth of flow for the walls at both the upper and lower ends of the
design discharge. The steepness and soil type channel. The cutoff wall also minimizes ero
of the slope are also important. Other factors sion underneath the lining. The absence of a
that are important include the weight, size, cutoff wall at the outlet often results in the loss
shape, and composition of the individual of part of the concrete lining.
stones as well as the gradation of the riprap.

Since scour is not likely on concrete-lined
•
"R iprapis designed by determining the mean channels for the velocities normally encoun
'ne size, 0\0, of the gradation, Figure tered in drainage, permissible depth of flow is
1.10.31. 0\0 is the particle diameter of which not the major parameter used in design. The
50 percent of the mixture is finer by weight depth and velocity of flow for a given dis
and is given in meters. charge can be determined from Manning's

The thickness of the riprap blanket shall be at equation. Channel geometry, slope, and hy
least equal to the maximum size stone in the draulic roughness of the channel must be
gradation and is often selected as twice the known to make this computation.
mean stone size of the gradation. It is neces Figure 1.10.34 will aid in designing a concrete
sary to provide a filter blanket between riprap lined channel of adequate capacity. For a given
and base material. This blanket helps prevent drainage project, the flow rate (Q), Manning's
leaching of fine materials through the voids of coefficient (n), and the channel slope (S) will be
the riprap blanket. The filter blanket may be known or assigned. A trial value of the bottom
either a granular filter material or a plastic width (b) is assumed, and the Qn value is
woven filter cloth. calculated. b8/3S1/2
5. Concrete-Lined Channels
The figure is entered with this value, and the
Concrete-lined channels are the most com
dlb value is read from the appropriate side
monly used rigid linings. Concrete linings are slope curve. If the resulting design is not satis
''1erally used for protection against erosion factory, the bottom width is adjusted and the
_.1 steep slopes; however, they are sometimes
used on very flat slopes to increase the velocity
design repeated.
Many times in highway drainage design
(
of flow to a nonsilting velocity or to reduce the
size of channel to carry the design discharge. trapezoidal channels with different side slopes
Although these channels have some advan are used. By averaging the side slopes and in
tages, they are very susceptible to failure. terpreting between the side slope curves, a very
Therefore, use of concrete-lined channels is not close approximation to the correct dlb ratio
recommended where flexible linings will work. can be obtained.
278
1.10 F
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6. Energy Dissipation This erosion problem may also exist at the

Erosion at culvert outlets can be a serious termination of a lined channel. Various types
problem. A culvert increases velocities above of energy dissipators can be used to reduce
those in the natural stream, causing erosion in outlet velocities and protect the outlet channel.
the outlet channel. This problem is most seri The design procedures for five different types
ous with concrete structures, especially sec of energy dissipators are included in this sec
tional concrete pipe. When a scour hole at the tion. They are a natural scour hole, a rigid
outlet occurs, each section drops off in turn boundary basin, a 51. Anthony Falls stilling
until the roadway shoulder is undercut and
basin, an impact basin, and a riprap basin.
loses its support.
279
.... ;. - .. ~"'""'-- . , ".~··_~·:","_~L ;;..- ,+
1.10 F
Energy dissipator design is not a series or pro sion hazard and to serve as input criterion
gressive design. One cannot try a particular for determining energy dissipator needs.
dissipator, and if it doesn't work, try another
one, and so on until one is found that does
This scour prediction method was derived
from model tests conducted by the United
(
work. Chances are, any number of dissipators
States Army Corps of Engineers. Empirical
are going to work at a particular site. What
equations defining the relationship between
must be done is to design all of the dissipators
the culvert outlet, Froude number, time, cul
that meet the applicable design conditions, and
vert size, and the length, width, depth, and
determine their performance characteristics.
volume of a scour hole are presented.
The selection is then based on the dissipator
that is most efficient, cheapest, and best fits the The investigation indicated that scour hole
channel geometry. geometry vaired with tailwater conditions.
All conditions could be adequately de
a. Natural Scour Hole
scribed using two categories-tailwater less
This method will determine the size of a than half the culvert diameter or minimum
natural scour hole which will form at the tailwater conditions; and tailwater equal to
outlet of drainage structures assuming a or greater than one-half the culvert diameter
downstream sand-bed channel. This infor or maximum tail water condition. (Figures
mation is intended to serve as a measure 1.10.35 and 1.10.36).
ment for comparison with the potential ero-
0.2
0.4
Flow
- ,.,/ Original ground line
•
h s 0.6
hsm
0.8
1.0
1.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Ls
Dimensionless Centerline Profile Lsm
0
m / Original ground line
0.2 (
0.4
h s 0.6
hsm
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Ws
Dimensionless Cross Section at 0.4 L. m Wsm
Figure 1.10.35
Dimensionless Scour Hole Geometry for Minimum Tailwater
280
1.10 F
Flow
1-- Original ground line
0
(
0.2
0.4
~ 0.6
hom
0.8
1.0
1.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.0
L.
Dimensionless Centerline Profile Lsm
Original ground line
~ Culvert ~
~
I
Ws
Dimensionless Cross Section at 0.4 Lam Wsm
Figure 1.10.36
Dimensionless Scour Hole Geometry for Maximum Tailwater
For use in Figures 1.10.35 and 1.10.36:

h s = Predicted scour depth
Scour Geometry = ex(3.28 Ye) 'Y (1.8 I ~) 13 t
Ye~'
°
h sm = Measured scour depth The coefficients ex, 13, 0, and 'Y vary depend
L s = Predicted scour length
.(~
.... L sm = Measured scour length
ing upon the parameter desired-length,
width, depth, or volume of scour. Table
.e".
Ws = Predicted scour width 1.10.6 provides the coefficients for use in the
Wsm = Measured scour width equation.
The general expression for determining The time variable is estimated based on
scour geometry for a pipe flowing full is knowledge of peak flood duration. Lacking
Scour geometry = ex (3.28 D)'Y (1.81 ~)
this knowledge, it is recommended that a
13f O maximum time of 30 minutes be used in the
equation. The tests indicated that approxi
Where D is the diameter or width of culvert mately 2/3 of the 24-hour scour occurred in
in meters and t is the time in minutes. Re the first 30 minutes of flow duration. It
placing the diameter, D, by an equivalent should be remembered that the time repre
depth Ye = ( ~ )112, an area where the width sents the duration of the peak discharge, i.e.,
a constant discharge, equal to the peak,
is twice the depth of flow, makes the predic flowing for that time period.
tion procedure applicable to any shape of
Example Problem
conduit.
Ye = ( ~ fl2 = ( 7T~1 r
2 Determine the scour geometry (maximum
length, width, depth, and volume of scour)
for aIm square box culvert discharging
"
281
1.10 F
2.5 mYS on a 1 percent slope. The down Table 1.10.6
stream channel is composed of sand-silt-clay Natural Channel Scour Estimate
mixture. The tailwater depth is 0:4 m. The
area of flow at the culvert outlet is 0.67 m 2.

