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 Journal of Applied Computer Science & Mathematics, Issue 2/2019, vol.13, No. 28, Suceava

Modeling Techniques for Knowledge Representation of Expert System: A Survey

1
L. J. MUHAMMAD, 2E. J. GARBA, 3N. D. OYE, 4G. M. WAJIGA
1
Mathematics and Computer Science Department, Federal University of Kashere, Gombe State
2,3,4
Computer Science Department, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola
1
mljtech@gmail.com, 2e.i.garba@mautech.edu.ng, 3oyenath@yahoo.co.uk,
4
gwajiga@gmail.com

Abstract –Knowledge representation is one of the most
desirable things to make system intelligent. Every expert system
may only be an intelligent if its intelligence is equivalent to the
intelligence of human being for a particular domain. In
expert system development, a good solution depends on
a good knowledge representation modeling technique
chosen. So, failure to choose appropriate technique can be a
major problem in the later stages of an expert system
development, because some critical information cannot be
encoded within the chosen technique. This study reviewed some
various modeling techniques for knowledge presentation of
expert system, identified and discussed the pros and cons of
each technique.
Keywords: Artificial Intelligence, Expert System,
Knowledge Base, Knowledge transfer, Knowledge inference
I. INTRODUCTION
Artificial intelligence (AI) is one of the branches of
computer science which enables computers to perform the
types of intelligent actions normally attributed to human
being[22]. Such actions include the ability to recognize objects
and scenes, understand conversational and written language,
physically manipulate objects, and solve problems in complex
domains such as medicine, engineering, and battle
management [23]. It is a highly specialized technique of
computer science that used to model and imitates the human
ability or expertise [10] [1][15]. In early 1980‘s, remarkable
developments in various fields of AI had brought the need of
expert systems. Initially knowledge based systems were
primarily regarded as expert systems. Knowledge based
systems and expert systems include two major components;
one is knowledge base, and other is an inference engine [28].
However, the two systems can be distinguished based on how
and for what the system is being utilized [30]. The expert
system had been usually build to substitute or assist a human
expert in efficiently resolving a complex task with less
complexity to save time [30]. On the other hand, Knowledge
based system provides a structured architecture to represent
knowledge explicitly [29]. One of the most promising areas of
applied Artificial intelligence is expert system which is
program that solves problem normally requiring the
knowledge and skills of human expertise thus combination of
facts and experience. According to [3] expert system is a
computer program that uses knowledge and inference
procedures to solve problems that was difficult enough to
acquire significant human expertise for their solutions. It can
also be defined as a computer system that uses human
knowledge to solve problems that normally require human
intelligence. The expert systems represent the expertise
knowledge as data or rules within the computer [9]. These
rules and data can be called upon when needed to solve
problems. Expert systems are only those systems where the
knowledge for the definition of the system (regardless of the
importance of its role in the performance, or the particular
method of representation) comes from a human whose ability
to solve problems is well beyond the common, up to the rank
of unusual expertise [12]. According [12] Expert System is
defined as an intelligence system which uses extracted
knowledge from past domain expert decision making
reasoning in form of rules to solve problems that ordinarily
require human expertise for their solution, and has the
capability to update its rule-base as new knowledge is
discovered.
II. DEVELOPMENT PROCESS OF EXPERT SYSTEM
Development process of expert system is the activities
involve for knowledge transfer from human expert to
knowledge base of the expert system and then to the user in
form of knowledge. These activities include knowledge
acquisition, knowledge inference and knowledge
representation [17], [9-10].
A) Knowledge Acquisition
Knowledge representation is one of the most basic and
actively researched areas of artificial intelligence [32-33]. And
yet, there are many important is-sues underlying knowledge
representation which have not been adequately addressed. One
such issue is that of the representation of knowledge which is
lexically imprecise and/or uncertain [18]. The process of
human knowledge transfer to knowledge base of expert system
is termed knowledge acquisition. It involves extracting
problem-solving expertise from knowledge sources, which are
usually domain experts [32-33]. According to [9-10]
knowledge acquisition is the process of extracting, structuring
and organizing knowledge knowledge from human expert
domain to knowledge base of the expert system [8]. It can also
be extracted from books, documents, sensors, or computer

DOI: 10.4316/JACSM.201902006 39
 Computer Science Section

files. Knowledge acquisition of is a major and critical phase in

the development of an expert system. Knowledge acquisition
is considered by many to be the most difficult and precarious
stage in the knowledge engineering process [9], [16]. The
methods of knowledge acquisition can be divided into manual
and automated approaches. The techniques for manual
approaches include questionnaire, observation, and interview
e.t.c. Automated approach uses an induction system with case
histories and examples as input to derive the knowledge base
and it is also known as machine learning approach [16].

