Chemical Toxicity

For a better understanding of whether a pollutant may be harmful to living creatures, we need to
understand some basic principles of toxicology. To some extent, all substances are poisons. The right
dose differentiates a poison and a remedy, a “nontoxic” substance can be toxic at a high enough dose, and
a very toxic substance can be safe if the dose is low enough. “The dose makes the poison” is a convenient
rule. However, as we will see, there are exceptions to this rule because many factors affect toxicity in
addition to dose.

Terminology
Toxicant A substance causing adverse effects in a plant, animal, or human. It does so by impairing
vital metabolic functions.
Toxin A toxicant produced by a living organism (microbe, plant, insect, spider, snake, or bird).
The word is often used loosely.
Poison A substance, which, “in small amounts is injurious to health or endangers the life of a
living organism. ”Poison is a synonym for toxicant, but is often used loosely.
Hazardous A hazardous substance may be toxic, corrosive, reactive, flammable, radioactive, or
Substance infectious, or more than one of these. It cannot be harmful unless actual exposure to it
occurs.
Xenobiotic A chemical substance that is foreign to (not synthesized in) the body of the animal
exposed to it.

Acute and chronic toxicity

* Acute toxicity is an adverse effect seen soon after a one-time exposure to a chemical. The effect may be
vomiting, diarrhea, breathing difficulties, irregular heartbeat, poor coordination, or unconsciousness.

* Chronic toxicity results from long-term exposure to lower doses of a chemical or an adverse effect that
happens long after an exposure has ended. Examples: liver cirrhosis resulting from chronic alcohol
ingestion, or a damaged nervous system resulting from chronic mercury exposure, cancer etc.

Exposure to multiple chemicals

Persons, animals, and plants are exposed to more than one chemical at a time, in fact, often
many chemicals. What is the result of multiple exposures?

* The most common effect is additive. This commonly happens when the chemicals in question exert
their effects in a similar manner, as when a person is exposed to several organophosphate pesticides at
a time: each inhibits the activity of a specific enzyme. The chemicals do not interact.
* In synergism the combined effect of two chemicals are greater, sometimes much greater than additive,
i.e., one plus one equals much more than two
▪ Carbon tetrachloride and ethyl alcohol are both toxic to the liver, but exposure to both at the same
time leads to much greater injury than the sum of their individual effects.
▪ Smokers, exposed to asbestos, have a magnified risk of lung cancer as compared to exposed non-
smokers.
* In antagonism one chemical interferes with the action of another – it acts as an antidote
▪ Two chemicals may react with one another to produce a less toxic product such as happens when a
person poisoned with a metal is treated with a chemical which binds to the metal ion preventing it
from exerting its toxic effect.
Systemic and local effects

▪ Effects occurring at a point distant from where a chemical enters the body. For example, cyanide,
arsenic, and other toxicants exert their poisonous effects after being absorbed into the body. When
speaking of toxic effects, typically systemic effects are being referred to.
▪ Effects occurring at the point of contact with skin, eyes, lungs, or gastrointestinal (GI) tract. A weak
acid for instance is an irritant at the point of contact; it shows a local effect. A reactive gas such as
formaldehyde also shows local effects such as irritating the eyes, but if absorbed into the body
formaldehyde can have systemic effects too

A chemical normally enters the body via the lungs, the GI tract, or the skin. After entry, it may be
absorbed into the bloodstream, distributed throughout the body, metabolized by the body’s tissues into
different chemicals, and finally excreted from the body. Once a xenobiotic is absorbed, its effects on the
body will depend on the chemical’s intrinsic toxicity, its dose, dose per time, and many other factors that
affect toxicity and on storage. The effect will depend on: individual being exposed, species, age, gender,
nutrition, etc.

Environmental hormones

Hormones are chemicals produced within the body that are profoundly important to reproduction, sexual
identity, development, and metabolism. This means that if individuals are exposed to hormone-mimicking
pollutants in the environment – environmental hormones – damage could ensue. Some industrial
pollutants and some pharmaceuticals have hormonal activity. Moreover, natural environmental hormones
exist too: some plants produce phytoestrogens, which mimic human female hormones. Environmental
hormones may be active at very low doses. Worse, if harm occurs, it may not be apparent until many

Pollution prevention

Pollution prevention is decreasing or eliminating the amount of pollution produced. When used w.r.t.
manufacturing, it means developing steps to reduce pollutant emissions when a product is manufactured.
There are four pollution prevention or waste management strategies, in manufacturing. The strategies are
presented in the following hierarchy:

The waste management hierarchy (WMH)

