174 Vibration, Machinery, Data Improvement Vibration, Machinery, Data Improvement Continuous monitoring and periodic logging of machinery information are the best ways to measure current performance and predict availability. Decisions made on time-based information analysis are only as good as the quality of the data, Methods for data acquisition must conform to standards that ensure data are free of errors and ambiguity. Data Acquisition Framework Each major component that plays an active role is defined as: © Mechanical. This includes the machine's rotor-bearing assembly, casing, ad- joining pipe, and foundation, Users are generally interested in studying their dynamic behavior. © Transducer. This system reads and converts mechanical system dynamic en- ergy to corresponding electrical output. © Interconnections. This includes cabling and wiring that allow communication between transducer and processing instruments. © Signal process/display/record, This system processes and displays the desired information signal and can record the signal for future reference. All components interact and permit the user to collect machine information. Machine data can be acquired at any desirable operating condition, however, data are generally collected in the following two categories: Static data determine machine state at rest. Static data provide useful infor- mation that includes structural resonance of various machinery parts, adjoining pipe and foundation, presence of surrounding vibration and shaft position in the bearing, Dynamic data ate further classified into two modes of machine operation: transient and steady state. Transient data are acquired during the slow roll, ma- chine startup and shutdown. In slow roll, the rotor dynamic response due to unbalance force is negligible, and the indicated level of response is purely due to rotor blow and/or electrical/mechanical runout, Slow roll data are usually taken at very slow speed; less than 10% of the first balance resonance speed. Startup and shutdown data identify critical speed regions. The data acquired over shut- down may differ from startup since torque is removed and the machine is usually hot. Technically, steady state is defined as the machine condition when negligible change in magnitude of operating parameters is observed with respect to time. This is usually the operating condition, This mode is used for continuous andVibration, Machinery, Data Improvement 175 intermittent monitoring of machine condition. It is very meaningful in terms of developing time-based machine history. Data Collection Techniques Machine static and dynamic data are related to the rotor-stator-bearing assembly, but the rotor generally contributes to vibration. The major interest in acquiring data is to know the current status of a particular parameter. On a typical high- performance rotating machine, the parameters that may be critical and demand continuous observation are: shaft radial vibration and centerline position in the journal bearing, axial vibration and position in the thrust bearing, shaft alignment, shaft speed and phase angle through keyphasor, rotor eccentricity measurement at slow roll condition, rotor-case expansion (differential expansion), case expan- sion, ete. Many choices for recording and presenting machinery information are available to users. Each choice has its particular application and provides specific information to an analyst. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the potential of each choice so that machinery malfunctions can be understood in minimum possible time. Techniques that can capture machinery information are: Spectrum Plot. This is a 2-D plot and is the most commonly used. It presents machinery information in terms of amplitude vs. frequency. This plot immediately locates the frequencies of the component responsible for excessive overall vibra- tion, It is usually used in the steady-state condition. Spectrum Cascade Plot. This is a 3-D plot and reveals information in terms of amplitude vs. frequency vs. speed. It is used in a transient state at rotative speed samples, and displays machine vibration from stopped to operating, condi- tion, Generally this plot provides information about the presence of sub and super synchronous vibration, dependent or independent of rotative speed, and locates balance resonance regions. Spectrum Water-Fall Plot. This is a 3-D time-based plot. Basically, it is a spectrum plot (amplitude vs. frequency) that is placed in another frame of ref- erence, i.c., time (hours, weeks, months, etc.). Therefore, the final plot is actually amplitude vs. frequency vs. time. This is a very meaningful plot that develops machine history. This single plot reveals the status of any desired machine point at a glance. The water-fall plot shows any new frequency and amplitude, or changes in amplitude at any previously existing frequency of interest. Bode Plot. This is a 2-D plot that is really a set of two plots. Both plots are made at a transient state. One plot shows the change in amplitude vs. speed of a filtered vibration, such as synchronous 1X component, and the other shows change in phase vs. speed of the same component. This plot is very useful in176 Vibration, Machinery, Data Improvement showing speed of various rotor-bearing system resonances and the synchronous amplification factor. Bode plots are often made for 1X, 2X, 3X, ..., ete., com- ponents of the vibration signals. Polar Plot. This plot also captures transient changes in rotor vibration. It com- bines three variables (phase, amplitude and speed) into a single plot in a polar display. Both plots (Bode and Polar) are used for studying rotor dynamic response. Documenting both plots can provide useful information about the rotor-bearing system, For instance, in a high-pressure centrifugal compressor, oil seal ring clear- ance is much less than the journal bearing clearance. Often during its first startup after a major overhaul, the oil seal rings act like bearings until the rotor adjusts itself to the floating zone. This phenomenon was encountered on a very high- pressure casing (3,000 psi) of an overhauled synthesis gas compressor train where seal ring failure was experienced shortly after startup. Polar and Bode plots are extremely useful for investigating this type of behavior, Note, when an oil seal ring acts like a bearing, the rotor original balance resonance regions are affected. Shaft Centerline Plot. This is a polar graph that tracks shaft centerline lo- cation inside the bearing clearance with respect to bearing geometric center. It permits computing the shaft attitude angle within the bearing. Shaft centerline location provides very useful information that indicates preload (external/internal) and rotor stability. Wave Form Plot. This represents instantaneous amplitude of a signal as a function of time. It can be displayed on an oscilloscope or reduced numerically. The wave form provides comprehensive information about an input vibration signal. These data are: amplitude, frequency, speed, phase, gap voltage, wave shape and direction of vibration (forward or reverse precession). It also provides very useful information about the presence of electrical/mechanical runout on the shaft by displaying direct (unfiltered) signal distortion Orbit Plot. On an oscilloscope, an orbit is a combination of two orthogonal signals that eventually represent the centerline motion of the shaft, Orbit infor- mation includes: vibration amplitude, phase and frequency. The shape of an orbit is also important. For example, an orbit like a “figure 8” indicates misalignment, From an ofbit, one can also ascertain behavior of the rotordynamic motion (forward or reverse precession). Shaft Deflection Plot. This plot displays rotor mode shapes when it passes through the balance resonance regions. This plot is not common in the field since it requires several proximity probes along the rotor span. Data Trending Plot. Trending is time-based and provides the history of in- terested parameters, Trending desired parameters strongly assists in making de-Vibration, Machinery, Data Improvement 77 cisions. Computerized data trending is common. Any predictive maintenance soft- ware has the ability to statistically evaluate and present the machinery dat Conventions and Documentation Conventions follow specific paths so that the data consistency and clarity can be maintained, Standard conventions are available for the following three classifications: Cables and Signal Polarity. Various color schemes signify cable functions. For example, “*black’” represents common, “‘green’” and ‘“blue”” represent “hor- izontal” and “vertical” signals respectively, “yellow”? is used for the ‘*keypha- sor’? signal, and ‘‘red”” is used for “*power supply.”” Signal polarity (+ve or —ve) for the proximity probe is considered +ve when the shaft surface moves toward the probe, i.e., decreasing gap volts and vice versa. For velocity and acceleration transducers, a similar concept is applied; vibration motion toward the transducer is considered +e. Transducer Orientation. Radially mounted proximity probes: Two probes are orthogonal to cach other and orthogonal to the rotor axis. They read 2-D lateral rotor vibration. The rule of thumb is to view the machine (horizontally mounted) from the driver end and go counterclockwise (0° is at the top of the bearing); vertical probe is oriented at 45° and the horizontal probe is at 315°. Note probe orientation is independent of shaft rotation. The same concept is also applicable to a vertically mounted machine. Axially mounted proximity probes: For thrust measurement, it is sensible to label the probes as ‘‘active side”” and “passive side" of the thrust bearing. Velocity transducer: It can be mounted in any position. However, it is impor- tant that the mounting