General Equation Depth, Width, Length,
Or Volume = (
y~" )/l IS
The taiIwater depth is less than 0.5 the cul
vert height D. ex: (y.)Y (
A )1/2 (067)1/2
Ye ="2
( = ~ = 0.579 m Maximum Coefficients
Scour Hole
Estimate time to be 30 minutes. Dimension ex:: ~ e 'Y
Obtain a, {3, 'Y, and () from Table 1.10.6. Depth (h s )
TW < 0.5D 0.25 0.375 0.10 1.0
Scour Geometry = 0::(3.28 Ye) 'Y ((1.81 ~)
5/2
{3t() TW > 0.5D 0.23 0.375 0.10 1.0
Ye
Width (Ws )
Depth of scour:
TW < 0.5D 0.17 0.915 0.15 1.0
hs = 0.25[3.28(0.579) ]l'o
TW > 0.5D 0.12 0.915 0.15 1.0
1.81(2.5)]0.375 (30)0.10
Length (Ls)
[
0.579 5/2 TW < 0.5D 0.51 0.71 0.125 1.0
TW > 0.5D 0.87 0.71 0.125 1.0
hs = 1.96 m
•
Volume (V s)
Width of scour: TW < 0.5D 0.0082 2.0 0.375 3.0
Ws = 0.17 [3.28(0.579) ]l'o TW > 0.5D 0.0068 2.0 0.375 3.0
[(1.81 (2. 5~1 0.915 (30)0.15 Note: Maximum duration of peak discharge (t) is 1,440
5/2 minutes (24 hours).
[ 0.579 ]
Ws = 7.47 m
b. Rigid Boundary Basin
Length of scour:
A rigid boundary basin uses staggered rows
Ls = 0.51 [3.28(0.579) ]l'o of roughness elements to slow down the ve
locity of the flow before it is released back
[(1.81(2.5)1 0.71 (30)0.125
into the natural channel.
[ 0.579 5/2 ]
Ls = 11.4 m The following formulas are used in the design
of the basin (see below):
Volume of scour:
Vs =0.0082 [3.28(0.579) )3.0
[(1.81(2.5)1 (30)°·375
[ 0.579 5/2 ]
Vs = 63.3 m 3
(
Formulas Used in Design of Basin
2 2
1 V Q+C ( Yo ) W = CBArN p VA + V Q + 'YQ2
. P o p 'Y 2 0 2 P B 2V B2W B
2
2 C p 'YYo W o + V Q+ (. e)= C BA rNpV A2 + 'YQ2 + V Q
. 2 P o w SIn 2 2V 2W
B B
P B
Q
3. 2WoSo + YA +
(0.25)\WAYA
2g = Yo + 0.25 ( ~;2 )
where W A = W 0 (3F~+ 1)
B (I-WA)]
4. w = (YoWo + yAWA)W o + (.75LQ) [(Nr-l)- W

'Y VB (Wo-3) W B
5.u e 4 (1O)~
=:;+ --=;- W o (
1.10 F
Where Cp= The momentum correction ,:-oef e) ue-Divergence
ficient for the pressure at th-.' cul f) CB-Basin drag
vert outlet (Figure 1.10.42)
( 'Y & p = Unit weight and density or wa
ter, respectively
g) At = Wlh-Element frontal area
h) Cp-From Figure 1.10.42
Yo, Yo, i) L B = 2(W o) + LN r
and W o = Depth, velocity, and culvert
width, respectively, at culvert (5) Compute Y B.
outlet a) If the downstream channel width is
VA = The approach velocity at two approximately equal to W 0, compute
culvert widths downstream of
CBAtN from equation (1) or (2).
the culvert outlet
VB& W B =Exit velocity and basin width Use (I) if the channel slope is less than
just downstream of the last row 10 percent and (2) for slopes greater
of roughness elements than 10 percent.
N = Total number of roughness ele
ments in the basin Also compute CBAtN from values in
At = Frontal area of one full r\)ugh Step 4. If the latter value is equal to or
ness element greater than the value from (1) or (2),
CB = Basin drag coefficient design is satisfactory. If less, return to
Q = Design flow Step 2 and select new design.
e = Arc tan of the channel sl0l'c. So
Nr = Number of rows of roughness b) If channel width is greater than WB,
elements compute VB from equation (1) or (2) and
~. L = Longitudinal spacing bt.'lween
rows of elements
compare with downstream flow to deter
mine controlling VB. Compute YB and
YA = Approach depth of flow al two compare with TW. If TW > YB, TW
culvert widths downstream from controls.
the culvert outlet
w = Weight of water within tht' l'asin (6) Sketch the basin.
WA = Width of the basin at two cIII\'ert a) Elements are symmetrical about
widths downstream from the
culvert outlet centerline
Ue = Flair divergence b) Lateral spacing approximately equal
to element width
Fr
TW
= Froude number(?
= Tailwater depth gy
V
The following design steps shall be used:

c) :1 ratio between 2 and 8
d) Minimum of half of the rows with

(1) Compute Vo and Yo using the ml'lhods elements near walls
outlined in 2-1. lOB andlor 2-1.1OC. Com e) Stagger rows
pute F r at the culvert outlet.
(7) Determine riprap protection require
(2) Select a basin from Figure 1.10.37 ments downstream of basin. Use 2-1.1OF3
that fits the site geometry. Choose for guidance.
( WB h
-,numberofrows,Nr,N, - alld -.
W o Ya
L
h
Example Problem
Given: 2.5 X 2.5 m box culvert: Length =
(3) Determine VA and YA by using Fi~ures 70 m, slope = 0.02, design Q = 40 ml/s.
1.1 0.38, 1.10.39, 1.10.40, and 1.1 0..+ 1 for Assume N = 0.013, computed critical
W
B depth (Yc) = 3.0 m, normal depth = 1.8 m.
4%< --<8%.
Wo Natural Channel: Width = 12.5 m, Q =
B 40 m l Is, TW = 1.0 m.
For W <4%, use Figures 1.10.38 or

Wo
1.10.39 to determine VA and compme YA Find: A dissipator basin that will provide
by equation (3). a transition from the 2.5 m wide culvert to
the 12.5 m wide natural channel. Reduce
For slopes> 10% use equation (3) tn find the velocity to approximately the down
both VA and YA. stream level.
(4) Determine dissipator parameters. (1) Culvert outflow conditions.