B) Knowledge Reasoning Fig. 1 A Simple example of a Semantic Network

Knowledge reasoning is also called Knowledge inference
[1]. Knowledge reasoning involves application of logical rules Semantic networks have been used for various purposes.
to the knowledge available in the knowledge base of the expert They are usually used to describe hierarchical information (see
system to deduce new information or knowledge [14]. The Fig. 1).
inference engine draws conclusions from the replicated human Therefore, semantic network is basically a graph where the
expertise in the knowledge base of the expert system, which is nodes are labeled by atomic formulas, and arcs represent
the hallmark of the expert system [5]. relations between them. The nodes of this graph then represent
entities and classes of entities. These classes then may be
C) Knowledge Representation
hierarchically ordered to represent the knowledge [10]. This
Knowledge representation implies a systematic means of
leads to two basic relations between the node, that is: subclass,
encoding what an expert knows about a knowledge domain in
entity of. Semantic networks techniques were first developed
an appropriate medium [3],[13]. It defines the manner in which
as a method of representing human knowledge. In fact every
the human expertise should be represented in the computer so
semantic network can be represented by the language of first
that it can be conveniently accessed for problem solving [13].
order logic. Even better, semantic nets can be directly
In expert system development, a good solution depends on
translated to logic programs [12]. Most of the principles of
a good representation. For expert systems applications, the
semantic networks are also employed in rule-based expert
initial choice of a representation technique is particularly
systems. Though, the basic feature of semantic networks that
important[2]. This is because the possible representation
are employed in many very large expert systems. It indeed,
techniques are diverse and the forcing criterion for the choice
leads to enhanced generalization, information reduction and
is normally not clear at the outset of the project [1]. The
also can dramatically increase performance. On the other hand
consequence of inadequate selection can be a major problem
it can lead to reduced precision [21]
in the later stages of an Expert System development, if it is
An Expert System stores knowledge as a semantic net
discovered that critical information cannot be encoded within
incorporates an inference engine devoted to operations like
the chosen representation technique [28]. A knowledge
inheritance. Such an inference engine will consist of two parts.
representation technique should support a number of different
One part will deal with rules by forward chaining, backward
activities. Various techniques may be appropriate for
chaining or some other method. The other part will handle net
representing different types of things and for supporting
operations matching relevant links in the net to deduce facts.
different kinds of activities [28]. This can force us in some
The main advantage of a semantic network is that related
cases to either find a representation system that supports
objects are located next to each other, so searching for
multiple uses of knowledge or else represent the same
information is usually straightforward. Also, semantic
knowledge several times in various representational systems.
networks give a clear description of knowledge because they
It would be desirable to have a single representation technique
give a picture of the structure of the information.
in which knowledge that has multiple uses will support those
A shortcoming of this technique is that there are no formal
uses [4].
ways of dealing with them. In addition, the structure of a real-
problem may get very complex. Thus, the search may be done
III. MODELING TECHNIQUES FOR KNOWLEDGE
in an inefficient way [12].
REPRESENTATION

A) Semantic networks technique B) Rule-based technique

Quillian is generally acknowledged as the inventor of
semantic networks. A semantic network consists of nodes
which are connected together by arcs or links[12]. Nodes
represent objects, concepts, events or hypotheses and arcs
(links) represent relationships between these nodes.
Rule-based systems (also called production systems) are
composed of production rules (rule-base), a database (working
memory) and a control system (rule interpreter) [10]. The
domain knowledge in a rule-based system is represented as a
set of rules of the type [19]. The traditional, expert system

