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A Comparison of Admixtures Used in Concrete

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.10123.75043

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 UNIVERSITY OF EAST LONDON

A Comparison of Admixtures Used in Concrete

Kastrounis Nikolaos U1012494

B.ENG 3 (HONS) CIVIL ENGINEERING

CE3216 FINAL YEAR PROJECT

Page 1 of 84
ABSTRACT

The purpose of this report is to investigate and analyze the effects that
admixtures used in the concrete industry have on concrete. Through the use of
the laboratory 24 concrete cubes, 6 normal concrete ones, 6 with Rapid
hardener, 6 with Frostproofer and 6 with Waterproofer were tested for
alterations in tensile and compressive strength.

It was suggested to use 100mmx100mm cubes of a Water cement ratio of 0.6.

Any alteration observed in either tensile or compressive strength could be
related to variations cause by the addition of admixtures.

Alterations in Water content and Density were observed and data collected was
used as a comparison to published data.

KEY WORDS: Admixtures, Tensile, Compressive Strength, Water cement

ratio, Density

Page 2 of 84
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The purpose of this section is to give gratitude to those who made this final
project happen.

First, of all I would like to thank my supervisor at the University of East London
Mr. Tom Juffs, for the guidance and support he provided during the course of
this project.

Secondly, I would like to thank Chris Donovan, technician at the University of

East London, who helped me with the concrete lab experiment for the cube
testing.

Page 3 of 84
TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ____________________________________________________2

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS _________________________________________3

LIST OF GRAPHS _____________________________________________6

LIST OF TABLES ______________________________________________7

GLOSSARY __________________________________________________8

1. INTRODUCTION ____________________________________________9

1.1 AIMS _____________________________________________________9

1.2 OBJECTIVES ______________________________________________9

2.LITERATURE REVIEW _______________________________________10

2.1 WHAT IS CONCRETE ______________________________________10

2.2 STRUCTURE OF CONCRETE ________________________________10

2.3 IMPORTANT PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE __________13

2.4 HOW ARE THOSE PROPERTIES AFFECTED? _________________ 17

2.5 HOW IS THE RATE OF HYDRATION AFFECTED? _______________25

2.6 WHAT ARE ADMIXTURES?_________________________________ 29

2.7 LIST OF CONCRETE ADMIXTURES___________________________30

2.8 EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ADMIXTURES _____________32

2.9 HOW IS THE USE INCORPORATED INTO DESIGN?_____________37

2.10 HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUES _____________________________38

2.11 RELEVANT DESIGN STANDARDS __________________________40

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ________________________________41

3.1 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN___________________________________ 41

3.2 BASIC CONCEPTS ON CONCRETE MIX DESIGN________________41

3.3 RELEVANT STANDARDS ___________________________________43

3.4 MAKING THE TEST CUBES _________________________________44

Page 4 of 84
3.5 CURING AND TESTING ____________________________________45

3.6 WORKING OUT RESULT DISTRIBUTION ______________________46

4.RESULTS _________________________________________________48

4.1 ALTERATIONS IN THE MIX DESIGN __________________________49

4.2 CHANGES IN CONCRETE WEIGHT__________________________ 52

4.3 CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE AND TENSILE TEST RESULTS______58

5 .ANALYSIS OF DATA________________________________________64

6. CONCLUSION/RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK ________79

7. REFERENCES ______________________________________________82

Page 5 of 84
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 2.1 PETROGRAPHIC SECTION OF CONCRETE (PORTLAND

CEMENT ASSOCIATION, DESIGN AND CONTROL OF CONCRETE
MIXTURES) _________________________________________________ 10
FIGURE 2.2 ILLUSTRATION OF THE EFFECT OF WATER/CEMENT RATIO
IN CONCRETE
STRENGTH_________________________________________________18
FIGURE 2.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH-AGE RELATIONSHIP_______ 21
FIGURE 2.4 AGE DEGRE OF HYDRATION STRENGTH RELATIONSHIP 22
FIGURE 2.5 W/C SLUMP FLOW RELATIONSHIP___________________ 23
FIGURE 2.6 WATER CEMENT RATIO EFFECT ON HYDRATION______ 26
FIGURE 2.7 DEGREE OF HYDRATION AGAINST TIME______________ 27
FIGURE 2.8 RANGE OF MASKS USED IN PRACTICE_______________ 39
FIGURE 3.1 CONCRETE DISTRIBUTION _________________________ 46
FIGURE 4.1 ALTERATIONS IN WATER CONTENT_________________ 51
FIGURE 4.2 CONCRETE MASS IN AIR ___________________________ 53
FIGURE 4.3 CONCRETE MASS IN WATER_______________________ 53
FIGURE 4.4 AVERAGE AND SUM OF CONCRETE MASSES_________ 55
FIGURE 4.5 DENSITIES AND AVERAGE DENSITY OF CUBES_______ 57
FIGURE 4.6 TENSILE TEST RESULTS___________________________ 59
FIGURE 4.7 LOAD APPLIED COMPRESSION_____________________ 59
FIGURE 4.8 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE MIXES_____ 62
FIGURE 4.9 AVERAGE TENSION/COMPRESSION RESULTS_________ 63
FIGURE 5.1 WATER CONTENT_________________________________ 66
FIGURE 5.2 VARIATION OBSERVED IN DENSITIES________________ 68
FIGURE 5.3 TENSILE STRENGTH VARIATION ____________________ 70
FIGURE 5.4 EFFECT OF WATER/CEMENT RATIO IN CONCRETE_____ 71
FIGURE 5.5 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE MIXES_____ 73
FIGURE 5.6 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH W/C DENSITY _____________ 74
FIGURE 5.7 TENSILE STRENGTH W/C DENSITY____________________ 76