Pollution prevention
Reuse/recycle
Treatment
Disposal

Pollution Prevention

It can be achieved by – using less material, less energy, less water, fewer controls to protect workers, and
less pollution that needs to be expensively captured. All the above pollution prevention strategies are
referred to as source reduction strategies.
Reuse and Recycling

Recycling means turning an item into raw materials which can be used again, usually for a completely
new product. This is an energy consuming procedure. Recycling can still produce waste and pollution
A large amount of energy is needed to transport, process and reassemble recyclable materials. Recycling
can be a very expensive process. Reusing refers to using an object as it is without treatment. This reduces
pollution and waste, thus making it a more sustainable process. Any item in good condition can be reused.
The reusing process is not about repurposing the materials an object is made of, but repurposing the very
object itself. This includes buying and selling used goods and repairing items rather than discarding them.
Examples of reuse and recycle are shown below.

Reuse

-Welding plant returns empty wire spools to the supplier, who reuses them
-Parts from auto engines are refurbished and reused (this is remanufacturing)

Recycle and reuse

- An oil refinery refines motor vehicle oil for reuse

-A paint manufacturer reprocesses waste household paint for reuse
-A factory cleans a metal with a solvent, reusing the solvent several times. When it becomes dirty, it
purifies and reuses it – it doesn’t become a waste
-A factory recovers and reuses water used in manufacturing its product

Recycle

-A paper manufacturer uses post-consumer paper – paper already once used by consumers – to make
more paper.
-A manufacturer produces products from used glass, metal, or plastic (such as bottles, cans, packaging)
-A manufacturer stamps each plastic piece used as to what kind of plastic it is (so plastics can be
separated after use for recycling into products)

NB

1.The depletion of the ozone layer and increase in the intensity of UV radiation reaching the Earth’s
surface have far-reaching consequences.

2. The pollutants, which influence regional environment substantially are: sulphur compounds, nitrogen
compounds, carbon compounds halogenated organic substances, metals and their compounds aerosols
and dust radioactive elements.

3. All toxic substances are hazardous, but not all hazardous substances are toxic.

4. Both industrial processes and heating contributes to air pollution. Incineration of household waste
pollutes air significantly.

5. Today the main source of sulphur compounds in the atmosphere is human economic activity. The main
processes by which sulphur compounds release in environment:

Natural sources: Evaporation from water reservoirs, volcanic activity

Anthropogenic (man-made): Production of mineral fertilizers, burning of the fossil fuel (coal, oil),
ore’s mining, etc.
6. Sources of dust and aerosols:

Natural sources:
Sea salts, soil, volcanoes, forest fires etc.

Anthropogenic:
Burning of the fossil fuel (coal, oil, peat, timber), industry (cement, steel), burning of the solid waste,
Agriculture.

7. Nitrogen oxides are also formed in the combustion processes of motor vehicle engines. Intensive
release of nitrogen oxides during the process of electrical welding, especially in confined premises, is
unsafe from the viewpoint of work safety. Emitted in the stratosphere, nitrogen oxides can participate
in the ozone breakdown cycle. Supersonic aircraft exhaust is a significant source of nitrogen oxides in
the stratosphere. Several nitrogen oxides can be present in the atmosphere as air pollutants: nitrogen (I)
oxide N2O; nitrogen (II), (IV) oxides NO, NO2; nitric acid HNO3.

Assignment 1

1. Explain how wave motion in water assists in the degradation of water pollutants.
2. It is the chief oxidizing agent in the atmosphere and is responsible for destroying organic chemicals in
the atmosphere. It also can destroy inorganic chemicals.
3. Describe the “grasshopper Effect”.
4. Explain how carbon monoxide induces effects in living organisms.

Assignment 2

1. What are the sources of carbon monoxide?

6. Distinguish between ground level (tropospheric) O3 and stratospheric ozone.
7. What are the sources of ozone.
8. Describe the ozone cycle.

CAT1

1. Why does pollution happen?

2. Why do organic pollutants typically degrade very slowly in groundwater as compared to surface
water?
3. Why do inorganic pollutants such as sulfur dioxide sometimes pose a greater problem in the
environment than do organic pollutants such as hydrocarbons?
4. Describe the methods of producing hydrogen using renewable energy sources.
5. Explain the environmental reasons for reducing fossil fuel use.
6. Explain, how cutting greenhouse gas emissions also reduces emissions of SO 2, NOx and particulates.
7. You live near a factory that uses trichloroethylene, and this organic solvent has been detected in your
drinking water. Explain how the water could have been contaminated by the chemical.
8. Explain how lead in gasoline represent a greater risk than its use in lead–acid batteries.