a) h-Element height a) Yo = Yn = 1.8 m
b) L-Length between rows 40
c) WB-Basin width
b) V o = V n = Q
YnWB (1.8)(2.5)
d) WI-Element width = element spac = 8.9 mls
ing
283
1.10 F
2
c) F-~ VQ + C p Y Y0 W 2 = CBAtN p VA2
r -( )1/2
gyo P 0 2 2
8.9
[(9.8)(1.8) ]1/2
= 2.1 + p VBQ + ---..Y....Q:
2V 2W B B (
(2) Select basin configuration from Figure g=L
p
1.10.37. Channel width/culvert width = Dividing entire equation by p results
12.5 = 5 with:
2.5 2
V Q + CpgYo2Wo = CBArNVA + V Q + ~
. ratio,
. - W= B 5,WI - = 063 o 2 2 B 2V B2W B
T ry expansIOn . ,
Wo Wo
h L (8.9)40 + (0.7)(9.8)(1.8)2 2.5 = CBAtN (9.1)2 + (3.2)40 +
Nr = 4 N = 15 - = 071 -= 6 2 -2
, 'YA" h
(9.8)40 2
(3) Flow conditions at beginning of
2(3.2)212.5
roughness field; 2Wo or 2 X 2.5 = 5 m
from culvert exit. CBArN = 4.70
From Step 4
a) VA = 1.02 from Figure 1.10.38
C B = 0.42, N = 15, A r = 0.72
Vo
CBNA r = 4.54 < 4.70

b) ~ = 0.35 from Figure 1.10.40
•
Yo
Try 5 rows with same h and return to
VA = 8.9(1.02) = 9.1 mls
Step 4. YA
YA = 1.8(0.35) = 0.63 m
(4) Repeated.
(4) Determine dissipator parameters.
a) h = 0.45 m
h L =
a) - = 0.71; h = 0.71(0.63) = 0.45 m b) 2.7 m
YA c) WB= 12.5 m
b) --.!:.- = 6; L = 6(0.45) = 2.7 m d) WI = 1.6 m
h
e) Ue - 2
WB
c) - = 5; W B = 5(2.5) = 12.5 m
f) C B = 0.38
Wo
g) At = 0.72 m 2
d) WI = 0.63; WI = 0.63(2.5) =
h) C p = 0.7
Wo
i) L B = 2(2.5) + 5(2.7) = 18.5 m
1.58 m, Use 1.6 m

(5) CBArN = (0.38)(0.72)(19) = 5.20
e) u =±+ IOL =±+ 10(2.7) = 2.11 use 2
>4.70
e 7 7Wo 7 7(2.5) ,
f) CB = 0.42 from Figure 1.10.37
Design is satisfactory.
g) Ar = (1.6)(0.45) = 0.72 m 2
(6) Sketch basin and distribute roughness
h)
i)
Cp
LB
=
=
0.7 from Figure 1.10.42
2(2.5) + 4(2.7) = 15.8 m
elements Figure 1.10.43.
-WI = -1.6 = 3.56 ,w h'IC h'IS b etween

(
(5) Since the channel and the dissipator h 0.45
are equal in width, the CBAtN value will 2 and 8 so it is acceptable.
be computed directly from Equation (1). (7) Since the design matches the down
Yn downstream = 1m stream conditions, minimum riprap will
40 be required.
VB = (12.5)(1) = 3.2 mls
284
(
6
5
4
3 3
2 2
1
2Wo
~
---1 Wo f
~ We/W o
W,/W o
2 to 4
.57
5
.63
6
.6
7
.58
8
.62
No. rows (N,) 4 5 6 4 5 6 4 5 6 5 6 6
No. Elements (N 14 17 21 15 19 23 17 22 27 24 30 30
h/Y A L/h Ce for Roughness Element Dissipators
m 0.91 6 0.32 0.24 0.28 0.32 0.28 0.24 0.31 0.27 0.23 0.26 0.22 0.22
"3
0.71 6 0.44 0.40 0.37 0.42 0.38 0.35 0.40 0.36 0.33 0.34 0.31 0.29
'"
c
m
r; 0.48 12 0.60 0.55 0.51 0.56 0.51 0.47 0.53 0.48 0.43 0.46 0.39 0.35
a:'" 0.37 12 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.62 0.60 0.62 0.68 0.55 0.54 0.50 0.45
0.91 6 0.21 0.20 0.48 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.18 0.16
m 0.71 6 0.29 0.27 0.40 0.27 0.25 0.23 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.22 0.20
"3
~ 0.31 6 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.30 0.28
U 0.48 12 0.45 0.42 0.25 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.30 0.28
0.37 12 0.52 0.50 0.18 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.44 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.36
Figure 1.10.37
Design Values for Roughness Element Dissipators
'(
....:
..
-
285
(
I
1.8~
~ Note:
This chart is
1.6)~ ....... only good for
l- I'--. L:C; 3B
I'--.
1.4
1.2
I
..........
~ ,
VA 1.0)
I-
~ ~ ,.......",.
Vo -VA = 1.65 -0.3 F, - /

V ~
~
I-
•
Vo
0.8
0.6i
~ -
I-
0.4
I-
0.2
I-
t J I I I I I I I I I I I
o 0.5 1.0 1.5
2.0 2.5 3.0
Vo
F,= ~
L = Distance to desired velocity

B = Width of culvert
Yo
YA
Vo
VA
=
=
=
Brink depth
Average depth of flow
Velocity at culvert outlet
Average velocity in expansion
(
~Lj
=
)?=tv. t I
Yo YA
Figure 1.10.38
Average Velocity for Abrupt Expansion Below Rectangular Outlet
~
286
(
--,
r
1.8
- Note: .
This chart IS
1.6 I ' only good for -
.........
L:O; 3D
1.4
r-
r".
..........
~
r
1.2
VA 1.0
-
" r'-....
-
"'" /'r".
Vo
0.8 ~
~ 0.6
I
~ .........
~
"'" "
r
0.4 "; = 1.65-0.45 ( )
-
0.2
0
I i I 1 I I I 1 I I I i l I i ...L
0.5 1.0 1.5
Q 2.0 2.5 3.0
F, = vQ55
L = Distance to desired velocity

-----------
{
D =
Yo =
YA =
Vo =
Diameter of culvert
Brink depth
Average depth of flow
Velocity at culvert outlet
f
D ~
VA = Average velocity in expansion
~Lj
)f-- Yo
f
YA
I
Figure 1.10.39
Average Velocity for Abrupt Expansion Below Circular Outlet
287
(~
1.0
--
I I I I I i i
."", ....
'"
0.8 I I I I" I I >' I
0.6
YA
Yo
0.4 I I *' I ........,. .-"""r I