Page 6 of 84
LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 2.1 CUBE AND CYLINDER COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS_____ 14

TABLE 2.2 MEAN AXIAL TENSIAL STREANGTH___________________15
TABLE 2.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH-AGE/TYPE OF CEMENT_____ 19
TABLE 2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE ADMIXTURES________ 31
TABLE 3.1 MATERIALS USED ________________________________ 42
TABLE 4.1 NORMAL CONCRETE______________________________ 49
TABLE 4.2 RAPID HARDENER ________________________________ 49
TABLE 4.3 FROSTPROOFER _________________________________ 50
TABLE 4.4 INTEGRAL WATERPROOFER _______________________ 50
TABLE 4.5 CUBE WEIGHTS IN AIR AND WATER _________________ 52
TABLE 4.6 AVERAGE CUBE WEIGHTS IN AIR AND WATER________ 54
TABLE 4.7 DENSITIES AND AVERAGE DENSITIES ________________56
TABLE 4.8 COMPRESSIVE AND TENSILE TEST RESULTS _________ 58
TABLE 4.9 CUBE DIMENSIONS _______________________________ 60
TABLE 4.10 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF TEST CUBES _________ 61
TABLE 4.11 AVERAGE TENSILE AND COMPRESSION STRENGTHS _63
TABLE 5.1 ALTERATIONS IN WATER CONTENT OF MIXES ________ 65
TABLE 5.2 VARIATION IN CONCRETE MASSES _________________ 67
TABLE 5.3 COMPRESSIVE AND TENSILE RESULTS______________ 69
TABLE 5.4 TEST RESULTS ___________________________________ 72
TABLE 5.5 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH W/C DENSITY ____________ 75
TABLE 5.6 TENSILE STRENGTH W/C DENSITY ____________________ 77

Page 7 of 84
Glossary

• f ck Characteristic cube strength

• f cm Target mean cube strength
• f ctm Mean axial tensile strength
• f ctm , sp Mean splitting tensile strength
• f ctm , f Mean flexural tensile strength
• D wet density in (kg/m3)
• C cement content (kg/m3)
• W free water content (kg/m3)

Page 8 of 84
1. Introduction
The following chapter describes the aims and objectives of the report.

1.1 Aim
The aim of this project is investigate the changes in concrete Tensile and
Compressive Strength, Water content and Permeability with the addition of
Rapid Hardener, Liquid Frostproofer and Integral Waterproofer Admixtures,
and compare the results to normal cast Concrete.

1.2 Objectives
• To determine the effect the admixtures have on concrete compressive
and tensile strength.
• To monitor how water content is influenced by the inclusion of
admixtures.
• To test how the permeability of concrete varies with the use of
admixtures.
• To compare the results obtained by the above objectives to those of
normal concrete.

Page 9 of 84
2. Literature Review

2.1 What is Concrete

Concrete is defined as the mix of three basic components, water,

aggregates and cement. Early forms of concrete use can be seen in Egypt
with the use of lime and gypsum as cement. Through the years concrete has
changed significantly. According to Schaeffer, R.E., 1992. Reinforced
Concrete, Preliminary design for Architects and Builders . 1st ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill Inc. In 1756, British engineer John Smeaton made the first
modern concrete by adding pebbles as a coarse aggregate and mixing
powered brick into the cement. In 1824, English inventor, Joseph Aspdin
invented Portland Cement. Joseph Aspdin created the first true artificial
cement by burning ground limestone and clay together. Nowadays concrete
mixes include admixtures, coarse or fine aggregates depending on the type
of structure and fibers for reinforcement.

2.2 Structure of Concrete

As mentioned above concrete is a formula/combination consisting of three

components: aggregates coarse or fine, water and cement and in some
cases admixtures. As seen on the petrographic Figure 2.1 below, the gravel
aggregates are compound together by a mix of water, cement and sand.

Figure 2.1 Petrographic section of concrete (Portland Cement

Association, Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures)

Page 10 of 84
• Aggregates Taylor, W.H., 1977. Concrete technology and practice. 4th ed.
American Elsevier states that aggregates subsist of gravel (crushed or
uncrushed stone rock or sand). Such materials are used to reduce cost and
modify or enhance concrete properties like strength and workability as
specified by D.E. Shirley. Also he states that those materials consist
normally of 50%-80% of the mix design and so have great effect on the
properties of the concrete.
Aggregates used should be durable, hard and clean. They are specified in
BS 812 as mentioned in (1977), concrete technology and practice 4th edition.

• Cement In introduction to concrete cement is described as the most

versatile binding material. Cement is split in four categories. Portland
cements, blended Portland cements, with additives and high alumina
cements.
W.H. Taylor and D.E Shirley mention the chemical reactions which take
place between the oxides that are contained, and the cement and water
when they are added to the mix. According to Taylor Portland cement is
composed of Lime CaO , Silica SiO 2 , Alumina Al 2 O 3 and iron Oxide Fe 2 O 3 .

Page 11 of 84
• Water According to Shirley, D.E. , 1986. Introduction to concrete, water is
always required in fresh concrete and has two key roles: firstly to hydrate the
cement and secondly to alter the mix into paste thus making it workable.