surface is flat. Using a velocity sensor with an extension rod usually displays spurious vibration. Acceleration transducer: This transducer is sensitive to applied force that var- ies from person to person. For periodic checking, it is ideal to fix a stud on the bearing housing and then temporarily mount the accelerometer to the stud for vibration recording Oscilloscope Conventions. The conventions available are: blue cable (ver- tical probe signal) is for Y channe! (left side), green cable (horizontal probe signal) is for X channel (right side) and yellow cable (keyphasor probe signal) is for “external input” connection. From the center of the oscilloscope screen; toward the right is positive, toward the left is negative, upward is positive and downward is negative. In time base mode, time goes from left to right. Absolute phase is measured from the start of the blank of a keyphasor signal to the first +ve peak of the vibration signal. It is measured between 0° and 360° but is always a lag178 Vibration, Machinery, Data Improvement angle. Signals must be the same frequency or harmonically related. Relative phase is measured between two vibration signals (of same frequency and unit) and either signal may be taken as a reference. It is measured between 0° and 180°, leading or lagging, Documenting the data basically covers five zones of any machine: Machine anatomy and history include complete information about the ma- chine under investigation. The relevant information are: machine type and service, rotor-casing geometry, bearing type, clearance and lubrication, foundation and adjoining pipe, couplings, seals, gearbox, hours of operation and last overhaul. Dynamic data include rotor operating speed range, critical speeds and mode shapes, resonant frequency data of casing, foundation and adjoining pipe, align- ment data (hot and cold) and coupling resonance frequency. Reference data include original equipment manufacturer (OEM) shop testing, initial startup and commissioning, baseline data, external environment data (ma- chine location in open or shaded area, dust, high/low ambient temperature, etc.). Process particulars include magnitude of operating parameters such as pres- sure, temperature, flowrate, specific gravity, machine performance curves, contin- uous or peak duty, etc. Instrumentation systems include transducer type and specifications (scale fac- tors and temperature range), transducer location and orientation, calibration data, maintenance history, environment (hazardous, high temperature, etc.) and junction box arrangement. Transducer Operation ‘Three types of transducers are available for measuring dynamic motion. All three are different due to the design philosophy. Following is a brief description of their operation, Eddy Current Proximity Probe. It operates on the principle that when an electromagnetic field comes in contact with conductive material, a small electric current is generated on the surface. These currents are losses and can be detected. The transducer has a typical working range in which the response is linear, Re- lated to machine condition monitoring, this transducer provides shaft dynamic motion and position. It can measure frequency from zero to high frequencies (typically 600 k cpm). ‘The transducer requires external power (usually 24 VDC) for operation and has the most common sensitivity of 200 mV/mil. It is considered the best for measuring rotor radial and axial vibration and position. Velocity Transducer. {t works on the principle that voltage is proportional to velocity from the movement of an armature (coil of wire on a core) seismically mounted on a heavy magnet. One might think of this as a reciprocating generator. It operates above their resonant frequency (c.g., 270 cpm) and is used for caseVibration, Machinery, Data Improvement 179 vibration measurement. The signal is quite strong and can be transmitted long distances (over 1,000 ft in some cases) without amplification. The most common sensitivity is $00 mV/in,/sec. The general purpose velocity sensor has a frequency range from 600 cpm to 600 k cpm. This transducer does not provide static position data. Accelerometer. The most common accelerometer works on the principle that when a force (of constant or fluctuating nature) is applied to a piezoelectric crystal (such as quartz), a charge or voltage is produced. It is a high frequency device that operates below its resonance frequency (e.g., 1,800 k cpm). It requires a charge amplifier. The most common sensitivity is 100 mV/g. The frequency re- sponse of a standard accelerometer is from 600 epm to 1,200 k cpm. This trans- ducer does not provide static position data, Transducer Selection and Application Selection and application of a transducer are dependent on the machine structure, environment and dynamic response (i.e., frequency range of interest). Each trans- ducer has the best potential for a specific application. Transducers are generally applied on the bearing housing, Factors that should be considered for transducer selection are: bearing type, ice, fluid film or rolling element, casing-to-rotor mass ratio, machine operating speed and the environment (temperature, corrosiveness, ete.), It has to be well understood that the rotor in any rotating machine represents a source of vibration. By measuring rotor vibration one gets the direct informa- tion, while measuring the case vibration the information is indirect and distorted by casing transmissibil Based on these considerations, the following categories are representative of industrial machines: A) Slow speed machines (less than 1,000 rpm) have large rotor mass com- pared to bearing housing (the rule of thumb is 3 mil shaft vibration and 1 mil bearing housing vibration) and fluid film or rolling element bearings. Examples are large gear boxes, cooling tower fans, large reciprocating engines, pumps, compressors, and their lube oil cooling fans and large electric motors. In this category, bearing housing dynamic motion adequately represents rotor response and, therefore, a velocity pickup can be used. Special attention should be given to the transducer resonant frequency. B) Medium speed machines (1,000 to 3,000 rpm) have medium size and rolling clement bearings. Examples are general purpose steam turbines, electric motors, small instrument air compressors, centrifugal pumps, etc. Velocity sensors and accelerometers are capable of capturing machine dynamic performance with a required limited accuracy. C) High speed machines (more than 3,600 rpm) have high performance, in which the rotor mass is comparatively less than the casing and bearing mass, and180 Vibration, Machinery, Data Improvement fluid film bearings. Examples are axial and radial flow compressors, blowers, expanders, pumps, steam and gas turbines. On these machines, dynamic energy of the rotor is transmitted ess to the bearings. The ideal transducer is the prox- imity probe. These machines are also equipped with an additional transducer, called a keyphasor, which provides rotor speed and phase angle information. These categories are common. However, some machines require a combina- tion of transducers to obtain complete dynamic response. Steam turbines in power generation are examples of this type and are usually equipped with dual trans- ducers (velocity and proximity), Generally, machines are classified critical or noncritical depending on service. Critical machines have an adverse impact on plant production if they are shut down and have no ‘standby’ unit. Noncritical machines have a standby unit or their shutdown does not affect production. Critical equipment undergoes continuous surveillance with costly and sophis- ticated on-line instrumentation, whereas noncritical equipment is checked peri- odically (usually by a hand-held instrument). Critical machines are usually mon- itored by several permanently mounted sensors at different locations, whereas noncritical machines are often monitored by easily attachable and detachable transducers. For data acquisition, generally, an accelerometer is used for high frequency vibration measurements (e.g., blade passing frequencies in the axial compressor, high speed rolling element bearings, etc.). A velocity pickup is ideal for medium range frequencies (600 to 600 k cpm). Both sensors read dynamic motion of the bearing housing. Proximity probes are ideal for reading shaft vibration, The range of frequency of interest is generally up to 10% operating speed. Transducer Noise Noise is an unwanted electrical signal that accompanies the useful information signal. All three types of transducers (accelerometer, velocity and proximity) ex- perience the problem of noise. The sources of noise are: Poor installation. This includes proper grounding, loose connections and external electromagnetic field influence, Electrical/mechanical runout. It appears due to rotor surface distortion, electrical Properties and rotor configuration (bow). Noise in the information signal can be identified by connecting the signal to an oscilloscope. Spikes on the wave form or orbit indicate noise. Also, at slow roll, the dynamic motion due to unbalance is negligible, and the signal displayed on the oscilloscope or meter represents an unwanted signal. Noise generation is explained next for each type of transducer. ‘An accelerometer is manufactured by using crystal material, Thermal tran- sients squeeze and release the crystal and cause a force that produces a voltage,Vibration, Machinery, Data Improvement 181 which looks like acceleration that really is not there. Other origins of noise are: signal in the resonance region, impedance sensitivity, integration noise (especially double integration) and cable noise. A velocity transducer is manufactured by using a wire coil and magnet. Pres~ ence of external magnetic fields