----- I
•
0.21 ~ I I I
0.0 I ! ! I ! I I , ! ! I I ,
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Vo
F,= ~
~
(
B = Width of culvert
= (D) for pipe
L = Distance to desired depth
measured in multiples of (B)
Yo = Brink depth
YA = Average depth of flow
~ll
)=1= * Yo YA
I
Figure 1.10.40
Average Depth for Abrupt Expansion Below Rectangular Culvert Outlet
(
288
· - 5 '....,.. °-4i~:,.Tili..i"~~_. - ".' ~jfflj,"C_';'.»':'" ';:;'...-:.\ .-,.;~~;.J6:"i,;." 'c~: ·;";;··'::;j.:~::"··''-~;-''-;;:-;:':~'':~l~~~'2::~':''''';·',£.;..~::~'';:':''~.~.':''
•.. . : :. .... ;T-~._,_.'_<:'~_';',"---_J' ,....,.~ ..-:.
1.0
,. ,. ,."
~
"
0.8
0.6
•
VA
Vo
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Vo
F, = v9Yo
o = Diameter of culvert
L = Distance to desired depth
measured in multiples of (D)
Vo = Brink depth
VA = Average depth of flow
~L1
)=1= t Vo VA
J
Figure 1.10.41
L
.~
Average Depth for Abrupt Expansion Below Circular Culvert Outlet
{
~
289
1.10 F
Eo = C.V o + a oV2 0
2.5m
29
1.1
Mo -- CpyyoA
2
o + ~opQVo
(
•0
1.0
.., ao
~
0 /30
<:Q.
ii
0 ~ 0
0.9
"c:
ell i
Q
C. 0
.;
~ " • •
o •
-1
~
0.8
cJ 0
0
0.7
• • 0
Co
0
• • •
----17::~T -
0.6 I I I I I I I 1 I 1 I 1
I 18.5 m
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4
- - -
o
Fo = - -
V
~
A. Rectangular Culverts
1.2
1.1
1.0
ao
/30
"it ~ f-.. In _
1 ,...
- I
-
I• I o~~dgat)()~O
0.9
0.8
Cy Ib 12.5m
~D~~~OO~
<:I6 Q "Jm,d Riprap
":JOp<)O '::>Clo~
<:Q.
0
0.7
~ ~. 0
o~9DI)
.go",
" ~
ii
0
• • Figure 1.10.43
-g 0.6 Co
ell Rigid Boundary Basin
J 0.5
cJ 0.4
~ 0
0
c. St. Anthony Falls Basin
~} ~ 0
• •
0
0.3 Watts The St. Anthony Falls or SAF stilling basin
0.2
•• is a generalized design that uses a hydraulic
jump to dissipate energy. The design is based
0.1 on model studies conducted by the Soil Con
servation Service at St. Anthony Falls Hy
o
draulic Laboratory of the University of Min
o 2 3 4
1.8
5
(---.9.-)
6 7 8 9 10
nesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
(
0 0
5/2 The design provides special appurtenances,
B. Circular Culverts
chute blocks, baffle or floor blocks, and an
Figure 1.10.42
Energy and Momentum Coefficients
(
290
1.10 F
end sill, which allow the basin to be shorter Wingwalls should be equal in height and
than free hydraulic jump basins. It is recom length to the stilling basin sidewalls. The top
(
mended for use at small structures such as
spillways, outlet works, and canals where F r
of the wingwall should have a 1: 1 slope.
Flaring wingwalls are preferred to perpen
= 1.7 to 17. F r is the Froude number at the dicular or parallel wingwalls. The best over
dissipator entrance. The reduction in basin all conditions are obtained if the triangular
length achieved through the use of wingwalls are located at an angle of 50G to
appurtenances is about 80 percent of the free the outlet centerline.
hydraulic jump length.
The stilling basin sidewalks may be parallel
At the design flow, the SAF stilling basin (rectangular stilling basin) or diverge as an
provides an economical method of dissipat extension of the transition sidewalks (flared
ing energy and preventing dangerous stilling basin). The height of the sidewall
streambed erosion. above the maximum tailwater depth to be
expected during the life of the structure is
• Design Recommendations
The width W B of the stilling basin is equal to given by 1.i.
3.
the culvert width W o' For circular conduits,
A cut-off wall of adequate depth should be
W B is the larger of Do or W B = 0.54 (~) used at the end of the stilling basin to pre
vent undermining. The depth of the cut-off
The basin can be flared to fit an existing wall must be greater than the maximum
channel as indicated on Figure 1.10.44. The depth of anticipated erosion at the end of the
sidewall flare dimension "Z" should not be stilling basin.
smaller than 2, i.e., 2:1, 3:1, or flatter.
• Design Steps
The length L B of the stilling basin for
(1) Choose basin configuration and flare di
Froude numbers between F r = 1.7 and F r =
mension, Z.
17 is proportional to the theoretical sequent
depth Yi found from the hydraulic jump (2) Determine if sufficient tailwater is pre
equation Yi = Y1 tv 1 + 8Fr /
sent for the basin to operate properly.
Compute Yi using YI = Yo
2
(VI + 8Frl2 - I)
and L B --~
F O.76
Yi = YJ 2
Compute Y2 by using (i), (ii), or (iii).

The height of the chute block is YI' and the
width and spacing are approximately 0.75y,. (3) Compare Y2 and the tailwater depth,
TW.
Floor or baffle blocks should be staggered
with respect to the chute blocks and should If Y2 is greater than TW, the basin must be
be placed downstream a distance L B /3. dropped into the channel bed. This will pro
They should occupy between 40 and 55 per vide sufficient tailwater to form a hydraulic
jump. If Y2 is less than TW, then a jump will
{
cent of the stilling basin width. Widths and
spacings of the floor blocks for diverging
stilling basins should be increased in propor
occur.
(4) Determine the basins dimensions. Fig
tion to the increase in stilling basin width at ure 1.10.45 shows the location of these di
the floor-block location. No floor block mensions.
should be placed closer to the sidewall than
3YI Estimate a basin elevation, ZI'
8. Choose a basin width, W B.
Select basin slopes, ST and Ss. Slopes of 2: 1
Height of the end sill is 0.07Yh where Yi is or 3: 1 are satisfactory.
the theoretical sequent depth corresponding Calculate YI by using the following equation:
to YI'
Q = y IWB [2g(Zo - ZI + Yo - YI) + Vo2]O.5
The depth of tailwater Y2 above the stilling where Zo = elevation of culvert outlet in
basin floor is vert
(1.1-Fr / )
Fr = 1.7 to 5.5, Y2 = 120 Yi (i) Calculate VI =~
y1W B
Fr = 5.5 to 11, Y2 = 0.85Yi (ii)
Fn =-~-
VI
(1.0-F rI 2) (Ylg)O.5
Fr = 11 to 17, Y2 = 800 Yi (iii)
291
1.10 F
Calculate Yi and Y2 with the corrected values Example Problem

of YI Given
Calculate L B --~
LT = Zo - ZI
0.76
FT}
3 x 2 m box culvert
Q = 10 mJ/sec
So = 6.5 percent
c.
ST Elevation of outlet invert, Zo = 30.5 m
V o = 8.5 mls
Z3 = Zo - (LT + ~: - Z2 ) So Yo = 0.5 m
Downstream channel is a 3m bottom
~ + I trapezoidal channel with 2: I sideslopes
Ss Vn = 5 mls
Note: Z2 = ZI if basin is level
Yn = 0.6 m = TW
Find
This last expression is valid only if Z\ is less
than or equal to Z3' Dimensions for an SAF Basin
If Z2 + Y2 is greater than Z3 + TW, the Solution
basin must be lowered and the trial and er (l) Use a rectangular basin with no flare.
ror process repeated until sufficient tailwater (2) Yi=YI CVI+8Fn 2-1)
exists to force the jump. 2
YI = Yo F r1 = 3.84
Yi = 0.5[(1 + 8(3.84 2))]°.5 = I
•
(5) Calculate L s = Z3 - Z2
Ss
ZO-Z3 2
L = L T + L B + Ls = - = 2.48 m
So (1.1 - F n 2 )
Y2 = 120 Yi (i)
(6) Determine radius to use between culvert
and transition from Figure 1.10.46. 2
(1.1 - 3.82 )
= 2.48
(7) Design Chute blocks. 120
Height; hi = Yl = 2.43 m
Width; W = 0.75 YI
j (3) Since Y2 is greater than TW, 2.43 is
Spacing; W 2 = W \ greater than 0.6. Therefore we need to drop
W the basin.
Number; N c = - B rounded to
2W I whole number (4) Try ZI = 28.0 m
B WB = 3 m
Adjust width as necessary WI = W
2N c ST = Ss = 0.5, 2:1
(8) Design baffle blocks. Calculate YI
10 = 3YI[2(9.8)(30.5-28.0+0.5-YI)+8'y]0.5
Height; H = Yl
j
Width; W] = 0.75 YI YI = 0.30 m

