Chapter 4

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

4.1
Transmission medium and physical layer
A transmission medium can be broadly defined
as anything that can carry information from a
source to a destination.

4.2
 Signal Attenuation
• Attenuation means loss of signal power travels from
one end to the other end of cable.
• It is also called signal loss.
• Attenuation is directly proportional to the length of
cable.
• Attenuation is defined as the ration of output power
(P0) to the input power (Pi) in the cable length of L.
• α = 10 log10(Po/Pi)

7.3
 Classes of transmission media
In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided
into two broad categories: guided and unguided. Guided
media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-
optic cable. Unguided medium is free space.

4.4
 Twisted-pair cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally
copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together, as shown in Figure

One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver,

and the other is used only as a ground reference.

4.5
 Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair
Cable UTP and STP cables

4.6
 Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair
Cable UTP and STP cables
•The most common twisted-pair cable used in
communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-
pair (UTP).
•IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable
for its use called shielded twisted-pair (STP).
•Although metal casing improves the quality of cable
by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is
bulkier and more expensive.
•STP is seldom used outside of IBM.

4.7
 UTP Cables Types

4.8
Categories of Unshielded Twisted-pair Cables

4.9
 UTP Connector
• The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands
for registered jack), as shown in Figure.
• The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector
can be inserted in only one way.

4.10
 UTP Performance

A twisted-pair cable can pass a wide range

of frequencies. The attenuation,
measured in decibels per kilometer
(dB/km), sharply increases with
frequencies above 100 kHz.

4.11
 Advantages & Disadvantages of UTP
Cables
Advantages
1. Cheaper and far easier to splice
2. Less susceptible to electrical interference caused by
nearby equipment or wires.
3. In turn are less likely to cause interference
themselves.
Because it is electrically "cleaner", STP wire can carry
data at a faster speed.
Disadvantages:
1. STP wire is that it is physically larger and more
expensive than twisted pair wire.
2. STP is more difficult to connect to a terminating block.

12
 Categories of Cables

Twisted
Pair
Cable

Co-axial Cable
Fiber
Optic
Cable

13
 Coaxial cable
• Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than
those in twisted pair cable,
• Coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
(usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn,
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both
as a shield against noise and as the second conductor, which
completes the circuit.

14
 Categories of coaxial cables

15
 Coaxial Cable Application

4.16
 BNC connectors
• To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors.
The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-
Neill-Concelman (BNe), connector.
• Figure shows three popular types of these connectors: the BNC
connector, the BNC T connector, and the BNC terminator.
• Both 50 and 75 Ώ option.

4.17
 Coaxial cable performance

The attenuation is much higher in coaxial

cables than in twisted-pair cable. In other
words, although coaxial cable has a much
higher bandwidth, the signal weakens
rapidly and requires the frequent use of
repeaters.

4.18
 Advantages & Disadvantages of coaxial
cables
Advantages
1. Coaxial cable can support greater cable lengths
with higher bandwidth between network devices
than twisted pair cable.
2. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective
plastic cover that help keep moisture away.
Disadvantages :
1. Thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily
and is difficult to install.

19
 Fiber Optics

4.20
 How Fiber Optics Transmit Data
• Electrical signals from digital circuits (high/low voltages) may be
converted into discrete optical signals (light or no light) with LEDs
or solid-state lasers. Likewise, light signals can be translated back
into electrical form through the use of photodiodes or
phototransistors for introduction into the inputs of gate circuits.

4.21
 Bending of light ray
• If the angle of incidence I is less than the critical angle, the ray
refracts and moves closer to the surface.
• If I is equal to the critical angle, the light bends along the
interface.
• If the angle is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects and
travels again in the denser substance.
• Note that the critical angle is a property of the substance, and its
value differs from one substance to another.

7.22
 Fiber Optics Cable
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits
signals in the form of light.
• Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a
single uniform substance.
• If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters
another substance (of a different density), the ray changes
direction.

7.23
 Fiber Types

7.24
Optical propagation modes in fiber Optics

7.25
 Mode of Fiber Optics

7.26
 Mode of Fiber Optics

27
 Single Mode Fiber Optics

28
 Multi Mode Fiber Optics

29
 Fiber Optics End Connector
Fiber connectors with different polishing types have different
back reflections (see the picture below). With the development
of technology, four polishing types are available: flat-surface,
Physical Contact (PC), Ultra Physical Contact (UPC), and
Angled Physical Contact (APC).