will induce a voltage on the bobbin’s coil wire that will impede the velocity vibration signal. Other contributors of noise are: signal integration, sensitivity to the transverse axis, thermal gradients and wear of mechanical components. Contributors to proximity probe noise are rotor surface irregularities (Scratches, dents, notches, etc.), rotor bow, nonconcentric rotor cross-section, var- ying alloy composition, nonuniform residual magnetism due to irregularity in the heat treatment, internal stresses and improper mounting bracket design. Mounting bracket resonance should be at least 10% running speed. ‘The “fixes”? to the problems are beyond the scope of this article and are available in the literature [3-6]. Noise cannot be avoided in an information signal. However, the noise can be reduced. The first line of defense is proper transducer selection and shaft mate- rial treatment, The second is signal conditioning, i.c., by using filters and compensators. Vital Features of a Diagnostic Instrument A raw form (overall or direct) of the information signal displays total vibration intensity and cannot disclose the component responsible for making the vibration. Segregating the information signal reveals the status of individual components. This type of overall information signal processing demands a complex system (vibration diagnostic instrument). An information signal (overall) can be separated into amplitude, frequency, phase angle (absolute or relative), position (shaft cen- terline by proximity probe) and shape (wave form and orbit). The parameter “frequency” plays a key role in the process of segregating an information signal through electronic filters. Basically, three types of filters are used depending upon the application: Tunable filters identify a signal frequency and corresponding amplitude by manually tuning bandpass, low and/or high band pass filters. Tunable filters are often used for periodic monitoring. Tracking filters adjust center frequency of a bandpass filter automatically with an external reference signal, i.c., keyphasor. They are often used for recording rotor-bearing transients (polar and Bode plots). Sweep filters adjust center frequency of a bandpass filter automatically with an internally generated reference signal. They are often used for recording spec- trum and cascade plots. Another function that is used in segregating reference signals is called a ‘‘win- dow.”” The window determines bandpass shape. The following three shapes are available on a spectrum analyzer:182 Vibration, Machinery, Data Improvement Flat top is used to obtain high amplitude resolution but the corresponding frequency resolution is poor. This bandpass is used for measuring discrete spectral lines. Uniform is used to obtain high frequency resolution but the corresponding amplitude resolution is poor. This bandpass is used for transient measurements. Hanning is a traditional window found on most realtime analyzers. It offers a compromise between the “flat top”” and “‘uniform’? bandpass shape. This band- pass is most commonly used for random measurements. Much of this article was excerpted by special permission from Hydrocarbon Processing, March 1993 copyright © 1993, by Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Texas 77252. References 1. Anon, ““Data Acquisition Course—Reference Book,”” Technical Training, Bently Ne~ vada Crop, 1992. Biggs, D. H., “Electrical Runout and Eddy Current Displacement Proximity Trans- ducers,” ASME Paper 75-PET-28, 1975. . “Glitch: Definition of and Methods for Correction, including Shaft Burnishing to Remove Electrical Runout,”” Application Note, Bently Nevada Corp. Anon, ‘Vibration and Elimination of Runout,”” Application Note, Bently Nevada Co ‘Anvn, “How to Minimize Electrical Runout During. Rotor Manufactring,” Appli- cation Note, Bently Nevada Corp. Anon, “Methods of Dealing with Glitch: Where Does Electronic Runout Compensa- tion Fit In,”” Application Note, Bently Nevada Corp. ‘Anon, “Understanding the HP 3582A Spectrum Analyzer,”” Hewlett Packard. x 2 ek wo ~ INAM UL HAQ Vibration, Machinery, Problems and Solutions ‘The current trend toward high performance (speed, power, flow, etc.) and low weight are causing new machinery dynamics problems. Vibration diagnostics en- gineering of rotor-bearing-casing systems must consider both internal and exter- rnal influences to effectively predict and diagnose these problems. It is assumed that machinery vibration data are free from ambiquity, error, conform to a standard and clearly identify the physical cause(s) responsible for vibration,Vibration, Machinery, Problems and Solutions 183 Rotor Vibration Due to Internal Forces The inherent or internal force in a rotor is the centrifugal force, F, that is generated by unbalance mass, m, located at distance, r, on a rotor of circular frequency, 22, ie, F = mrQ?, Usually, production/manufacturing techniques of making a rotor cause an unequal distribution of mass around the periphery. Imbalance may also occur during operation because of thermal effects, erosion or deposition. Unbal- ance causes a rotor to vibrate at a frequency equal to rotor speed, and this is called “*fundamental’” or synchronous response. Unbalance force cannot be erad- icated completely from any rotor, however, it can be reduced to an acceptable level through balancing. Force is a “‘cause"” that leads to “‘response.’” With re- spect to rotor-dynamics, force and response have definite characteristics and it i vital to understand this interaction clearly. Unbalance Force Characteristics Strictly speaking, unbalance force is a “heavy spot”’ on a rotor with the following considerations: The unbalance force is an integral part of a rotor, i. eliminated. It is expressed by harmonic functions “‘sin 2" or ‘‘cos 4’ where ¢ is time. It has a frequency equal to rotative speed, 2 (rad/sec). Its magnitude is proportional to the mass, radius and square of the rotative speed: F =m. Force phase angles, , represent angular position of the heavy spot measured from the reference angle ‘zero’ marked on the shaft (area beneath lateral vibration probe when the keyphasor is aligned to the notch on the rotor, see ig. 1). it can be reduced but not Response Characteristics Strictly speaking, response is a “high spot’’ on a rotor when shaft displacement is observed with the following considerations. Note it is the response which is observed by lateral vibration probes Harmonic time base expressed by the same harmonic functions as the unbalanced force. It has a frequency equal to rotative speed, 0 (rad/sec). Its magnitude, A, is directly proportional to the force amplitude but inversely proportional to the dynamic stiffness, K, of the rotor. Phase fag angle, , represents the angular position of the high spot. This is the angle between the force vector and response vector (Fig. 1).184 Vibration, Machinery, Problems and Solutions FIG, 1 Orientation of angles Rules of Rotor Fundamental Response By keeping in mind the characteristics of “heavy spot”? and ‘‘high spot,’’ some inherent properties of rotor vibration are explored. These properties can be used to make rules related to three individual operating modes of a rotor, These prop- erties are classified by taking into account the rotor first balance resonance region (Fig. 2). FIG. 2 Rowor fundamental response (Bode plot).Vibration, Machinery, Problems and Solutions 185 1, Rotor speed at well below the first balance resonance speed: A ~ F both increase proportionally to the square of rotor speed, (P. A ® ", ie., magnitude of the response is controlled by the static stiffness of the rotor-bearing system. & ~ ¢ and decreases slowly from original value, as speed increases. 2. Rotor speed swells on the first balance resonance speed: A® Yp, i.e., magnitude of the response is controlled by damping available in the rotor-bearing system. «= — 90, ie, response phase angle differs by 90° from its original value. 3. Rotor speed at well above the first balance resonance speed: A % jy and Stays at some constant value. The magnitude of the response is controlled by the ratio m/M where M is the root mass. = } ~ 180, i, response phase angle differs by 180° from its original value. Rotor unbalance amplitude is an integral part of any machinery signature. A rotor, either balanced in a workshop stand or in situ by following standards, may exhibit an increased level of 1X vibration at some point in its service cycle. Unbalance response results from three causes: rotor manufacturing techniques, particle deposition on the rotor while it is in service and increased bearing clear- ance due to wear, It is vital to diagnose that an increase in magnitude of unbalance response is caused by either an increase in unbalance force or increase in bearing clearance, Sometimes on small machines that are not equipped with a speed sens- ing instrument, the unbalance rotor response provides an accurate measurement of operating speed through a vibration diagnostic instrument. Rotor Vibration Due to External Forces An information signal from a vibration measuring transducer is always complex. Discretization of the signal on the basis of frequency discloses the components responsible for rotor vibration. Apart from rotor unbalance, rotors often exhibit responses due to other forces. These forces exert additional loads on the rotor- bearing system. Fortunately, all forces agitate rotors at distinct frequencies that have been identified. Thus, a number of machinery problems have been discov- ered, Their classification is based on the frequency they generate, The following are the problems that have proven impact on machine performance. The discus- sion is related to machines supported by journal bearings.186 Vibration, Machinery, Problems and Solutions Rotating Aerodynamic Stall Rotating stall is @ phenomenon where