40
 Journal of Applied Computer Science & Mathematics, Issue 2/2019, vol.13, No. 28, Suceava
engineering is based on the production systems approach (rule-
based systems) which emphasizes building a single monolithic
knowledge-base. Rule-based approach is defined as one,
which contains information obtained from a human expert, and
represents that information in the form of rules, such as IF–
THEN. The rule can then be used to perform operations on
data to inference in order to reach appropriate conclusion [11].
These inferences are essentially a computer program that
provides a methodology for reasoning about information in the
rule base or knowledge base, and for formulating conclusions
[15]. Rules represent a very human friendly knowledge
representation. One of the often cited rule-based systems is
their modularity, simplicity and good performance [23].
According to [30] [11] rule-based approach proved very
efficient in simple domains, also due to very fast Rete
matching algorithm, but it’s use in complex systems is at
least very questionable. The major advantages of rule-based
systems include easy to formulate and emulate human
cognitive process and decision making ability, and also easy to
represent knowledge in a structured homogeneous and
modular way. However, there are several limitations
associated with those systems: control structures contained in
the order of rules cause loss of flexibility, large number of
rules in the knowledge base causes the system to become
unwieldy and complicates its maintenance especially in the
case of subtle updates and the difficulty in assigning
confidence rating to each rule which has great influence on the
Expert System comprehensibility [14].
The disadvantages of rule based approaches motived
researchers to finding solution to the large number of rules in
the rule-based systems knowledge-base in order to enhance the
system understandability. The simplicity of this approach has
encouraged its common usage in modeling a rule based expert
system [14].
According to [21] rule-based technique are generally not
suitable for modelling complex world relationships, and
creation world models, but instead can used to represent
procedural or shallow knowledge. Reasoning in a partially
observable domain requires a measure of certainty in the
proposition. There have been many more or less successful
approaches to represent the uncertainty in a rule-based
framework [21].
C) Frame based technique
Frames were originally developed by Minsky[10]. It is a
techniques where objects are described by a number of features
or attributes, many of which stay constant from one instance
to the next. A frame is a piece of structured data about typical
characteristics of an object, act or event [20]. The knowledge
is more descriptive than procedural. Similar to rules, frames
must be able to deal with uncertainty and missing values.
Frames may have default values and slot-filling procedures
associated with the slots, to cope with missing values. Frames
enable reasoning about object features such as inheritance and
41
the occurrence of exceptions [10]. The reasoning process starts
by identifying a frame as applicable to the current situation.
Matching the set of frames against the facts available selects
an appropriate frame. The use of frames is relevant to non-
monotonic logic. Non-monotonic reasoning expresses
reasoning with default attributes. Frames are based open many
sources, but mainly and have been the first attempt to mimic
human reasoning and knowledge hierarchy representation.
Frames found tremendous application in early expert systems.
Frames are grouping of slots that represent semantically close
knowledge. Despite their wide-spread application, their
background is mostly technically based, and more simplify the
development for humans then offer a solid base for sound
inference [20]. The principle of frames has been further
enhanced and refined in Object Oriented Programming
paradigm and Multi-Agent System.
The advantage of frames technique is good for representing
descriptive information. Also, procedural and declarative
knowledge can be represented by a frame. It can also represent
hierarchies of information [10].
Its shortcoming is that, there is no formal theory of frames,
i.e., there are no formal ways of dealing with them yet [14].
D) Case-based technique
Case-based technique is a major approach in automated
knowledge reasoning and machine learning. In case-based
technique, a reasoner solves a new problem by noticing its
similarity with one or several previously solved problems and
by adapting their known solutions instead of working out a
solution from scratch[20]. Case-based technique is a problem
solving method different from other AI approaches in many
aspects, Instead of using only general domain dependent
heuristic knowledge like in the case of expert systems, Case-
based technique is able to use the specific knowledge of
concrete, previously experienced, problem situations [24].
Very important characteristic of the techniques is that, it is
incremental learning since a new experience is memorized and
available for future problem solving each time a problem is
solved. Case-based reasoning is a powerful and frequently
used way of human problem solving. Results from cognitive
psychology have shown its psychological plausibility [24].
The ttechnique is a process that uses similar problems to solve
the current problem. It consists of two steps:
i. Find those cases in memory that solved problems
similar to the current problem, and
ii. Adapt previous solutions to fit the current problem
The case library forms an extra important component in case-
based reasoning. The inference cycle using Case Based
Reasonin consists of:
i. Retrieving solutions
ii. Adapting solutions, and
iii. Testing solutions
The critical step is to find and retrieve a relevant case from
the case library. Cases are stored using indexes. The stored
case contains a solution, which is then adapted by modifying
 Computer Science Section
the parameters of the old problem to suit the new situation
resulting in a proposed solution. The solution is tested and if
found successful, added to the case library.
The main advantage of case based technique; it makes the
knowledge acquisition to be easier in case-based reasoning
because of the granularity of the knowledge. Knowledge is
presented in precedent or resultant cases [18]
While the shortcoming of the technique is that, it makes the
process of system reasoning so complex and slow.
E) Fuzzy based technique
Fuzzy logic is an extension of classical logical systems. It
provides an effective conceptual framework for dealing with
the problem of knowledge representation in an environment of
uncertainty and imprecision [31]. Meaning representation in
fuzzy logic is based on test-score semantics [10]. Fuzzy
experts are developed using the method of fuzzy logic, which
deals with uncertainty. This technique, which uses the
mathematical theory of fuzzy sets, simulates the process of
normal human reasoning by allowing the computer to behave
less precisely and logically than conventional computers. This
approach is used because decision-making is not always a
matter of black and white, true or false; it often involves gray
areas and the term may be. Accordingly, creative decision-
making processes can be characterized unstructured, playful,
contentious, and rambling [18]
The main advantage of fuzzy based technique is that, it
uses the theory of fuzzy logic is based upon the notion of
relative graded membership and so are the functions of
mentation and cognitive processes. The utility of fuzzy sets