4.30
 Fiber construction
Outer jacket is made up
of either PVC or Teflon.

Kevler strand is to
strength the cable

Plastic buffer is used to

Cladding is used to
provide cushion to the
isolate glass core to
fiber
the plastic core.

4.31
 Fiber-optic Cable Connectors
Subscriber channel (SC)
connector is used for cable TV

Straight tip (ST)

MT-RJ is more connector is
reliable then used for
SC connector networking
with same
size RJ45

4.32
 Adv. & Disadv. of Fiber Optics
Advantages
• Higher bandwidth
• Less signal attenuation
• Less EMI
• Resistance to corrosive materials
• Light weight
• Greater immunity to tapping
Disadvantages
• Complex installation and maintenance
• Costly technology
• Unidirectional high propagation

4.33
 Numerical Apperture
Numerical Aperture is defined as the maximum
acceptance angle to allow and transmit light by an
optical fiber.

1.34
 V-Number

1.35
 A Silica Optical Fiber has a core with
reflection index 1.50 and a cladding with RI
1.46 Determine
a) Critical angle at core cladding interface
b) Numerical Aperture of the fiber
c) Acceptance Angle

1.36
 A Multimode step index optical Fiber has a
core dia 80 microm with relative reflection
index difference 1.5% operating at wavelength
of 0.85 microm. In n1= 1.48 Determine
a) Normalized frequency (V number) for the
fiber
b) Number of modes

1.37
 Unguided Media: Wireless
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves
without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless
communication (3KHz to 900THz). EM spectrum of
wireless is shown bellow
Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared

4.38
 Unguided Media: Wireless
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves
without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless
communication (3KHz to 900THz). EM spectrum of
wireless is shown bellow
Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared

4.39
 Wireless transmission waves

4.40
 Wireless transmission waves

4.41
 Wireless Propagation Mode
Ionosphere start with 75-1000 kM height
above earth sea level

4.42
 Wireless Propagation Mode
1) Ground Propagation (>2MHz): (a) radio wave travel
through the lowest portion of earth atmosphere, (b) low
frequency signal emanate in all direction. (c ) greater the
power of signal greater the distance
2) Sky Propagation (2-30 MHz): (a) high frequency radio
wave signal, (b) wave radiate upward into the ionosphere and
then reflect back to the earth (c ) greater the distance with
low power signal
3) Line of sight Propagation (>30MHz): : (a) very high
frequency radio wave signal, (b) transmit in straight line
from antenna to antena (c ) greater the distance with very low
power signal

4.43
 Wireless Propagation Mode

4.44
 Wireless Bands

4.45
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46
47
Line of Sight Transmission
• Wireless propagation is LOS propagation
• In wireless receiver, the received signal is different from
transmitted signal due to various transmission impairments
• The most significant impairments are
– Attenuation
– Free space loss
– Noise
– Atmospheric absorption
– Multipath
– Refraction
48
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49
Categories of Noise

◼ Thermal Noise
◼ Intermodulation noise
◼ Crosstalk
◼ Impulse Noise

50
Thermal Noise

◼ Thermal noise due to agitation of

electrons
◼ Present in all electronic devices and
transmission media
◼ Cannot be eliminated
◼ Function of temperature
◼ Particularly significant for satellite
communication
51
Thermal Noise

◼ Amount of thermal noise to be found in a

bandwidth of 1Hz in any device or
conductor is:
N0 = kT (W/Hz)

◼ N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of

bandwidth
◼ k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3803 ´ 10-23 J/K
◼ T = temperature, in kelvins (absolute
temperature)

52
 Thermal Noise
◼ Noise is assumed to be independent of
frequency
◼ Thermal noise present in a bandwidth of
B Hertz (in watts): N = kTB

or, in decibel-watts
N = 10 log k + 10 log T + 10 log B
= −228.6 dBW + 10 log T + 10 log B
53
Noise Terminology
◼ Intermodulation noise – occurs if signals with
different frequencies share the same medium
◼ Interference caused by a signal produced at a
frequency that is the sum or difference of original
frequencies
◼ Crosstalk – unwanted coupling between signal paths
◼ Nearby twisted pairs, unwanted signals are picked
by antennas
◼ Impulse noise – irregular pulses or noise spikes
◼ Short duration and of relatively high amplitude

◼ Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances,

or faults and flaws in the communications system

54
Reduce Intermodulation Noise

1.Reduce the number of non-linear

devices
2.Operate the amplifiers in the linear
range.
3.Avoid poorly designed and low-
quality circuits
4.Use Transmitter
5.Antenna installation-Antennas
should be placed in a way that there
are no obstacles in or around them. 55