Spacing; W 4 - W) VI
10
- (3) = 11.1 mls
0.3
(
Basin Width; W B2 = W B + 2L B
3z 11.1
W B2
Fn
Number of Blocks; N B = - - rounded to [0.3(9.8)]°·5 = 6.5
2W whole number
j
0.3[(1 + 8(6,52)]°·5 - 1)
Yi
Adjust Width and Spacing; W) = W 4 = ~~~ 2
2.61 m
Check total block width to insure that at Y2 0.85Yi = 0.85(2.61) = 2.22 m
least 40 to 55 percent of W B2 is occupied by 4.5(2.61)
blocks. LB = 6.50.76 = 2.83 m
Distance from chute L (30.5 - 28)
blocks to baffle blocks = ~ L T = 5m
3. 0.5
(5 + ~83 - 28)0.065 ]
(9) End sill height, h 4 = 0.07 Yi
z, ~ [ 305 - .5
(10) Side wall height = Y2 + ~j 0.065 + I
.5
= 29.8 m (.
292
1.10 F
Yz + Zz = 2.22 + 28 = 30.2 d. Impact Basin

TW + Z3 = 0.6 + 29.8 = 30.4 (Solution The impact-type energy dissipator is con
(-- acceptable) tained in a relatively small box-like struc
ture, which requires no tailwater for suc
(5) Ls = (29.8 - 28) = 3.6 m
0.5 cessful performance. Although the emphasis
in this discussion is placed on its use at
L = 5 + 2.83 + 3.6 = 11.4 m
culvert outlets, the structure may be used in
(6) Fro = 3.8 open channels as well.
From Figure 1.10.46, Yo = 0.11

r
:;
0.5
r = -
0.11
= 4.5 m ~
~Le3/81Y' "I
·~l~ectan.gu,ar
Basin width; W B = 3 m
-f-= - --
Basin elevation; ZI = 28 m
basin
Basin length; L B = 2.8 m • half-plan
Total length; L = 11.4 m Equation
*' --
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) number
Incoming depth; YI = 0.30 m
:Q-Jilll
Incoming F r ; F rJ = 6.5
Theoretical jump height; Yj = 2.6 m
Jump height; Yz = 2.2 m basin

Flared
1 •
~
half-plan
(7) Chute Blocks ~ Z
>- 0-100 G
hi =0.3 m ~ ~ 50 G Preferred
WI =0.75 YI = 0.25 m = We
W 3
N c = -B= - - = 6 Sidewall
2W 1 2(.25)
AdJ'usted width W = W B = 1 _
, 1 2N c 2(6)
0.25 Solution acceptable.
Use 5 full blocks, 6 spaces, and a half a
block at each wall.
(8) Baffle Blocks

Chute block
!II!' l .. ~
·····.. y, ~··· ~~.
·....·&>.:1 .'
'1
, f-
I Varies
Z
'
Floor or baffle blocks
~_i..-..i
h 3 = Yl = 0.3 m
f'llt_"ff \AI!:lI1I
W, = 0.75Yl = 0.25 m = W 4
Basin Width; W B2 = W B + 2L B = 3 m
3z (1) We = Basin width upstream
W B2 3 (2) n Blocks at ~ Y, ::t
N B = - - = - - = 6 blocks 4
2W3 2(.25) (3) 0.40W e2 ::; Aggregate block width::; 0.55 We2
( Total Block Width = 6(.25) = 1.5 m

Percent 1 5= 50% Solution acceptable.
(4) n Blocks at 3/4 Y, We2 ::t
+ 2L e
We
3 (5) W e2 = We
3,
This gives 6 blocks, 5 spaces, and a half (6) W e3 = We + 2i e
space at each wall. Distance from chute
block = 2.8/3 = 0.93 m Figure 1.10.44
(9) End Sill SAF Stilling Basin
h 4 = 0.07Yj = 0.07(2.6) = 0.18 m
(10) Side wall
.
HeIght = Yz + -Yj3 = 2 .2 + -2.6
3 = 31m
.
i
\\"
293
""';._ ....::- ...... -,....
, ~
113__
min.
Wo w, (
----"""-
20
2, 22 23
I..
I..
LT .1..
L
Ls .. /... Ls_1
• I
Datum
{[
Figure 1.10.45
Definition Sketch Basin Transition
10.0
'--T'III-l--r----r-·~-- I
:
I
I
r
1.5
I
F'I'og, 11+',/ '
1
8.0
1
I
'\
_.u
Fr I
\
~
(
4.0
~____ I
1- """
----
I
2.0
:----.-~
oI
~-----!,;-±--------!I---±-~l-111
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
VoIr
0.25 0.30 0.35 0040 0045
Figure 1.10.46
F r vs. Voir for Transition
\,
294
~ - - - - - - - -.-------,.... -...~........ ~" -:-~:-~ ..:-~~~-u<'~ ... r~'~~~~.J.o,.":O-:...,.."'2..q:, .. --1tf{'.'¥itl!Ji~"''' . "~ 'ir-43Sf'F~~:;:-'r:;. .
1.10 F
30.5 m
-----
5 t
28.0m
28.0m
~t~.3_.6_mj
t= m ... 11.4 m _2_.8_ _m •• Datum
Figure 1.10.47
Example Problem Sketch

.
••
, ~ ;
• Development of Basin ing the dissipator from a pipe or irregular

The shape of the basin has evolved from shaped conduit must be computed on the
extensive tests, but these were limited in basis of:
range by the practical size of field structures
required. With the many combinations of Ye -
_ (A)
2
1/2
discharge, velocity, and depth possible for

In other words, the cross-section flow area
the incoming flow, it became apparent that
in the pipe is converted into an equivalent
some device was needed which would be
rectangular cross section in which the width
equally effective over the entire range. The
is twice the depth of flow. The conduit pre
vertical hanging baffle proved to be this de
ceding the dissipator can be open, closed, or
vice, Figure 1.10.48. Energy dissipation is
of any cross section. The design method is
initiated by flow striking the vertical hang
enhanced by ignoring the size and shape of
ing baffle and being deflected upstream by
conduit entirely, except for the determina
the horizontal portion of the baffle and by
tion of the depth of flow entering the dissi
the floor, creating horizontal eddies.
pator.
I ,;"
The notches shown in the baffle, Figure