aerodynamically forced subsynchronous vibrations are generated in impellers and/or vaneless diffusers at a frequency range of about 10%-20% of rotor speed. This phenomenon can be expressed easily. The inlet and outlet of impeller and diffuser vanes are designated to meet the incoming flow at predetermined incident angles. The growth of boundary layers within the impeller and diffuser block the flow and, thus, change the incidence angles considerably. As a result, the flow separates which propagates through the impeller or diffuser and causes nonequilibrium aerodynamic forces that ultimately perturb the rotor. Stall phenomena should not be confused with “‘surge.”” In surge complete breakdown of flow occurs and flow reverses in all areas of compressors. For further study on this topic, refer to Reference 3, Fig. 3 shows the spectrum water-fall plot taken from the personal archive of the author. ‘The spectrum is captured in a horizontal probe mounted on a high pressure (750 psig) natural gas injection centrifugal compressor discharge. Rotat- ing stall amplitude appears at about 1,600 cpm, which is about 9% of the rotor speed (17,000 rpm). Rotating stall is an inherent design problem. Permanent curve was not avi able to users except replacing bearing tilting pads. These compressors were built in the sixties. It seemed that in their original design and construction, the com- pressor stall phenomena and its adverse effect was either not fully understood, or initially it was believed that the subsynchronous vibrations were not harmful to the machine. Oil Whirl Oil whirl is a serious instability (self-excited) problem that occurs in hydrody- namically lubricated journal bearings. The phenomenon of oil whirl was first + Stage Ill Comp. Posn. K =X probe C16 Unita: wat PA-PK Point 1D: KX KOBTT Point : 00180 FIG. 3 Characteristic vibration of rotating stall,Vibration, Machinery, Problems and Solutions 187 reported in 1925. It was found that shaft whirling ceased when the oil supply was altered, and led to the conclusion that it was due to motion within oil film. A simplified explanation was proposed that relied upon the fact there is a pressure difference around the journal surface. Oil whirl commonly occurs in sleeve-type bearings. It can also occur in any circumferential cavity between rotor and a stationary part of a machine. The main contributor to rotor instability is the “fluid circumferential flow.’” The physical phenomena is briefly described. The shaft rotation is an enclosed environment (such as bearings, seals, etc.) drags the fluid into rotary motion. Usually the fluid flow is three-dimensional However, the circumferential component of flow, generated by shaft rotation, may appear quite significant from the other components of fluid motion (radial and axial). The circumferential flow generates the effect of fluid dynamic rotating force which, in turn, drags the rotor (feedback loop) into lateral vibration, For analyzing and predicting rotor instability, the circumferential flow is rep- resented by two main factors: the fluid average circumferential velocity ratio, \, and the film radial stiffness. Both factors are a function of shaft eccentricity. Experimental results show that fluid average circumferential ratio decreases slightly when the shaft operates at low eccentricity and decreases sharply when eccentricity becomes higher. The radial stiffness increases with shaft eccentricity. ‘The problem of oil whirl is particularly apparent in large steam turbines. The bearings used in turbines are of a fixed geometry type (elliptical shape with central grooving or two-lobe or three-lobe) to avoid instability. In many turbomachines, rotor instability is reduced by using tilting pad bearings (variable geometry). The use of variable geometry bearings is very unusual in large turbines. Indeed it is positively avoided because of high initial cost and increased bearing wear during slow turing. The characteristic frequency range of oil whirl varies between 0.38X to 0.48%, depending on bearing type. Amplitude is a function of bearing type, speed, ec- centricity due to radial preload and the magnitude of unbalance response. Un- balance response provides a distinct forcing function in the resonance region. For unloaded rotors that rotate in cylindrical bearings, the margin of stability becomes very small. Oil Whip Oil whip is an action of self-excited lateral vibration due to solid-fluid interaction in bearings, seals and sometimes other double cylindrical parts of a machine. Oil whip occurs when fluid average angular velocity, \Q, reaches the value of rotor balance resonance frequency. For the first mode whip, AM = \/K/M, where K and M are the modal stiffness and the modal mass respectively. Oil whip produces a forward circular or elliptical orbit, Amplitudes of oil whip vibrations are usually high. Because of their transient nature, self-excited vibration is considered danger- ‘ous for machine operation. Self-excited vibration can be violent as bearing clear- ance tends to increase. Fig. 4 shows the spectrum taken by a horizontal probe mounted on a low pressure (25 psig) natural gas injection compressor suction end. The compressor has the first balance resonance speed of 5,200 rpm. This188 Vibration, Machinery, Problems and Solutions | je = le RIMES Ez ap Frequency, opm FIG. 4 Traces of rotor whirl in a deteriorated bearing. spectrum clearly identifies the excitation of first balance resonance. It is very imeresting to note that the excitation of the balance resonance is also generating harmonics. On a real-time analyzer it was observed that these harmonics were not stable and were directly latched to the amplitude resulting from transient excitation of the first balance resonance. At deteriorated bearing conditions, the unfiltered vibration was 2.15 mils, of which about 1 mil was contributed by the first frequency of rotor whirl. Fig. 5 reveals the vibration status of the same location after replacing the worn bearing. It is interesting to note that there is no Tf Vibration in Log dip Amplitudes: Frequency, opm FIG. § Rotor vibration after replacing the deteriorated bearing,Vibration, Machinery, Problems and Solutions 189 excitation of the first balance resonance and, therefore, no harmonics of it. Fig. 6 displays the same phenomenon in orbit and time wave forms taken on the discharge end bearing of the same compressor. Self-excited (subsynchronous) vibrations are usually inherent in light weight, lightly loaded (unbalance force), and high speed rotors that run above the third balance resonance region. The problems of fluid whirl and fluid whip can be avoided at the early design stage. The factors “fluid circumferential average ve~ locity ratio,” and ‘fluid film radial stiffness’ demand immediate attention for improving rotor stability. The following techniques control the stability. Decrease fluid circumferential average velocity ratio. It can be achieved by per- turbing circumferential flow, i.e., by changing bearing geometry. Increase fluid film radial stiffness. It can be achieved by increasing lube oil supply pressure. VaAY*S ‘Ontere ort United OB wolasch to48.5, yH5760 * Sid, mec/D, rat, yu?-00 um jum OS wa r=IR7, 29-91, 1 wh DmeciD, ro 19-17, 99-3} jimh jim im nx (8220 66m) 49> (6220 opm) 05 vid e=8P6, y=21728, 05 8 2 eR ABB. Ya -28 4 (10400 opm) 2 ore FIG. 6 Rotor whitling orbits and wave forms.190 Vibration, Machinery, Problems and Solutions Change fluid temperature by cooling low viscosity fluid or heating high viscosity fluid. This corrective measure may not lead to a final cure, as the achievable ranges of temperature change may be insufficient. Increase the natural frequency. It can be achieved by reducing the shaft length or increasing shaft diameter—a cure beyond control of the user. Structural Resonance Supporting/adjoining structures (truss, foundation, pipelines) form an integral part of a rotating machine. In the field, any machine structure can be subjected to resonance, but usually machines such as lube oil and interstage cooler fans sup- ported by steel structures exhibit the problem of resonance. ‘Structural resonance can be easily identified. While the machine is at rest, the structure can be excited by a plastic or rubber hammer and the corresponding spectrum can be captured. The dominating amplitudes and corresponding fre- quencies of the spectrum represent the structural resonance regions that can then be co-telated to known forcing function frequencies (e.g., machine speed and its harmonics). The resonance problem can be cured by either changing the forcing function frequency or by altering the resonance frequency region. Note resonance frequency region of the structure can be shifted by increasing or decreasing the stiffness (by removing or adding support). Fig. 7 is a practical example showing the spectrum of a compressor piping resonance vibration before and after correction. 