Taylor, W.H., 1977. Concrete technology and practice. 4th ed. American
Elsevier states that water that is acceptable for the use of concrete mixing
should be drinkable. He clarifies that water should not contain any materials
– impurities that may have an effect on the concrete properties (hardening
rate, strength and durability). D.E Shirley highlights those
materials/impurities which have an effect on the concrete mix. Those include
(as written in (1986) introduction to concrete) organic acids, sugars,
sulphates and chlorides. Both D.E. Shirley and W.H. Taylor highlight two
methods of testing water for suitability as described in BS 3148 and BS
4550.

Page 12 of 84
2.3 Important Physical Properties of Concrete

Concrete has a high level of compressional strength, whereas tensile

strength of concrete is weak. Water content aggregates and cement play a
decisive factor in concrete strength.

Concrete made using a lower water-cement ratio produces a stronger

concrete.

Using the design specifications of BS 8500-1:2006 (BSI, 2006) for an initial

mix design proportions of 1:2:4 with a water/cement ratio of 0.6 and cube
size of 100 mm x 100 mm x100 mm . Tested according to BS EN 12390-3-2009
(BSI, 2009) the Characteristic compressive strength (f ck ) is determined.
Then compressive strength (N/mm2) for a 28 day period can be computed.

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝑁)

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝑚𝑚2 )

Equation 2.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

Page 13 of 84
 The following table represents the compressive strength (N/mm2)
according to similar tests done in the specifications of BSI standard BS
EN 1881-125 Testing Concrete and is taken from BS EN 206:2013
British Standards Publication table 2.1 – Compressive Strength classes

Mix
Μ15 Μ20 Μ25 Μ30 Μ35 Μ40
designation
Characteristic
cube strength 16 20 25 30 37 45
f ck
Target mean
cube 26 30 35 40 47 55
strength f cm
Table 2.1 Mean compressive cylinder and cube strength for different strength
classes.

Page 14 of 84
 Another important physical property of concrete is its tensile strength. As
noted in, Properties of Concrete for use in Eurocode 2, tensile strength is
used in both serviceability and ultimate limit state calculations.

The table below (table 2) illustrates the Values derived from BS EN

1992-1-1 are shown in Table 2.2.

Mix
Μ15 Μ20 Μ25 Μ30 Μ35 Μ40
designation
Mean axial
tensile 1,6 1,9 2,2 2,6 2,9 3,2
strength f ctm
Mean
splitting
tensile 1,7 2,1 2,5 2,8 3,2 3,6
strength
f ctm , sp
Mean flexural
tensile
2,4 2,9 3,3 3,8 4,3 4,8
strength
f ctm , f
Table 2.2 Mean axial tensile strength f ctm , Mean splitting tensile strength f ctm , sp
, Mean flexural tensile strength fctm, f

Page 15 of 84
Workability of concrete means the ability of a concrete to fill the mould.
Concrete workability varies with water and aggregates. An increase in
water causes the concrete to be more workable but may lead to
bleeding.

Page 16 of 84
2.4 How are those properties affected by water cement ratio, cement
content, type of cement ,aggregates, age, degree of hydration?

Cement, coarse and fine aggregates, water, and various admixtures

influence greatly the strength of concrete. As quoted by Metwally, M., 2014.
Compressive strength prediction of Portland cement concrete. Compressive
strength prediction of Portland cement concrete with age using a new model,
Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 145–155. “Concrete compressive strength is
influenced by many factors including water/cement ratio, cement content
and properties, aggregate type and its properties’’
The element that plays the most key role to concrete strength development
is the water cement ratio. As mentioned in Kosmatka, Steven H,
1991. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. 1st ed. the Water-cement
ratio is disproportionate to the compressive strength of concrete meaning
the higher the W/C value the lower the strength. The graph below (figure
2.2) illustrates the effect of increase of the W/C ratio on concrete strength,
taken from the International Journal of Engineering (IJE), Volume (3): Issue
(6).

Page 17 of 84
 Figure 2.2 illustration of the effect of water/cement ratio on concrete
strength

An amount of water is mandatory for chemical reactions to occur and

water to harden; extra water will increase the concrete’s workability but
will reduce the concrete’s strength.

Page 18 of 84
Yurdakul, Ezgi, "Optimizing concrete mixtures with minimum cement
content for performance and sustainability" (2010). Graduate
Theses and Dissertations. Paper 11878., states, that for a given water to
cement ratio, cement content does not affect the concrete strength,
although concrete strength is a function of that ratio. According to Dale
P. Bentz, Jason Weiss, Gaurav Sant (ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 20)

Early-Age Properties of Cement-Based Materials: I. Influence of Cement

Fineness, finer cement type will produce a higher compressive cement.

Age (d) Compressive strength Compressive strength

- fine - coarse
(MPa) (MPa)
1 36.2 18.5
7 64.8 44.4
28 78.5 58.0

Table 2.3 Compressive strength variations by age and type of cement

The table above (table 2.3) illustrates the findings/test results of, Bentz,
Weiss and Sant. It points out the significant affect cement type (coarse
and fine) has on the compressive strength of concrete.

Page 19 of 84
 Another aspect that affects concrete strength, is the aggregates. As
mentioned above aggregates constitute about 75% of concrete mix. This
means that the properties of the aggregates mainly determine those of
the concrete itself (durability, workability and strength).
According to Mehta and Monteiro (1993) Concrete Structure, Properties,
and Materials, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ those properties
are:
• Strength of the aggregates. When determining the strength of normal
concrete, aggregates tend to be much stronger than the rest of the materials
in a concrete mix, thus they do not affect the strength of the concrete.
Lightweight aggregates tend to factor more the strength of lightweight
concrete.