To take a simple case for illustration: sup
1.10.48, are provided to aid in cleaning the
'~·.:o basin after prolonged nonuse of the struc
pose the conduit leading to the dissipator is
,~,: circular and flowing half full, the water area
ture. If the basin is full of sediment, the
will be 7TD 2 /8. The representative depth of
notches provide concentrated jets of water
flow used in computing the energy entering,
for cleaning. The basin is designed to carry
H o , and the Froude number, F r , will be:
the full discharge over the top of the baffle if
the space beneath the baffle becomes com
Ye -
_ (A)
2
1/2
or
( 7TD 2 )
16
1/2
pletely clogged. Although this performance
is not good, it is acceptable for short periods V2
of time. The energy H o = Ye + _0 and the
2g
• Design Discussion Vo
Froude num ber F r = - - /2
The design information is presented as a (gYe)l
simple dimensionless curve, Figure 1.10.49. Experiments have simulated discharges up
It represents the ratio of energy entering the to 11 m J Is and velocities as high as 15 mis,
dissipator to the width of dissipator re and some structures already built have been
quired, plotted with respect to the Froude designed to exceed these values. Thus, the
number. Tests indicate that limited extrapo only limitations are entrance velocity and
lation of this curve is permissible. size of structure. Velocities up to 15 mls can
/. In calculating the energy and the Froude be used without subjecting the structure to
-t:.
,,:. number, the equivalent depth of flow enter damage from cavitation forces. If needed,
"'
295
1.10 F
two or more basins may be constructed side To provide structural support and aid in
by side. priming the device, a short support should
be placed under the center of the baffle wall.
The effectiveness of the basin is best illus
trated by comparing the energy losses within • Design Procedures
(
the structure to those in a natural hydraulic Use of the basin is limited to installations
jump, Figure 1.10.50. The energy loss was where the velocity at the entrance to the
computed based on depth and velocity stilling basin does not exceed 15 mls and
measurements made in the approach pipe discharge is less than 11 m 3/s. This dissipa
and also in the downstream channel with no tor is not recommended where debris or ice
tailwater. Compared with the natural hy buildup may cause substantial clogging.
draulic jump, the impact basin shows a
greater capacity for dissipating energy. 1. From the maximum discharge and veloc
ity, compute the flow area at the end of the
Although tailwater is not necessary for suc approach pipe. Compute Ye for a rectangular
cessful operation, a moderate depth of section of equivalent area twice as wide as
tailwater will improve the performance. For
best performance set the basin so that maxi the depth of flow, Ye = ( ~ ) 1/2
mum tailwater does not exceed h 3 + ~2 2. Compute the Froude number, Fr, and the
(See Figure 1.10.48.) energy at the end of the pipe, H o . Enter the
curve on Figure 1.10.49 and determine the
•
- -"e basin should be constructed horizontal required width of basin, W.
.Jr all entrance conduits with slopes greater
than 17G , a horizontal section of at least four 3. With W known, obtain the remaining di
conduit widths long should be provided im mensions of the dissipator structure from
mediately upstream of the dissipator. Al Table 1.10.7.
though the basin will operate fairly effec Example Problem
tively with entrance pipes on slopes up to

17 G , experience has shown that it is more Given
efficient when the recommended horizontal D = 1.2 m
section of pipe is used. In every case, the So = 0.15
proper position of the entrance invert, as Q = 8.5 m 3/s
shown on the drawing, should be main Find
tained. Impact basin dimensions for use at the out
When a hydraulic jump is expected to form let of a concrete pipe.
in the downstream end of the pipe and the N = 0.015
entrance is submerged, a vent about one Yo = 12.2 mls
sixth the pipe diameter should be installed at Yo = 0.7 m
a convenient location upstream from the

lump. Solution
1. Compute Ye
~or erosion reduction and better basin oper
ation, use the alternative end sill and 50G
wingwall design as shown in Figure 1.10.48.
Ye = (~ r/2
(
For protection against undermining, a cutoff
A =Q =~ = 0.7 m 2
Yo 12.2
wall should be added at the end of the basin. 07)1/2
Its depth will depend on the type of soil Ye = ( 2 = 0.6 m
present. 2. Compute Fr and H o and find W
Riprap should be placed downstream of the F = Yo = 12.2 = 5.0
basin for a length of at least four conduit r (gYe)1/2 (9.8)(0.6)1/2
widths. For riprap size recommendations see V 2 12 22
2-1.IOF. Ho = Ye 2; = 0.6 + 2(9'.8) = 8.2 m
The sill should be set as low as possible to From Figure 1.10.49, H o = 1.68
prevent degradation downstream. For best W
performance, the downstream channel W = 8.2 = 4.88 m
should be at the same elevation as the top of 1.68
the sill. A slot should be placed in the end
sill to provide for drainage during periods of
low flow.
(
296
1.10 F
3. From Table 1.10.7, select the remaining h. = 203 em

dimensions. W,= 38 em
(- hi = 373 em W2 = 91 em
L = 650 em tJ 30 em
h 2 = 183 em t2 30 em
h J = 81 em tl 23 em
L 1 = 277 em t. 30 em
L 2 = 373 em ts 18 em
r
¥l
r -- - -- -- -- I'_- ,r~~~A========Tt11-"-1
Ir-- II
1:1
II
II
II
II --j~
h3/2r-:~ , ~
II II
.
:,3h 3 /.
>;> ;;:::
I---T"'l~
SOG ::
.-! A ---- ;~ h
c
: ::
II II- -.:..t.. ,¥
3
t
II II ....::r.:·; ::.(;:t:.;.;.:,-;:,:,',
- - (I
Sec. A-A
II Ir ---r h3
II II I.
>----,-,:.nIII II
II
W1 M'n.
-. II II
ts---t H-3 ??
T --II W W1
1
II 11:1 t s
20cm II 11 4
. . _
II ~
:onm
.1. __ I
. ~ I I I I I I ~ ISOG
L----r -
;
I L------.....1.-_....J.L ! \
+
L
Plan
Plan
I I
I I
~ t--- 20 em (Max)
I I
I I--4 Dia. (Min.)
I I
I I
( ~
2
h1
t s
,..
'
.
... ,'.
I. "... , .. : .. :',•....•...
y./~:
"
~ .:~: ': :: :~ ~.: :. ~.:.. :~ ~ '.~ ,:~'.':~. :...•~.:.~.. ~:~. ~ :.~.: :..,.~: /:~. .: '0'" • . ' . ' 0'. ' ••.
Section Section
Stilling basin design Alternate end sill
Figure 1.10.48
Baffle Wall Energy Dissipator
297
o
en
o
a:i
~
"
"'"~
'\
\ o
C')
\ Cl
C\J
o
'"
o
N M
°H
\ o
(
90
80I
70I
./
~
V
A... 60I
V ./
" III Impact