0 20004000 6,000 6,000 ‘10,000, Frequency, cpm FIG. 7 Compressor piping resonance correction.Vibration, Machinery, Problems and Solutions 191 Vane/Blade Passing Vibration Centrifugal and axial flow machines exhibit the phenomena of vane/blade passing vibration, which appears due to nonequilibrium fluidynamic forces generated by interaction of impeller-diffuser vanes/blades. Number of vanes in an impeller mul- tiplied by speed yields vane passing frequency. Blade passing vibration refers to aerodynamic disturbance that occurs in axial flow machines (fans, compressors, turbines, etc.). Number of blades in a hub multiplied by speed yield blade passing frequency. Fan blade passing vibration can be controlled by adjusting the blade angles. Several failures of the inlet guide vane (IGV) bushings of gas turbine axial compressors were experienced. Periodically recording and trending blade passing vibrations proved to be very worthwhile. Note that worn out bushings altcred the flow angles of IGV. As a result, aerodynamics of the incoming stream at the operating condition were changed. This disturbance was clearly revealed in the spectrum of blade passing that helped in identifying the status of IGV bushings. Misalignment Misalignment between the axis of two rotors or between two bearings of the same machine is a very serious threat to a machine. Misalignment can be easily identified by vibration diagnostic instruments. Generally, the characteristic vibration of misalignment appears at twice the ma- chine operating speed (2X) but sometimes the dominant 1X vibration in the axial direction also indicates misalignment. On an oscilloscope screen, the display of two orthogonal probes in the form of figures like an “'8" or “‘banana’” reveal misalignment. Machine trains in contemporary chemical and petrochemical industries are complex. For instance, a high performance ammonia-urca plant can have a syn thesis gas compressor train consisting of as many as six separate rotors (two steam turbines and four centrifugal compressors rotors). Certainly, aligning such a train will be a difficult and time consuming task. The growth of bearing pedestals caused by temperature gradient is the most important consideration in aligning a machine train. Therefore, it is imperative to monitor continuously the thermal growth of each bearing pedestal. Unlike rotor instability problems, which are usually beyond the control of users, machine alignment can be controlled on site. Rotor Rubbing In practice, rubbing action may be continuous for a short duration, or intermittent or continuous for an extended time. There are two extreme cases of rotor radial subs: full annular rub, ie, a complete contact from 0° to 360° in one shaft revolution from a stationary point, which can be continuous either for a short or long duration, and partial rub, i.e., a point contact or partial surface contact which can be continuous or intermittent.Vibration, Machinery, Problems and Solutions Rotor rubbing of short duration is very common in high speed machines since they operate at fairly close tolerances. For example, high pressure oil seal rings in a high pressure centrifugal compressor operate at very close clearance to seal the gas completely. Usually a rotor will experience rubbing for a short duration after every major machine overhaul. For example, a centrifugal compressor over- haul includes replacing interstage labyrinth seals, balance drum seals, high and low pressure seal oil rings, O-rings and journal bearings (if worn out). During the first start up, the rotor tends to float and rubs the nearest stationary parts, For a high speed, high performance machine, rotor rubbing can be very dangerous. Failures have been experienced with high pressure oil seal rings within a short time after start up after overhauling the high pressure (3,000 psig) casing of a synthesis gas compressor. On inspection it was found that scal clearance had increased considerably due to rotor rubbing. Fortunately during rubbing the rotor generates detectable frequencies. These frequencies can be plotted at the following operating modes. 1. Transient mode (machine startup and shutdown that includes, polar, Bodé and cascade plots 2. Steady state mode that includes orbit plots, wave form and spectrum plots Physical phenomena related to rubs are ““friction”” and “‘modification of stiff- ness.”” Friction forces modify rotational and processional motion of the rotor. Rotational motion is affected by an additional torque interacting with the driving torque and the torque of regular external load. This results in a decrease of ro- tational speed, followed eventually by transient shaft torsional vibrations when the friction torque is removed. The rotor precessional motion can be affected in a more significant manner. In the case of 360° annular rub, high friction forces may cause a dramatic change of precession direction from forward to continuous backward whirl (known as dry whirl). Rotor precession in the backward mode is subjected to high frequency alternating stresses and deformations, which may eventually lead to damage or even shaft destruction The stiffness of a rotating machine (that defines resonance regions) is deter- mined by the stiffness of the shaft, pedestals, bearings and seals. When the shaft comes in contact with a stationary part, new boundary conditions modify the shaft stiffness. The modifications of stiffness totally depend on position of stationary contact relative to shaft length and on actual stiffness of stationary contact. Partial rotor/stator rub, or rub in oversized or poorly lubricated bearings as observed in many machines, often causes steady subharmonic vibrations of fre- quency equal to exactly half of rotational speed. The range of possible subhai monic vibrations vary, however, with the rotational speed, When rotor operational speed is higher than 3 times its first natural frequency, the resulting steady sub- harmonic vibration can have the range one-third (light rub) or one-half (heavy rub), Common frequencies generated by partial rubs are: 1. when 1 < 20. 1X 2. when Q = 20... LX or 1/2XVibration, Machinery, Problems and Solutions 193 3. when © = 3M 1X, 1/2 oF 13% 4. when © > 40 1X, 1/2X, 1/3X, oF 1/4% Note a particular regime of subsynchronous vibration depends on factors such as imbalance, damping, external load, geometry and material characteristics. With sufficient high damping, the subsynchronous vibrations may not occur at all. Gear Mesh Vibrations Gears play a vital role in transmitting torque at different speeds. Many gear drives have become an integral part of critical turbomachines and demand equal attention for surveillance. Some gear box configurations are complex in operation. Practical examples include: planetary gear boxes, accessory drive of gas turbine engines, etc, Almost every gas turbine has an accessory drive that incorporates various gears. Gears in accessory drive systems drive the scal oil and lube oil pumps and help in initial start up of the gas turbine engine. During operation, teeth impact can give rise to a high level of force separating the gears. This can show up as high vibration at the gear meshing frequencies. Gear mesh frequency can be determined by multiplying the number of teeth on each gear with the speed of rotation. In a vibration spectrum of a gear box, it is possible to observe high spikes, not only at the gear meshing frequencies, but at frequencies caused by modulation or combination of all the other driving fre- quencies of the gear box. From these, a cross-analysis of the spectrum can reveal the intensity level of meshing frequencies and the side bands generated by the combination of gear mesh and gear rotation speeds. A study of the relative levels ‘and trending can give a warning of the impending problem in a gear set. Shaft Crack A high level of operating stresses in rotating elements, and their adverse effects on structural integrity have increased the susceptibility to shaft cracks. More than thirty shaft crack incidents have been reported in North America over the past 10 years. The primary mechanism that cause shaft cracks include high and low cycle fatigue, creep and stress concentration. During operation, the shaft is subjected to forced vibrations of a wide frequency range. Particularly unfavorable dynamic conditions occur at transient states; startups, shutdowns, changing process, etc, Other factors such as temperature gradient and corrosion also contribute in ini- tiation and propagation of a crack. Fortunately, the current technology of machinery monitoring and diagnostics engineering is capable of predicting reliable results related to a cracked shaft. A shaft crack causes specific dynamic phenomena during machine operation, Crack(s) in the shaft decrease shaft stiffness that changes dynamic response to194 Vibration, Machinery, Problems and Solutions major ex: rotor). ‘The most informative vibration signals for each detection of shaft crack are lateral response (amplitude and phase) of the synchronous (1%) and its second harmonic (2X). The amplitudes of third, fourth and higher harmonics are usually small and caused by nonlinear effects introduced by the crack, nonsymmetry of shaft and bearings. These signals are monitored at machine steady state and tran- sient conditions. Several other malfunctions can cause a machine to exhibit similar vibration symptoms as those experienced under a shaft crack condition, The pri- mary symptom of a shaft crack shows the change of 1X and slow roll vectors (amplitude and phase). The secondary symptom of a shaft crack is the occurrence of a 2X frequency lateral vibration component. This component is due to a com- bination of a transverse crack which causes shaft symmetry and a steady state radial force. On horizontal rotors the steady state radial force is due to gravity. ‘The 2X component can be dominant, especially if rotor speed is in the region that meets half of the natural frequency of rotor-bearing system. In steady state condition, on-line monitoring of response vectors (1X and 2X) can provide sufficient information about the state of the rotor and any deviation from the trend can indicate shaft crack. In transient condition, it is important to document machine response vectors (1 and 2) at every startup and shutdown, Comparison of the sequence of polar/Bodé/eascade plots reduced from the quired data of previous runs provides very valuable information about crack i ion. Also, differences may occur in corresponding startup and shutdown data which may indicate presence of a shaft crack. Note during setup and shutdown the torque is different, which may cause the crack to close or open and, conse- quently, introduce specific asymmetry conditions. Significant efforts have been contributed by researchers and users to under- stand the various potentially disastrous machinery malfunctions. As the technol- ogy of rotating machinery diagnostics and dynamics is growing, novel machinery problems are being discovered and, therefore, the challenge to cope with ma- chinery problems is continuous for machinery designers and users. tion forces such as unbalance and gravity (on horizontal mounted Much of this article was excerpted by special permission from Hydrocarbon Processing, January 1995 copyright © 1996, by Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Texas 77252, References 1. 