• Shape and aggregate texture. Those mostly affect the workability of

concrete in early stages. Rough surfaced aggregate helps create stronger
bonds, therefore greater strength for concrete.

• Moisture content

• The size of aggregates used determine how workable the concrete will be.
Larger sized aggregates will create less voids, therefore the less workable
the concrete will be.

Page 20 of 84
Age effects concrete strength. Age is actually proportional to strength.
Concrete strength increases as its age increases, starting from rapid
development and then slower over time as seen in table 3.
The graph bellow (figure 2.3), illustrates the above fact and also gives a
rough estimate on the effect that water temperature has on compressive
strength during the curing phase of concrete.

Figure 2.3 Compressive strength – age relationship

As seen on figure 2.3, the temperature during curing affects how fast the
concrete compressive strength develops but also the compressive
strength as well. As quoted by Ali H. Hamed (2009) THE EFFECT OF
CURING CONDITION ON COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH IN HIGH STRENGTH
CONCRETE ‘These results show that there is a significant increase in
compressive strength for concrete specimens cured at 60 0C with
respect to those cured at 25 0C,for mixes No.1 and No.2. The rates of
increase in compressive strength of ages 7,28, and 90 days are
12,26,and 14% for mix No.1 and 18, 19,and 8% for mix No.2
respectively’
This is because the temperature affects the chemical reactions of
hydration which increase the rate of concrete strength development.

Page 21 of 84
Degree of hydration also affects the concrete strength.
This is because concrete paste strength changes with porosity and
porosity is mainly dependent on the degree of hydration. Shown on the
graph below is the relationship between age, degree of hydration and
strength.

Figure 2.4 Age, Degree of hydration and strength relationship

Accessed http://iti.northwestern.edu/cement/monograph/Monograph5
_1.html

As can be observed from the graph, the degree of hydration and the
compressive strength of concrete are proportional to time. It is also clear
how the increase in hydration also relates to an increase in the
compressive strength of concrete.

Page 22 of 84
How is workability affected by changes in water cement ratio, cement
content, type of cement, aggregates, age, and degree of hydration?
E Yurdakul states that workability is mainly affected by water content. An
increase in the water content will significantly increase the workability.
Also Mallikarjuna Reddy, Seshagiri Rao, Srilakshmi, Sateesh Kumar
(2013) Effect of W/C Ratio on Workability, run experimental tests to
prove the effect of water on workability. The graph illustrates those
results.

Figure 2.5 W/C ratio slump flow relationship

From the data collected from their research and as projected above on
fig 2.5 the affect that water/Cement ratio has on the workability of
concrete can be observed.

As mentioned above aggregates which consist of 75% of the total mix of

concrete play a crucial role in the properties of concrete.
Aggregate grading shape and texture influence the workability of
concrete. Mindess (2003) states that smoother rounder shaped
aggregates as well as well graded aggregates give higher workability.

Cement content also affects the workability of concrete. Higher cement

content for a standard water content means poor workability according to
Lamond and Pielert (2006).

Page 23 of 84
Workability is disproportionate to strength and so is age. As the age of
concrete increases (curing time process), the workability of concrete
decreases.

The temperature also affects the concrete’s workability. As is the case

with age, temperature is also disproportionate to workability. An increase
in temperature will increase the hydration rate which will decrease the
workability of concrete Kosmatka et al. (2002).

Page 24 of 84
 2.5 How is the rate of hydration affected?
As mentioned above, hydration plays a key role in the development of
concrete properties but the rate of hydration is also dependent on a lot of
factors, according to Soroka, I., 1979. Portland Cement Paste and Concrete.
1st ed. London: Macmillan Logically all the properties that affect the rate of
hydration affect the properties of concrete, because those two are
interconnected.
Listed below are the factors that affect the rate of hydration of concrete as
described in Portland Cement Paste and Concrete.

• Age of paste
The rate of hydration is maximum at the early stages and decreases over
time until a period during which no hydration occurs.

• Cement Fineness
Cement fineness is proportional to the rate of hydration, as one value
increases so does the other. Meaning the finer the cement particles are, the
larger the area being exposed to water, according to I. Soroka.

Page 25 of 84
• Water/cement ratio
Portland Cement Paste and Concrete states that the lower the W/C ratio of
the mix, the lower the rate of hydration is. At earlier stages though, the w/c
does not have a major effect on the hydration, as seen below on figure 2.6

Figure 2.6 Water cement ratio effect on hydration

Page 26 of 84
• Cement composition
The hydration rates of each individual component of cement vary as noted
by I. Soroka an illustrated on figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7 degree of hydration against time

The graph above represents the effect time has on each cement
component individually. As highlighted in Portland Cement Paste and
Concrete hydration is ‘selective’. Meaning that, the degree of hydration of
the individual components of the cement, specifies the degree of
hydration of the cement itself.
This occurs at early stages because water being mixed is in direct
contact with all the cement components. And each component hydrates
separately.
At later stages the rate of hydration drops to the rate at which water can
circulate through the layers, thus becoming not independent of each
component.

Page 27 of 84
• Temperature
I. Soroka concludes that temperature affects the rate of hydration in early
stages but, and I quote, ‘the same rate of hydration is reached whatever the
curing temperature’ thus reaching the outcome that temperature only affects
the rate of hydration and not the final amount.