V V
>
e'
Q)
~ 50
baSin-y
V
/
V
'0
/
'"
.3'"
40I
J
~
30I
/ /
Hydraulic jump
horizontal floor
20I
(
10
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Vo
Fr = V9Y.
Figure 1.10.50
Energy Loss, Impact Basin, Hydraulic Jump
299
(
Table 1.10.7
Baffle Wall Dissipator
Dimensions of Basin in Centimeters
W hi L h2 hJ L, L2 h. W, W2 tJ t2 t, t. t,
122 94 165 46 20 71 94 51 10 33 15 15 15 15 8
152 117 203 58 25 89 117 64 13 43 15 15 15 15 8
183 140 244 69 30 104 140 76 15 51 15 15 15 15 8
213 165 287 79 36 122 165 89 15 58 15 15 15 15 8
244 188 325 91 41 140 188 102 18 66 18 18 15 15 8
274 211 366 104 46 157 211 114 20 76 20 18 18 18 8
305 234 409 114 51 175 234 127 23 84 23 20 20 20 8
335 257 445 127 56 193 257 140 25 91 23 23 20 20 10
366 279 488 137 61 208 279 152 28 91 25 25 20 23 10
10
.'
~96 305 528 150 66 226 305 165 30 91 25 28 20 25

17 328 569 160 71 244 328 178 33 91 28 30 20 28 13
457 351 610 170 76 259 351 191 36 91 30 30 20 30 13
488 373 650 183 81 277 373 203 38 91 30 30 23 30 18
518 396 686 193 86 295 396 216 41 91 30 33 23 30 18
549 419 729 203 91 312 419 229 41 91 33 33 23 33 20
579 445 772 216 97 330 445 241 43 91 33 36 25 33 20
610 467 810 229 102 348 467 254 46 91 36 36 25 36 23
e. Riprap Basin c) Find depth of basin to equivalent depth

A riprap basin can be an economical means of of flow ratio (~:) from Figure 1.10.51.
providing scour protection at the outlet of a
lined channel or culvert. d) Determine depth of basin, h s , in m by
multiplying the ratio found in step (3) by
(l) The design procedure for a riprap basin the equivalent depth of flow, Yeo
consists of the following steps:

e) Length of basin pool is 10 h s .
a) Determine Froude number at the f) Length of basin apron is 5 h s .
drainage structure outlet. g) Minimum thickness of riprap is 2d 5o .
b) Determine ratio of the mean size of the

gradation of the bed material to the equi (2) The remaining details for the riprap ba
sin can be obtained from Figure 1.10.52.
valent depth of flow (--y;.
d 5o ) (
300
(
v _ Design discharge-Q
ave - Wetted area at brink of culvert
d so = The median size of rock
by weight. 'Rounded rock
or angular rock.
Ye = Equivalent brink depth
Brink depth for box culvert
( ~)V2
2
For non-rectangular
sections
3
I
<t Section
NOTE: 2 ~
h,
~ 4
. d so "J
".
~
I-,
Tw > 0.75
IF
Yo 0%_
I-,
Riprap may be required
2
on banks and channel
bottom downstream ".
from basin
-I •
.c>
Q)
<5
.c
~
o
()
en '"
o·
VI
'0
.c
a.
Q)
bo/:::"•
"0
V/
Q)
.~ o·
«i
W
c:::
(
01 I ( "1" L I I I I
2 3
Vave
Froude Number (F,) = V(9.81)(Y ej
Figure 1.10.51
Relative Depth of Scour Hole Versus Froude Number at Brink of
Culvert with Relative Size of Riprap as a Third Variable
/
~,
301
Note A
If exit velocity of basin is specified. extend basin as required to obtain
sufficient cross-sectional area at Section A-A such that Ode.r(Cross
section area at Sec. A-A) = specified exit velocity.
Note B
Warp basin 10 conform 10 natural stream channel. Top of riprap in
(
floor of basin should be al Ihe same elevalion or lower Ihan natural
channel bottom at Sec. A-A
D·ISSlpa
. t
or poo
I Apron
5 h. or W min.
E 10 D. or 3W min. Note A
;:)
Q) 'E.§ Top of berm.

Top of natural
channel
... -;;-.
-{, d- Ve Tw . \ I I
~ <-., h
S
I Hon
zontal
3 d so • OR 2 dMAx
1.5' MIN 2 dso OR
1.5 dMAx Thickened or sloping
toe optional-conslruct
If downtream channel
<t Section degradation is anlicipated.
~
Note B
Note:
•
W = Diameter for
pipe culvert
Apron W = Barrel width
for box culvert
W = Span of pipe-arch
culvert
Horizontal
r-:. Symm Aboul
_ _ _ _.L...I _..i5-.,.--
~ ~ t!
Half Plan
..... 2 d so OR
\ 1.5 dMAx ~
. ,.·.:·;:·:::···~:;:':Z:~
"
/
Sec. A-A Nalural channel

.., /
Berm as required
10 support riprap
(
"\
~
!....L.L Berm as required Berm as required
to support riprap 10 support riprap
I
~. 2dsoOR1.5dMAx 2 d so OR 1,5 d max
~ r Excavate to Ihis line. Sec. D-D
Backfill wilh riprap.
Figure 1.10.52
Details of Riprapped Culvert Energy Basin
(
302
...- •• -,.~ .. , -.-,,-,--."-,. -.._'-..--.""..... _-,,_.-_~_. ,,w..;..__=-,,,-_'_"~:..~~_., .~.~
1.10 G
G. Storm Sewer Design h. Maximum Length of Pipe

I. General Maximum length of pipe between manholes
(
Storm sewer systems are designed to carry the
is 100 m approximately.
i. Minimum Clearance
surface water of urban highways and city
streets in a closed system into an available Minimum clearance of 15 em is to be used
outfall. The design policy and criteria de between top of pipe and bottom of base ma
scribed in this section is to be used as a guid terial provided that the minimum depth of
ance to those engaged in the design of storm pipe and the external loading on the buried
sewers for the Ministry of Communications. pipelines corresponds to the class of pipe
2. Design Criteria used.
a. Rainfall Frequency and Time of Concen j. Location of Manholes

tration • Wherever necessary to keep maximum
(I) A 5-year recurrent interval is to be length of pipe.
used in the design of an urban storm • At all angles of sewers.

sewer system. • At points where size of sewer changes.
(2) Minimum time of concentration may • At junction of sewer lines.
be assued to be 10 minutes.
k. Location of Trunk Sewers
b. Runoff Curves
Trunk sewers should be located outside the
The intensity-duration-frequency curve pavement area or under the sidewalk when
should be developed as described in Section ever possible, to facilitate future repairs. If
2.07 (Hydrology), Volume I of the HDM. due to utility conflicts, the trunk sewers can
c. Runoff not be laid under the sidewalks the parking
lane area may be utilized and as a last resort
Run-off is that portion of rainfall that is ex under the carriageways.
pected to reach the drainage facility under

design. 1. Inlet Types
The surface water run-off from each catch Standard inlets developed by MOC as de
ment area should be computed using the ra tailed in HDM 4.
tional method as described in HDM-I-2.07. m. Location of Inlets
d. Drainage Area Limitation Inlet types should be placed according to the
Ordinary drainage systems are designed for width of flow on the pavement criteria and
the entire drainage area. However, this is not at low points, superelevation rollovers, flat
justified economically for urban highways areas and upstream of intersections and
and city streets where only the pavement driveways.
area, sidewalks, median and the adjacent n. Efficiency of Inlets

area extending 10 to 30 m on each side is
The efficiency of inlets should be assessed
taken into consideration.