1. Hag, “Improve machinery vibration data," Hydrocarbon Processing, 94-98 (March 1993), 2. A. Muszynska, Fundamental response of a rotor, Bently Rotordynamics Research Corp., US., 1986, 3. J. W. Fulton, “‘Subsynchronous vibration of a multistage centrifugal compressor forced by rotating stall,” Internal report of Exxon Research and Engineering Co., 1986.Vibration Monitoring 195 4. BLL, Newkirk and H. D. Taylor, ““Shaft shipping due to oil action in journal bear- ings,”” General Electric Review, 28 (1925). 5. A. Muszynska and D. E, Bently, ‘*Fluid-generated instabilities of rotors,"* Orbit, 6— 14 (April 1989), Bently Rotordynamics Research Corp., US. 6. A. Muszynska, “*Partial lateral rotor to stator rubs,”” IMechE, C281/84, 327-336 (1984). 7. Anon, “Advanced machinery diagnostics and dynamics course,"” Bently Nevada Corp., Minden, U.S., 1990, 8. Anon, Training and technical resources development, Solar Turbine Inc., U.S., 1982. 9. CH. Vervalin, Hydrocarbon Processing, 11 (March 1992). 10. A. Muszynska and D. E. Bently, Early detection of shaft cracks on fluid handling ‘machines, Bently Rotordynamics Rescarch Corp., U.S., 1986. INAM UL HAQ Vibration Monitoring ‘Vibration analysis rarely if ever shows up in the chemical engineering curriculum. But few if any topics are more important for the troublefree operation of pumps, compressors, centrifuges, agitators, machinery drives, fans, and other rotating ‘equipment. As it happens, more information is available nowadays than ever before con- cerning practical rotor dynamics. Meanwhile, new types of technologically ad- vanced vibration instrumentation keep coming to the marketplace. For an engineer who is not already familiar with vibration analysis, it is important to get a good Identifying Objectives Vibration monitoring of equipment at a given plant should not be difficult to justify to management. Monitoring can enhance safety, help protect the environ- ment, increase production and lower operating costs. Safety is (or should be) the biggest concern at any facility, and environmental protection is likewise high on the list for detecting machinery failures that could cause explosions, fires or hazardous-fluid releases can thus be easily justified. A monitoring system can further boost safety by climinating the need for someone to go to a machine that is not operating properly, to evaluate its condition. Production is increased by reducing equipment downtime and improving ef- ficiency. This increase is aided by the present industry shift from preventive to196 Vibration Monitoring predictive maintenance. Instead of inspecting or repairing machines at specific time intervals, repairs are scheduled in accordance with machine condition. This can in part be determined through vibration monitoring and analysis. ‘Such analysis increases the level of knowledge about a machine, and allows repairs to be performed faster because the problems are known before the machine is shut down (i.c., no surprises). Improved predictive maintenance—including vibration monitoring and analysis—leads to not only more machine hours between shutdown but also fewer machine hours during them. Most vibration- monitoring systems can be paid for by saving just a few hours of production downtime, Obviously, such results lead to reduced maintenance costs. What’s more, op- crating costs may well drop even further because of lower insurance rates—many insurance firms are willing to lower their premiums if their customers install vibration monitoring instrumentation, ‘Whatever the rationale for a given monitoring program, it is important to get agreement from everyone who will be involved. This of course includes not only the engincers, but also company management, plant operators, maintenance per- sonnel, plant environmental and safety specialists, and any technicians whose job functions are relevant. The agreement should cover not only what is to be done initially, but also any vibration-monitoring activities that are proposed to take place later through system expansion. Selecting the Instrumentation Once the objectives for a vibration-monitoring system have been identified and approval obtained, instrumentation must be selected. The key piece of instrumen- tation is the sensor or transducer that ‘reads’” the vibration and generates signals that accurately represent the overall condition of the machine. Additional ele- ments, which are discussed later, can be added to the system to increase its di- agnostic capabilities and its usefulness. There are two basic types of vibration sensors: proximity displacement trans- ducers, commonly referred to as proximity probes, and seismic or casing trans- ducers. The proximity version, a solid-state probe, is positioned about 0.05 in. (50 mils) from the rotating element itself, whereas the casing transducer is in- stalled on a machine’s case or similar structural piece, usually the bearing housing. The proximity transducer operates on the eddy current principle and is capable of sensing the distance between the probe tip and the observed surface. The tip of the proximity probe radiates a radio frequency signal. When this clectromag- netic field comes in contact with conductive material, for example a machine’s rotor, small eddy currents are generated on the surface of the material. These currents are losses and can be detected. As the conductive material moves towards or away from the tip of the probe, the proximity transducer’s voltage output changes proportionally. ‘The casing transducer comes in two forms, the accelerometer and the velocity transducer. The accelerometer generally employs a piezoelectric crystal uponVibration Monitoring 197 which a reference mass has been mounted; as the rotating equipment and the mounted device vibrate, the reference mass exerts a force on the crystal, which generates a voltage signal that is proportional to the vibrational acceleration. The velocity transducer is an electromechanical device using a coil and a magnet (one of these two pieces stationary, the other moving), producing a voltage proportional to the velocity of vibration. ‘The choice between proximity transducer and casing transducer depends on the type of equipment to be monitored. For instance, consider fluid-film bearings, which have measurable clearances and thus allow the rotor system to move around within the journal area. For machines equipped with this type of bearing, it is very important to measure the vibration of the rotor system itself, because this is typically where the vibration of the equipment originates. Proximity measure- ments are usually the better choice for situations that involve such bearings, be- cause those measurements assess the vibration of the rotor system relative to the equipment casing This guideline gets modified, however, for those pieces of equipment that employ fluid film bearings and in which the mass of the rotor is large in com- parison with that of the bearing housing. An example of where this can occur in chemical-process plants is with forced-draft or process-air fans. If the equipment case is compliant (i.¢., the bearing support stiffness is low, so that most of the shaft vibration is transmitted to the bearing housing), any vibration of the rotor system can cause the case to vibrate. In such instances, the proximity measure- ments that observe the shaft should be supplemented by casing measurements. Proximity probes are the choice if the engineer requires actual position infor- mation on the rotor system. This information is gained in radial-vibration situa- tions by mounting two probes 90° apart in the same radial plane (Fig. 1). Changes in axial or thrust position—which do not necessarily entail vibration, but are nevertheless similarly important in equipment monitoring —can be determined by employing two probes in a dual voting arrangement (i.c., the probes must agree with each other in order for an alarm condition to be annunciated) as shown in Fig. 2." In process pumps and other relatively small pieces of rotating chemical-pro- cess equipment, the rotating elements are likely to be supported by rolling-element bearings. For vibration monitoring of such equipment, casing transducers are often used; however, high-gain proximity transducers are becoming increasingly pop- ular. They measure deflections of the outer bearing-race as the rolling elements pass by. This picks up both rotor vibration (caused by misalignment, imbalance or instabilities) and bearing vibration (caused by inner and outer race defects), Because their point of measurement is outside the machine, casing measure- ments are the only feasible option for portable (handheld) periodic monitoring. This monitoring is discussed in the next section. In those applications that call for casing measurements, velocity transducers are used for situations involving relatively low vibrational frequencies, such as the frequencies that are associated with the typical rotational speeds of chemical- “Detailed information is available from the American Petroleum Institute (API, Washington, D.C.) and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO, Geneva, Switzerland) concerning stan- dards for vibration-transducer