Page 28 of 84
2.6 What are admixtures

Panarese, Kosmatka, S.H. , W. C., 1988. Design and Control of Concrete

Mixtures. 4th ed.specify admixtures as ingredients added to the concrete
mix other than water aggregates and cement. BS EN 934 defines
admixtures as ‘materials added during mixing process of concrete in a
quantity not more than 5% by mass of the cement’.
According to Cement Admixtures Association and quoted ‘admixtures have
been used probably for a long as there have been concrete structures. In
earlier times they were natural materials....’
Vance Dodson (1990), Concrete Admixtures, describes admixtures as
materials added before or during mixing and are not water cement or
aggregates.
D.E. Shirley also points out that admixtures are added to modify one or
more of the concrete’s properties.
As mentioned earlier, concrete should possess the following properties:
workability, strength, durability, and wear resistance.
The purpose of concrete admixtures is to alter or enhance some of those
properties and reduce concrete cost.

Vance Dodson points out the mechanisms which admixtures use to function.
• Dispersion of cement.
• Change of hydration rate of cement.
• Reaction with by-products of the hydrating cement.
• No reaction occurring.

Page 29 of 84
2.7 List of concrete admixtures

In Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures (13th ed) Panarese and

Kosmatka classify the admixtures by function and an extensive report can
be seen on table 2.4.

Page 30 of 84
 Table 2.4 Classification of concrete admixtures

Taken from Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures (13th ed).

Page 31 of 84
 2.8 Effects of different types of admixtures on concrete

Concrete admixtures are designed to alter or give specific properties to

concrete when added during the mixing process.

Listed below are the most common ones used for concrete production and
the effects they have on concrete properties according to ‘A guide to the
selection of admixtures in concrete’.

Superplasticising/ water-reducing admixtures.

Superplasticizers produce flowing concrete with very high consistency

(slump) and also reduce the amount of water needed for a given workability
to be achieved. According to Chemical Admixtures for Concrete 2nd edition
by M.R Rixom and N.P. Mailvaganam, water reducing admixtures allow the
reduction of water/cement ration as a specific workability without any
implications on the setting characteristics of concrete. Vance Dodson
describes the mechanism of these types of admixtures. With the addition of
water, reducing admixture bubbles are formulated during mixing with water
thus making more surface space available for hydration.

Effect on property:
Strength When used in concrete production superplasticizers increase the
compressive strength of concrete, as a result of a lower w/c ratio.
Workability Superplasticising/ water-reducing admixtures tend to increase the
workability of concrete when the water cement ratio is not altered.
Durability Superplasticising/ water-reducing admixtures emphasize on the
increase of concrete durability by affecting the density and
permeability of the concrete mix.

Page 32 of 84
 Retarding admixtures.

Set retarding admixtures are used to delay the reactions which take place

during curing. They are mainly used to increase early workability strength.

D.E Shirley also mentions that retarders are related to sugars in the

chemical compounds and are often needed in hot weather to enhance the

workability.

Effect on property:

Strength When used in concrete production retarding admixtures increase

the ultimate strength as the water content is reduced.

Workability Retarding admixtures do not affect the workability in general.

Durability Retarding admixtures make the concrete more durable.

Page 33 of 84
 Accelerating Admixtures

Accelerating admixtures are used to accelerate the chemical processes

that take place during setting of the concrete mix or increase the

hardening rate and early strength development. D.E Shirley , M.R Rixom

and V. Dodson underline the effects of properties which those types of

admixtures have. They state that they are used to increase the rate of

hardening, increase hydration rate and shorten setting time and early

strength development. The most common accelerator used is Calcium

Chloride. Shirley notes that any alteration in early strength development

might have an effect on later stages.

Effect on property:

Strength Accelerating admixtures give a notable early strength increase on

concrete.

Workability Accelerating admixtures only give a minor increase in workability.

Durability Accelerating admixtures are a potential hazard for long term

concrete durability due to the chemical nature of admixtures and

the effects of calcium chloride on the permeability of concrete.

Page 34 of 84
 Air-entraining admixtures

Air-entraining admixtures are used to improve concrete cohesion, freeze-

thaw resistance, compaction and the handling of concrete. M.R Rixom
defines air-entraining admixtures as organic materials that are added to
the mix to entrain an amount of air. Cement, aggregate type, water,
slump, temperature, mixing time and vibration are some of the factors
that affect the air entrainment according to Vance Dodson.

Effect on property:
Strength Air-entraining admixtures reduce concrete strength by
approximately 5% for every 1% of air entrained.
Workability Air-entraining admixtures benefit low cement mixes but tend to
reduce the workability of those with more cohesion.
Durability Air-entraining admixtures are used to improve concrete
resistances; they also improve cohesion and concrete compaction
thus quality as well.

Waterproofing Admixtures

The main purpose of water-resisting admixtures is to reduce the

permeability of concrete and surface absorption. Rixom describes them
as water repellents because they prevent water from entering when
pressure is low.

Effect on property:
Strength Waterproofing Admixtures will increase the compressive strength
of the concrete mix due to the reduction of the water content to
cement ratio.
Workability Water-resisting admixtures have little effect on the workability of
concrete.
Durability Water-resisting admixtures reduce the permeability and thus
provide a benefit towards concrete durability.