{ e. Pipe Roughness Coefficients
after considering the width of flow, the size
and type of inlet grating, the rainfall and
longitudinal gradient of the road.
See Table HDM 2.07.2 of Volume l.
f. Maximum and Minimum Grades for o. Width of Flow

Pipes The water spread adjacent to the curb shall
(I) The maximum grade will be one that not exceed half a lane or the full parking
will produce a nonscouring velocity of 3 lane or hard shoulders if present, or in the
m/sec and in exceptional cases 5 m/sec. case of steep gradients I m wide.
(2) A minimum grade that will produce a 3. Design Procedure

self-cleaning velocity e.g., I m/sec is de a. Inlet Type Design
sirable to limit silting.
The efficient spacing of road inlets depends
g. Minimum Pipe Sizes on several factors. The main consideration
(I) Minimum pipe size of 15 em is to be are the maximum tolerable flow of water to
used between inlet and main sewer pipe. approach the inlet during storm rainfall and
(2) Minimum pipe size of 30 em is to be the efficiency of the inlet when dealing with
used for main sewer pipe between this flow.
manholes. The following procedure should be adopted
f
for the design of inlet spacings.
l'.
1.10 G
(I) The water flow at the edge of a curbed ing the total area of surface contributing
road can be calculated from the empirical to the flow in a length of pipe.
formula due to Manning.
Q = 1134 W8/3 C5/3 Sl/2
(3) Estimate the weighted runoff co
efficient "c" (
n AICI + A 2 C 2 + ...
h
were C = IA
where Q = flow (m 3/hr)
n = roughness coefficient see tables 2.07.4 and 2.07.5 in Volume 1.
W = width of flow (m) (4) A pipe size is assumed and the pipe
C = crossfall (m/m) full velocity of flow in that pipe is found
S = longitudinal gradient (m/m) based· on the gradient and size of paper.
(2) The drainage area contributing the (5) The time of concentration is the total
water drained by the inlet can then be time of flow up to and including the
calculated from length under consideration plus the time
of entry. A minimum time of concentra
A = 10 EQ tion is taken as 10 minutes.
I (6) The rate of rainfall corresponding to
where A = drained area (m 2) the time of concentration is found from
E = gully efficiency (%) the 5-year return period rainfall intensity
Q = flow (mJ/hr) curve.
I = rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
•
(7) The expected peak rate of flow in the
, ) Finally the inlet spacing can be obtained pipe is then given by the rational formula
by dividing the drained area by the width of Q (m3/sec) = C I A as described in
the road, thereby defining the areas contrib 360
uting to each storm sewer. HDM-I-2.07
b. Storm Sewer Design where C = is the roughness co
efficient
A preliminary plan layout of the proposed A = is the drainage area in (ha)
sewer system should first be prepared show I = is the rate of rainfall
ing lengths of pipes and classified into (mm/h)

branch numbers as shown in Figure 1.10,53,
the following procedure should then be (8) The assumed pipe size is then checked
adopted using Figure 1.10.54 to tabulate the to see if it can carry the expected peak
relevant information. flow, if not, a larger pipe is assumed and
steps 5 to 8 is repeated until a pipe of
(I) A tentative gradient from the first sufficient size is reached.
manhole invert level to the outfall is

drawn to calculate approximate grades of (9) When the pipe size is found to be ade
sewers required and to ensure workability quate to cope with the flow the velocity
of the system, keeping in mind the road can be obtained by using the proportional
way profiles to achieve minimum depths discharge and velocity tables. When the
of excavation.
(2) Outline the complete drainage area
computed velocity falls outside permissi
ble limits then either the slope or the size (
and adding in the contributions from the of the pipe should be revised and the com
branches at the appropriate junctions giv putation is repeated.
304
Stations
1,000
(
1·0
1,100
(
2·0 1 .1
2·1
( 1,200
1.2 3·0
3·1
~ ( 1,300
"
1.3 3·2
1 ·4
q 1,400
1·5
5.0
4·2 4.1
~
1,500
1·6
5.1
( 5·2 5·3
1,600
1·7
1,700
1.8
(
1,800
Outfall
Figure 1.10.53
Plan Layout of Storm Sewer Network
(
Showing Branch Numbers
305
-
The Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia Date
Ministry of Communications Sheet No. __
Project No.
Storm Sewer Design Computations Computed By
Design Storm
"n"
Location Time Time Rainfall

of Pipe Dlff. Area
of of Inten- Pipe Velocity
Pipe Flow
in Length Velocity Flow Cone. sity Flow Dla. Capacity FUiI Velocity Remarks
From Slope Total Cumulative Capacity
To Level (m) (m/sec) (min) (min) (mm/hr) (mm) (m'/sec) Velocity (m/sec)
(m 2 ) (m 2 )
Figure 1.10.54
Storm Sewer Design Computations Form
~" ~
~

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The Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia

Highway pesign Manual

comprising the Highway Design Manual

This manual is one of a series of manuals covering high­ "-.

way design and construction, construction materials,

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Highway Design Manual

Volume 2, Book 1 Design of Roadways

Section 1.01 General 73

Section 1.02 Design Speed 75

B. Design Speed Standards 76

Section 1.03 Highway Capacity and Level of Service 79

'.-"." A. Design Elemen"ts ~,

E. Expressway Ramps and Weaving Sections 100

F. Streets and Intersections 103

Section 1.04 Access Control 119

1. Full Control of Access 119

2. Partial Control of Access 119

3. Approach Road and Driveway Controls 119

D. Warrants for Access Control 119

C. Delineation on the Plans 119

D. Design Criteria 119

2. Multilane Arterials, Multilane Collectors, and Two-Lane Two-Way

a. Access Opening, 120

b. Design Criteria to be Observed 120

c. Access Opening Width 120

3. Two-Lane, Two.J:!!ay· Collector Highways with Design Year ADT

4. Frontage Roads 121

E. Protection of Access Rights 122

Section 1.05 Geometric and Structure Standards 133

A. Sight Distance 133

2. Stopping Sight Distance 133

3. Passing Sight Distance 133

4. Sight Distance Standards 133

5. Measurement of Sight Distance 134

6. Sight Distance for Crest Vertical Curves 134

7. Stopping Sight Distance for Sag Vertical Curves 134

8. Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 135

9. Sight Distance Through Underpasses 135

1. Basic Criteria 138

2. Superelevation Rates 138

3. Axis of Rotation 139

5. Superelevation of Broken Back Curves 139

6. Superelevation of Reverse Curves 140

7. Superelevation Charts 140

8. Superelevation of Shoulders 140

C. Horizontal Alignment 146

1. General Controls 146

2. Standards for Curvature 146

3. Alignment Consistency 146

4. Alignment at Bridges 146

5. Alignment at Intersections and Interchanges 147

7. Transition Curves 147

8. Horizontal Curve Elements 147

D. Curve Widening 148

E. Vertical Alignment 148

1. General Controls 148

2. Grade Standards 149

4. Vertical Curves 149

5. Heavy Grades 149

6. Critical Length of Grade and Climbing Lanes 150

7. Separate Grade Lines 150

8. Grade Line at Structures 150

This manual is one of a series of manuals covering high "-.