selection and instalation,Vibration Monitoring STEPHAN WALSH FAG. 1 Two proximity probes mounted at @ 90° angle determine a shaft’s radial vibration ( is aot to scale). process equipment (e-g., 3,600 rpm). Accelerometers are instead applied in higher- frequency applications, such as those associated with monitoring the gear-mesh frequency in gear boxes. Velocity transducers are simple electromechanical devices that generate their ‘own signal. Unfortunately, vibration in any axis other than the measurement di- rection, a situation referred to as cross-axis vibration, can create a signal error. In situations where cross-axis vibration can arise, the ordinary velocity transducer should not be used. Fortunately a relatively new version, the piezo-velocity sensor, avoids this problem. Whatever transducer is selected, consideration should be given to its proper installation. For instance, as mentioned earlier, proximity transducers used to mea- sure radial vibration should be installed 90° apart in or near the fluid film bearing. Casing transducers should obviously be installed on the machine case; however, care should be taken to make sure that the area where the transducer is installed will yield useful vibration information, Continuous vs. Periodic Continuous monitoring is inherently more desirable than is periodic checking. However, the instrumentation is more costly to install. For rotating equipment that could jeopardize safety, continuous monitoring should certainly be selected—one safety-related accident can cost many timesVibration Monitoring 199 Pro paren FIG. 2 Proximity probes that are mounted perpendicular to the end of a shaft can detect threst position, more than a continuous monitoring system, especially if human life is lost. Con- tinuous monitoring immediately indicates failures, allowing them to be isolated and eliminated quickly. For specific situations, continuous monitoring can automatic shutdown. An example of such situations is axial-thrust posit change, which often happens rapidly. Continuous monitoring keeps the vicinity safe from the area-related effects of explosions and spills that would be due to equipment failure. It also prevents any safety risk for the people who otherwise would have to go to the equipment to collect data or access its condition. Continuous monitoring picks up cyclical (trend) events, which can be missed with periodic monitoring systems. And, changes in a machine’s condition are better documented with continuous monitoring than with periodic monitoring. Better resolution yields better correlation of events, allowing problems to be solved faster. ‘Traditionally, periodic monitoring has been performed with portable instru- ments. With one of these instruments, many machines can be monitored period- ically for the same instrumentation cost as would be spent to monitor one mac continuously. However, experience has shown that periodic measurements deviate widely in such situations. Human errors, such as variations in transducer place- ment (including both the location on the rotating equipment and the angle atVibration Monitoring which the device is held) and in the pressure between the transducers and ma- chine, can drastically affect the accuracy obtained with handheld vibration readings. Advances in instrumentation have provided two solutions to this problem. Both involve the use of permanently installed transducers. ‘The first of these links several transducers together through one cable, which transmits transducer signals to a centrally located personal computer. This solution not only provides overall vibration amplitude measurements but also allows direct access to the dynamic transducer signal, which can be used to diagnose the prob- lems experienced by the equipment. Such a system might take successive readings (on a repetitive basis) from well over 2,000 transducers, covering 40 or more pieces of equipment. It is particularly suited for cases such as pump pads, where a number of identical pieces of equip- ‘ment are operating in parallel. ‘The second solution is to use vibration transmitters. These locally mounted devices act as signal conditioners (Signal Conditioners, the Process Control Link, CE, December 1989, pp. 104~107) in converting the overall yibration-amplitude measurements into ISA-standard proportional signals, and transmit these signals to a basic process control computer. With permanently installed transducers, errors associated with temporary transducers are eliminated, and more-consistent data are collected. In addition, both solutions free up manpower so time can be spent investigating problems, as opposed to collecting data, Thus, the typical payback period for either of these two solutions can be relatively short, Note that although transmitters continuously generate a signal and thus can be thought of as a form of continuous monitor, they are only part of the moni- toring system. Signal verification, display and alarm annunciation must be per- formed by other instruments. Before using transmitters, the engineer should give thought to system response time, as well as overall system reliability and availability. ery Diagnostics ‘Once the vibration-monitoring system is in place (or even before), thought should be given to how to identify the root causes of the vibration, Either portable or online devices to make such diagnoses are readily available. The decision to use online equipment or portable instrumentation depends upon the objectives of the vibration monitoring program. Online diagnostic systems offer generally the same advantages over portable instruments as continuous monitoring does over periodic monitoring. Computer- based online systems allow detection of changes in rotor response when they first occur, thus improving on the unrolling of lengthy strip-chart paper in older approaches. With the online approach, detailed trends of different parameters can be com- pared on the same screen to determine which was cause and which was reaction.Vibration Monitoring 201 For example, one might monitor both rotor vibration and bearing temperature at a particular point, and determine whether a bearing-temperature rise causes a vibration problem or vice versa. Online diagnostic systems can capture data ‘‘bumps”” and other event-related information, When an event occurs, data can be stored in a computer's memory and reviewed at a more convenient time. If the event in question is one that automatically shuts down the machine, the captured data can be used to identify the severity of the problem and thus indicate whether a machine can be safely restarted or needs to be disassembled for repair. Portable diagnostic instrumentation, on the other hand, should be used mainly where there is a need to enhance diagnostic capabilities. This is cost-effective because the capability is exercised only when required. For example, when a machinery problem has been identified, portable instru- mentation with specific diagnostic capabilities (such as automatic data collection based on changes in vibration levels) can be brought to the process equipment or the monitoring system to analyze vibration information and determine what action should be taken. Such instrumentation can also document startup and shutdown events, Much can be learned by comparing current startup or shutdown data with past information, especially data captured during the initial commissioning phase of a machine. For cyclical or random problems, portable instruments can be left at a piece of equipment. Thus, the instrument can temporarily enhance the in- place monitoring system. Data Interpretation ‘As we have seen, online and portable diagnostic instruments can provide large amounts of data concerning the condition of a piece of process equipment. Recent developments make it easier to turn all of this data into useful information. Conventionally, the solution has been to develop “‘in-house”” vibration spe- cialists, individuals at each plant who are trained in vibration analysis. Although this works well, employee turnover continually strains any such local vibration- analysis program. Too, there often seems to be more equipment in need of analysis than skilled personnel and diagnostic equipment to perform the work ‘One solution lies in making the diagnostic information accessible at a central (even if remote) location, thus cutting down on the number of vibration experts needed. If the occasion arises, the information can instead (or also) be sent to a ‘consultant or a specialist for him or her to analyze. A second solution is to use an expert system. Software for such systems has been developed to assist (not replace) inhouse vibration specialists as well as other non-specialists, such as operators. For instance, an expert system can review equipment data, compare equip- ment-behavior characteristics to a knowledge base, and provide a summary report to the vibration specialist. Thus the specialist can concentrate only on those pieces of equipment identified as having serious problems. The summary report can also be used by operators or plant management to evaluate the severity of a machinery202 Vibration Monitoring problem and then rank it with respect to other plant operations and maintenance priorities Some expert systems obtain data by prompting the user to answer a series of questions concerning a problem. Other more-advanced systems access data di- rectly from an online diagnostic system. An advantage of this latter approach is that it can be used by people not experienced in vibration data interpretation, but who still require answers. Expert systems can also be used as training and educational tools, for both experienced vibration specialists and beginning engineers. Summary reports not only include conclusions but also information on the analysis methodology and diagnostic