Page 35 of 84
Admixtures used for the purpose of this dissertation are:

• sealocrete rapid hardener

Increases strength of concrete mix and improves resistance Mix
Ratios: 2.5L Sealorapid per 25Kg cement.

• sealfrost liquid frostproofer

Accelerates setting time and increases strength Mix Ratios: 1.25-
2.5L per 25Kg cement.

• sealproof integral waterproofer and retarder

Reduces water permeability Mix Ratios: 0.25 – 0.5L Sealoproof
per 25Kg cement

Accessed from http://www.sealocrete.com/product-guide.pdf

Page 36 of 84
2.9 How is the use of admixtures incorporated into design?
As mentioned previously, according to Cement Admixtures Association and
quoted ‘admixtures have been used probably for a long as there have been
concrete structures. In earlier times they were natural materials....’
According to M.R Rixom and N.P. Mailvaganam the admixture compliance
has increased thus increasing the amount of concrete containing
admixtures. This fact has led to a better understanding of admixture
properties and effects by engineers, so that it is knowledgeable by the user.
Furthermore government and industries worked together to set standards for
minimum level of acceptance, thus providing a level of product comparison.
Due to the economic decline of construction industries in some countries,
the engineer needs to tackle standards, specifications that originate from
different countries and different climate conditions in order to work
internationally, thus making the use of admixtures not only alluring but
crucial.
So this increase in demand of admixtures has led to an increase in
admixture material and technology knowledge, as mentioned in Cement
admixtures for Concrete.

Page 37 of 84
2.10 Health and safety issues regarding the use of concrete in
design.

General Precautions during concrete manufacturing, according to

Occupational safety and Health Administration – Pocket guide. It is crucial
for workers to take precautions when handling concrete.

Potential Concrete manufacture hazards as mentioned in OSHA pocket

guide are:

Cement dust. Cement dust can cause irritation to the nose, eyes and throat.
The presence of cement may even cause irritation or skin damage (if
chemicals are present) when in contact with the skin.

Ways to prevent any of the hazards mentioned above: in case of skin

contact with cement, wash off the dust with soap to prevent damage.
Respirators will prevent any dust from being inhaled doing cement handling.
In the case that it comes into contact with the eyes, rinse the dust and seek
treatment. Figure 2.8 below shows some industrial masks used in practice.

Figure 2.8 Range of masks used in practice

Page 38 of 84
Wet concrete may also be a hazardous threat when it comes into direct
contact with the skin or eyes.

Methods to prevent any threat caused by wet concrete are: wearing

resistant gloves, long sleeves, boots and eye protection when handling
wet concrete, will prevent any substances from coming into contact with
the skin. And if there is contact, rinse with cold water to remove any wet
concrete paste as soon as possible.

Admixtures used for the purpose of this dissertation pose no hazard

because they do not contain any corrosive chemical substances.
However there are some that do contain chemicals (chemical
admixtures) and require specific handling in order to prevent harm.

Page 39 of 84
2.11 Relevant design standards.

The following page consists of standards that are relevant to concrete,

mixing design and admixtures used in concrete production.

EN 197-1 Cements – Composition, specifications and conformity criteria.

BS 8500-1:2006 (BSI, 2006) Concrete. Complementary British Standard to

BS EN 206-1. Specification for constituent materials and concrete.

BS EN 206:2013 Concrete. Specification, performance, production and

conformity

BS 1881:Part 125:1986. Methods for mixing and sampling fresh concrete

for laboratory.

BS 1881: Part 107:1983. Method for determination of density of concrete.

BS 1881: Part 1083:1983. Method of making test cubes from fresh

concrete.

BS 1881-113, Method for making and curing cubes.

BS 1881: Part 116:1983. Method for determination of compressive

strength of concrete cubes.

Page 40 of 84
3. Methodology

Chapter 3 describes the process of the laboratory experiment taken place

for the purpose of this dissertation, from the creation of the test cubes to the
testing, and emphasizes on the data collection which will be explained in the
next chapter.

3.1 Concrete mix design

This subchapter describes the calculation specifications and process of
designing a concrete mix as specified by D.C. Teychenne, R.E Franklin and
H.C. Erntroy, (1988), Design of concrete mixes.
The whole problem begins with the selection of the right proportions of
cement, water, fine or coarse aggregate and a desired strength for a specific
age of the mix. Also sometimes admixtures may be used to enhance the
properties of the desired mix.
3.2 Basic Concepts on concrete mix Design
• Strength
As mentioned in the literature review, concrete strength is a major
property of concrete. According to Design of concrete mixes, the mix
should be designed to have a higher mean strength than the one
specified. Minimum concrete strength is replaced in British Standards BS
5328 and BS 8110 by characteristic strength.
Margin is called the difference between specified and characteristic
mean strength.
• Water Cement ratio
Is the ratio of mass of free water to cement.
• Aggregate Selection
Aggregate sizes vary from 10mm to 40mm and more, and are specified
in BS 882.
• Mix Proportions
Concrete mixes are specified by their proportions, for example 1:2:4
which represent sand / aggregate / cement.

For the purpose of this dissertation and as mentioned in chapter 2, an

initial mix design proportions of 1:2:4 with a water/cement ratio of 0.6 and
cube size of 100mm x 100mm x100mm is needed.
Page 41 of 84
The table below Table 3.1 represents the materials used for the concrete
cubes used.