lies in their ability to model uncertain or ambiguous data, so
often encountered in real life [18].
The main shortcoming of the fuzzy based technique is that,
it usually implemented using soft computing programing
language.
F) Object-oriented technique
Object-oriented methodology combines into one object
data together with the specific procedures that operate on this
data, where the object combines data and program code.
Instead of passing data to procedures, programs send a
message for an object to perform a procedure that is already
embedded in it [10]. Then, the same message may be sent
many different objects, but each will implement that message
differently. An object’s data are encapsulated from other parts
of the system, so each object is an independent software
building block that can be used in many different systems
without changing the program code [18].
An object-oriented approach has been applied to the
different stages involved in developing a knowledge base
about insulin metabolism in [25] At an early stage the
separation of terminological and assertional knowledge was
made. An object-oriented knowledge acquisition process was
applied to the assertional knowledge. A frame description is
proposed which includes features like states and events,
42
inheritance and collaboration. States and events are formalized
with qualitative calculus. The terminological knowledge was
very useful in the development of the assertional component.
It assisteed in understanding the problem domain, and in the
implementation stage, it assisted in building good inheritance
hierarchies [25].
One of the main limitations of object oriented
systems is that the system may be slower in execution. Also,
the message-passing mechanism in the object oriented
approach does not include the provisions of how a message has
to be handled by the receiving object from a sender object’s
background and perspective. In addition, as human
communication includes context and intention apart from
content, merely sending a message content becomes a very
restricted form of communication [14].
G) Database technique
A database is a collection of data organized to efficiently
serve many applications by centralizing the data and
minimizing redundant data. A DBMS is the software that
permits an organization to centralize data, manage them
efficiently, and provide access to the stored data by application
programs. However, some large databases make knowledge
discovery computationally expensive because some domains
or background knowledge, hidden in the database may guide
and restrict the search for important knowledge. Therefore,
modern database methodologies need to process large
volumes, multiple hierarchies, and different data formats to
discover in-depth expert knowledge from large databases, such
as data mining and searching approach. [7]. In [26] a database
expert system for coronary heart disease diagnosis in Jordan
was developed using database techniques. The system was
developed based on the medical records in Jordan and
implemented using visual studio. The system shows that, the
system has high ability to diagnose the patients based on the
records with a high accuracy percentage.
The main advantage database technique is that, it simplifies
the development process of the expert system.
The main disadvantage database technique is that large
databases make knowledge discovery computationally
expensive.
H) Scripts technique
Scripts are frame-like structure which represents a
common sequence of events such as "going into a shop,
selecting some goods, and paying for them. Prototype scripts
consist of slots which can be filled in with details about a
specific event when a script is instantiated. Further, scenes
within scripts may lead into other scripts as well. There are
preconditions which should be met before the sequence takes
place [10]. Roles are slots for the people who appear in an
instance of the script, and props are slots for the objects which
appear in an instance of the script. Results are the conditions
which should be true after the completed script. Point of view
is a slot for a person which indicates that the sequence of
 Journal of Applied Computer Science & Mathematics, Issue 2/2019, vol.13, No. 28, Suceava
events in the script is from that person's point of view. Scenes
are ordered and represent the chain of events which take place.
The main advantage of a script is that it gives a natural way
of representing and organizing descriptive information [18].
The drawback of using scripts is that they can only be
utilized when dealing with common sequences of events [18].
I) Hybrid technique
Sometimes more than one single form of knowledge
representation is required for developing an expert system.
Some expert systems have utilized the advantages of disparate
knowledge representation techniques by combining them in
one system [27]. This is known as hybrid representation. The
main objective of utilizing hybrid knowledge representation is
to permit the representation of both shallow and deep
knowledge. One of the most common hybrid representations
involves rule-based and frame or network representation.
Hybrid representation is not recommended for a situation
where the knowledge readily fits a single paradigm.
IV. DISCUSSION
The various modeling techniques have so far discussed in
the study, each of the technique has its advantages and
disadvantages which have elaborated. Therefore, selecting
appropriate knowledge representation modeling techniques
plays a significant role in the development of an expert system.
The question of what is the best method of knowledge
representation is still an open question in the Artificial
Intelligence community. This matter requires its own separate
research. According to Mehdi (1993), the following features
should be considered when choosing a knowledge
representation method:
i. Ease of representation for particular domain
ii. Efficiency of space and time
iii. Relationship between knowledge base and inference
engine
iv. Ease of human understanding and uncertainty
V. CONCLUSION
Knowledge for expert system is acquired from human
experts and other documented sources and then represented or
organized as rules. These rules are electronically stored as a
body of knowledge or a knowledge base and represented to
user, this usually called knowledge presentation. This paper
reviewed some various modeling techniques for knowledge
presentation of expert system, identified and discussed the
advantage and disadvantages of each technique.
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L. J. Muhammad is a PhD candidate at Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Adamawa State, Nigeria. He had
a Diploma in Law from Aminu Kano School of Islamic and Legal Studies, Kano, Certificate in Computer Appreciation from
Bayero University, Kano, International Diploma and Advance Diploma in Computing from Informatics Institute Singapore,
B.Sc. (Hons) in Computing from University of Portsmouth U.K, Masters in Business Administration (MBA), University of
Wales, UK and M.Sc. Computer Science from Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria. He is a Member of IEEE, Nigerian
Institute of Management (NIM) as a Chartered Manager, Nigeria Computer Society (NCS), Universal Association of
Computer and Electronics Engineers (UACEE), International Association of Engineers (IAENG), and Machine Intelligence
Research Labs (MIR Labs). He is presently working with Federal University, Kashere, Gombe State, Nigeria as academic staff
and his area of research interest are data mining, computational intelligence, big data, query optimization and soft computing.