procedures used to reach these conclusions. By reviewing this infor- mation, an inexperienced engineer can acquire greater knowledge of the analys techniques and refer to them in the future. ANDREW T. HECKMAN Vibration Problems, Safety Relief Valves Introduction The major objective of safety relief valves in a steam generating plant is to allow efficient operation yet reliably prevent boiler overpressure. SRV problems such as leakage, chatter, and premature pop-off result in losses that affect plant effi- ciency of may limit maximum plant load. Damaged valves that fail to operate are of even greater concern due to the danger and the potential boiler damage that may result. Obviously, unscheduled unit outages to correct SRV problems result in lost revenue. Much technical material is available to assist responsible engi- neers to properly install, maintain, and operate SRVs. Most valve manufacturers provide a fairly complete list of guidelines for their products. Scully {1] and Bordelon [2] have also collected some very useful guides for the selection, in- stallation, and maintenance of safety valves. With the advent of larger steam plants. and higher velocity flow rates, the problem of flow-induced vibration has become more prevalent and has not always been clearly described. This has resulted in misleading guidelines and ineffective piping modifications. Many examples of high vibration and noise have been found to occur in closed safety relief valves during high main pipe flow conditions. Field tests on over 40 of these valves have been conducted at different producing power plants. These tests verify that vortex excitation of valve stub acoustic resonance is most often the cause of vibrations and noise [3]. High velocity flow past a cavity such as the stub of a closed SRV creates vortices which, under the right conditions, canVibration Problems, Safety Relief Valves 203 ea ‘SAFETY RELIEF VALVE STANDING WAVE vortices a safety relief valve couple with an acoustic resonance of the stub (Fig. 1). Thus, relatively small vortex pulsations can be amplified by this mechanism to levels on the order of 1400 KPa (200 psi) peak-to-peak. Such high pulsations will add to the static pressure acting at the valve seat resulting in peak pressures that exceed the valve set pressure and tend to lift the valve. The valve may then chatter, pop off pre- maturely, or vibrate, causing the parts to fret, gall or fatigue, and possibly prevent actuation when required. Theoretical Background Most of the technical literature on flow-induced oscillations in side branch cavi- ties, beginning with Lord Rayleigh, deals with flow in an infinite half space, bounded on one side by a wall into which a shallow cavity is recessed. Consid- erable work has been done on this problem for the aerospace industries. Much of this work may be applicable only in a general way to the problems found in safety relief valves due to the velocity profile differences between fully developed pipe flow and flow through an infinite half space Rockwell and Naudascher [4] have published an excellent review of self- sustained oscillation of flow past cavities. They summarize the oscillations that ‘occurred into three mechanisms: 1) fluid dynamic jet-edge oscillation; 2) fluid- resonant, acoustic resonance in the cavity; and 3) fluid clastic, i.c., cavity wall flexibility. It is possible for more than one of these conditions to occur at one time. One of the most significant contributions on the response of shallow cavities, by Heller and Bliss [5], has been the definition of flow and pressure profiles across the cavity mouth when oscillations occur. Their theory explains the reso-204 Vibration Problems, Safety Relief Valves nance of a long, narrow rectangular cavity assuming a very thin boundary layer. This assumption makes their theory suspect for pipe flow at high Reynolds num- ber since pipe radius sets the boundary layer thickness; nevertheless, the basic mechanisms appear plausible and worthy of study. The foregoing investigators [4.5] discussed suppression techniques consisting of leading and trailing edge ramps, flow spoilers, and cow! East [6] discussed the interaction of shear layer excitation and acoustic depth mode response for a deep rectangular cavity and explained that a feedback mech- anism occurs between them which causes selective frequencies to be excited. Elder [7,8] described in greater detail the shear layer mode shape and inter- action mechanism at the edge of separation. Assuming stable conditions, flow over a cavity will separate near the leading edge forming a shear layer down- stream (Fig. 2(a)). Fluid from the cavity will be entrained by the main stream, ‘creating a mass deficit within the cavity. Part of the shear layer will impinge and stagnate on the trailing edge and re-enter the cavity, thus maintaining @ mass balance. However, the effect of the velocity profile in the shear layer is to change the direction of the stagnation streamline so that the flow must impinge on the rear wall at an oblique angle. If the streamline is distorted inward, less cavity fluid will be entrained, more fluid will impinge on the rear wall, and cavity mass will increase an outward pressure on the stagnation streamline, Conversely, if the streamline is distorted outward, then entrainment will increase, cavity mass will decrease and an inward pressure on the stagnation streamline will result. These bi-stable states will alternate depending on velocity and cavity volume, resulting in a low-impedance excitation source The bi-stable oscillations can be stabilized by providing a 45° ramp (Fig. 2(b)) of sufficient height at the trailing edge of the cavity. This allows the flow to impinge at an oblique angle without distorting the streamline. Thus, stable flow conditions can be achieved. ALTERNATING (MPIRGEMENT ANGLES (a () FIG. 2 Interaction of flow over a cavity, (a) Square-edged cavity has unstable streamlines and creates vortices; (b) trailing edge ramp provide stable streamline reattachment.Vibration Problems, Safety Relief Valves 205 The factors which describe flow-induced cavity oscillations can be rather sim- ply related in analytical form at least insofar as oscillation frequency is concerned. Since the interface diagram (Fig. 2(a)) infers a three-fourths vortex wavelength structure [7], the cavity opening length (!) at resonant oscillation is 1 = GIADA, (1 = 3/AYA, «= (2 = AYR i) then the frequency of oscillation is U, fae W ~ 028) Q) where the vortex propagation velocity, U., is an empirically derived function of the stream velocity, U [9]. This function is usually nondimensionalized as the Strouhal number based on a characteristic dimension (I) such as side branch diameter (d). G) For deep cavities, the mass addition from impingement on the trailing wall results in a compression of the vertical column. Any resonance excited by this mass entrainment mechanism would be essentially depth mode resonances of the form NC 4b N= 13,5) 005 @ Block [10] working in the range 0.1 < M < 0.5, which may be applicable to piping flow dynamics, observed that the geometry of the cavity opening deter mines the loudness and quality (Q) factor of the noise spectrum. This work in- cludes cross plots of the vortex excitation function and acoustic response as a function of Mach number. The intersections of these functions are found to be the regions producing the greatest . At these intersections, the acoustic res- onance and preferential vortex excitation frequencies coincide. This coincidence can be expressed by equating the frequencies of Eqs. (3 and 4) for the first acoustic and vortex modes (N = 1, n = 1) rare © Based on the acoustic resonant frequency, the Strouhal number can be expressed as Cd S=o5 (6)206 Vibration Problems, Safety Relief Valves Elder (7] derived a backward transfer function for the cavity feedback and a forward transfer function for the shear layer interface gain response. The root locus (complex frequency plane) of each function was plotted and the intersec- tions were determined to be the instability responses. Through the root locus plot, it is also possible to explain how a split in frequencies can occur at conditions that are near the resonant point. Several examples of such split frequency re- sponses have been found in data recorded at operating plants. Testing in the author’s laboratory has shown that main piping acoustics also affect the resonant response of the valve stub. For example, pulsation amplifica- tion could be increased by a main pipe resonance if its standing wave has a velocity maximum located near the side branch entrance. Acoustic impedances will then match for that frequency and the side branch resonance will couple with the main pipe resonance. Conversely, if the side branch is located near a main piping velocity node (pressure maximum), an impedance mismatch occurs and the stub standing wave will be attenuated. Testing has shown that small changes in main pipe length can have a quite significant affect on pulsation levels. Piping acoustic analyses using analog simulation techniques could provide valuable de- sign information for the location of SRVs within a steam generating system. The use of such analyses is common practice in the design of reciprocating and cen- trifugal compressor piping systems [11,12,13]. Main pipe acoustics is the most likely cause of much of the variation in SRV vibration response observed in actual plant piping. For example, the flow at the onset of vortex problems may vary by a factor of 2 for similar valves. Field data from over 40 valves (Fig. 3) indicates that the lowest (most conservative) Strouhal number for which no coupling should occur is about 0.6. STROUHAL NUM! ‘© VALVES WITHOUT VIBRATION PROBLEMS + VALVES WITH VIBRATION PROBLEMS io un F) MACH NUMBER IM) FIG. 3 Ficld test data