Normal Rapid Frostproofer Integral

Concrete Hardener Waterproofer

Cement 2,122Kg 2,122Kg 2,122Kg 2,122Kg

Sand 3,96kg 3,96kg 3,96kg 3,96kg

10mm 7,92kg 7,92kg 7,92kg 7,92kg

Aggregate

Water 1,4L 1,4- 1,4- 1,4-

0,2122=1,1878 0,17=1,23 0,034=1,366

Table 3.1 Materials used

Page 42 of 84
 As described in Design of concrete mixes 5.3 cement content can be
formulated by the following equation 3.1

𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤/𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Equation 3.1

Aggregate Content is formulated by equation 3.2

𝐷−𝐶−𝑊

Equation 3.2

Where D is the wet density in (kg/m3)

C the cement content (kg/m3)

And W the free water content (kg/m3)

3.3 Relevant Standards for this chapter:

EN 12350-1 Testing fresh concrete part 1: sampling

EN 12390-2 Testing hardened concrete Part 2: making and curing

specimens for strength tests

BS 1881: Testing Concrete

BS 8500 Concrete-complimentary British standard to BS EN 206-1: 2000

BSEN 480 Admixtures for Concrete

Page 43 of 84
3.4 Making the Test Cubes

According to the Concrete society Concrete on site 10 – Making test cubes

OS010,the following are the methods specified by European or British
standards.

Concrete is specified by EN 206 and British standard BS 8500 where

concrete is divided into five categories.

In order to make concrete cubes, specified equipment is required. As

mentioned in Making test cubes these include: cube moulds with base
plates, spanners, scrappers, sampling trays for cement aggregates and
sand, a compacting table and a water curing tank.

Cube moulds used in practice are either 1500mm or 100mm, and 100mm
cubes are used for the purpose of this report. Moulds are specified in BS EN
12390-1.

Preparation: first step, sampling of materials in accordance to Sampling and

testing fresh concrete and BS EN 12350-1. Using scoops and buckets to
sample materials for the mix, the correct amount of cement sand and 10mm
aggregates was collected. Thus the materials shown in table 3.1 were
sampled and placed in the concrete mixer. Note that 10% was added to
accumulate for any material lost.

All the materials were mixed for 30 seconds and then water was added.
Mixing continued for a further 1 minute, as specified in the standards for
mixing concrete.

Compaction of concrete mix by vibration. This method was used by the

author to compact the mix. Six moulds were placed on the vibrating table.
Then, the vibration table was activated for one minute (as specified by the
standards) and the moulds were filled with the concrete mix. The same
process was repeated three times with the addition of admixtures, for a sum
of 24 cubes in total. Six cubes per mix design are going to be used to allow
adequate data for comparison.

Page 44 of 84
3.5 Curing and Testing

After the compaction process ended (after one minute) and the cement mix
settled in the mould, curing was required. Correct curing is vital, thus they
were stored in the laboratory for an initial 24 hour curing.

After 24 hours the cubes were removed from the moulds, marked and
placed in the water tank for a further 28 days (for which the strength was
desired). Water temperature was kept constant between 17oC and 22oC as
specified in EN 206 and British standard BS 8500.

After the 28 day curing period the author then proceeded to remove the
concrete cube samples from the water and measure dry and wet density of
each concrete cube category (Normal Concrete, Rapid Hardener,
Frostproofer and Integral Waterproofer).

Those concrete cubes will then be tested for their tensile and compressive
strength as per BS 1881-125:2013 Testing concrete.

Finally the author will be reviewing the change in concrete performance

(compressive strength and tensile strength) with the addition of admixtures.
As stated in chapter 2 the admixtures used are Sealocrete rapid hardener
(Increases strength of concrete mix and improves resistance Mix Ratios:
2.5L Sealorapid per 25Kg cement), Sealfrost Liquid Frostproofer
(accelerates setting time and increases strength Mix Ratios: 1.25-2.5L per
25Kg cement) and Sealproof integral waterproofer and retarder (Reduces
water permeability Mix Ratios: 0.25 – 0.5L Sealproof per 25Kg cement).

Page 45 of 84
3.6 Working out result distribution

In the following chapter (4) the results of the concrete mix design done in
accordance of Design of concrete mixes, 2nd edition and BS 1881 are going
to be presented. In addition the author is going to illustrate any test results
obtained by the cube tests and compare what effects admixtures have on
properties along with other similar publications.

Result distribution process, concrete strength variation as mentioned in The

mix design process part 4.2 follows the normal distribution as seen in figure
3.1 below (example for a concrete with f c 30).

Figure 3.1 concrete distribution

The area covered by the curve is the total number of test results. The
curve is symmetrical on each side and the mean strength line as seen in
figure 3.1 is the point at which either sides are symmetrical.

Page 46 of 84
S, given by equation 3.3, represents the standard deviation and it
illustrates variability.

𝛴(𝑥 − 𝑚)2
𝑆=�
𝑛−1

Equation 3.3

Where x represents a result, n the total number of results and m the

mean of all the n results.

BS 5328 and BS 8110 introduce a value of defectives to accumulate for

risk. This value is a 5% of the total number of results.

As mentioned in chapter 3 and Design of Concrete Mixes it is mandatory

to design for a mean strength higher than the characteristic strength. So
the target mean strength f m is equal to the specified characteristic
strength f c plus the standard deviation from equation 3.3 S times a
constant k and it is presented below in equation 3.4.

fm = fc + 𝑆𝑆

Equation 3.4

BS 5328 Methods for Specifying Concrete MIXES specifies that k is

equal to 1.64 for 5% defectives.