Etemi Joshua Garba (PhD, MEng, BSc) is a Consultant in Data Science, Software Engineering and Multimedia
Technology. He is also a Senior Lecturer (Assistant Professor) in the department of Computer Science at the Federal
University of Technology (Modibbo Adama University of Technology), Yola, Adamawa State, Nigeria. He is a
graduate of B.Sc. Computer Science and has Master Degree in Software Engineering from the St. Petersburg State
University of Information Technology, Mechanics & Optics. St. Petersburg, Russia. He has 14 years of experience in
teaching, research and community development. He is a member of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE); member of editorial board of peer-reviewed Software Engineering Journal and member of editorial board of peer-
reviewed American Journal of Software Engineering and Applications

Oye, N. D., receive his M.Tech OR (Operations Research) degree from the Federal University of Technology
Yola- Nigeria in 2002. He is a lecturer in the department of Mathematics and Computer Science in the same
University (for the past 15yrs). In 2013 he obtains his PhD in Information System in the faculty of Computing and Information
Technology at the Univeristi Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia. Currently he is an Associate Professor in
ICT/Information System in Modibbo Adama University of Technology Yola, Nigeria, in the School of Physical Sciences in
the Department of Computer Sciences, and he is now the HOD.

G. M. Wajiga is a professor of soft computing at Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Nigeria. He had his Ph.D.
from Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria. He also attended Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria and
Aston University Birmingham, England for B.Sc. and M.Sc. degrees, respectively. He has supervised and examined
dozens of Ph.D. students. Also, he is a visiting scholar to some universities in Nigeria and abroad.

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