Page 47 of 84
4. Discussion

The following chapter describes the results obtained from the design and
execution process which was described in chapter 3. Those include the test
results from the concrete compressive and tensile strength tests.

First of all, the concrete mix design specifications (cement content, water
content and aggregates) are going to be presented (those can also be
observed in chapter 3, table 3.1).

Page 48 of 84
4.1 Alterations in the mix design

To begin with, the normal casted concrete mix design, without the
inclusion of any admixtures is presented in table 4.1 below.

Cement content (kg) 2,122Kg

Sand content (kg) 3,96kg
Aggregates (10mm) (kg) 7,92kg
Water (Liters) 1.4 L

Table 4.1 Normal concrete

The values above represent the materials needed to produce six 100mm
normal concrete cubes.

Secondly is Rapid hardener, with the addition of the admixture; the

design specification is going to change.

Cement content (kg) 2,122Kg

Sand content (kg) 3,96kg
Aggregates (10mm) (kg) 7,92kg
Water (Liters) 1,1878 L

Table 4.2 Rapid Hardener

There is a notable decrease in the water added to the mix, this is

because the amount of admixture added (0.2122L) is proportional to the
cement required for the mix and is deducted from the whole amount of
the water that is required for the specific Water / Cement ratio.

Page 49 of 84
Continuing with Frostproofer. As for the rapid hardener the same
alterations to the concrete design apply for this admixture as well and
can be observed in table 4.3

Cement content (kg) 2,122Kg

Sand content (kg) 3,96kg
Aggregates (10mm) (kg) 7,92kg
Water (Liters) 1,23 L

Table 4.3 Frostproofer

There is also a notable reduction in the water content when the

Frostproofer is used.

Last is the integral waterproofer. As mentioned for the above design

mixes, the same applies for the concrete that includes the integral
waterproofer.

Cement content (kg) 2,122Kg

Sand content (kg) 3,96kg
Aggregates (10mm) (kg) 7,92kg
Water (Liters) 1,366L

Table 4.4 Integral Waterproofer

Page 50 of 84
 As it is clear from the three last tables (4.2, 4.3, and 4.4) there is no
effect on the cement/sand/ or aggregate content, with the addition of
those admixtures.

Water Content
1.45

1.4

1.35

1.3

1.25
Water (Liters)
1.2

1.15

1.1

1.05
Frostproofer Rapid hardener normal concrete waterproofer

Figure 4.1 Alterations in water content

Figure 4.1 illustrates the alteration in water content described in tables

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 due to the addition of water.

Page 51 of 84
 4.2 Changes in concrete Weight

The following table (4.5) illustrates the deviation changes observed after
the concrete cubes were weighed in air and in water.

Integral Liquid Normal Rapid Hardener

Waterproofer Frostproofer
Mass Mass in Mass Mass in Mass in Mass in Mass Mass in
in Air Water in Air Water Air (gr) Water in Air Water
(gr) (gr) (gr) (gr) (gr) (gr) (gr)
2453,5 1410,5 2361,5 1332,5 2335 1279 2373,5 1361,5
2404 1372,5 2397 1361 2135,5 1185 2497 1430
2397,5 1373 2383,5 1328 2258 1255,5 2469 1410
2236,5 1279 2359,5 1341,5 2261,5 1243 2398,5 1378,5

Table 4.5 Cube weights in air and water

Page 52 of 84
The following Figures (4.2 and 4.3) illustrate the difference in concrete
masses in air and water as observed in the laboratory and seen in table
4.5

Alterations in Concrete Mass

2600

2500

2400
Mass in air (gr)

2300
Cube 1
2200 Cube 2
2100 Cube 3
2000 Cube 4

1900
Liquid Frost Water Proofer Normal Rapid
Hardener
Concrete Type

Figure 4.2 Concrete mass in air

Alterations in concrete mass 2

1450

1400
Mass in water (gr)

1350 Liquid Frostproofer

Waterproofer
1300
Normal
1250 Rapid Hardener

1200

1150

Figure 4.3 concrete mass in water

As it is clear from the table above (4.5) and more clearly in figures 4.2
4.3, there are some variations in the mass of the cubes depending on the
admixtures used. But those are mainly minor as is illustrated in table 4.6
where the average masses are given.

Page 53 of 84
Integral Liquid Frostproofer Normal Rapid
Waterproofer Hardener
Mass in Mass in Mass in Mass in Mass in Mass in Mass Mass
Air (gr) Water Air (gr) Water Air (gr) Water in Air in
(gr) (gr) (gr) (gr) Water
(gr)
Sum (gr) Sum (gr) Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum
(gr) (gr) (gr) (gr) (gr) (gr)
9491,5 5435 9501,5 5363 8990 4962,5 9738 5580
Average (gr) Average Average Average
2372,88 1358,75 2375,38 1340,75 2247,5 1240,63 2434,5 1395
Table 4.6 Average of the concrete cube masses in water and air

Table 4.6 clarifies the assumption made above that although there is a
notable variation in the concrete, this is minor. The biggest variation is
observed when the Integral Waterproofer is used.

Page 54 of 84
 Average variation in concrete masses
10500
10000
9500
9000
8500
8000
7500
7000
6500
6000
Gramms

5500 Sum Mass in air

5000
4500 Sum Mass in water
4000
3500 Average (in air)
3000
2500
2000 Average (in water)
1500
1000
500
0
Frostproofer Waterproofer Rapid
Hardener
Type of Concrete

Figure 4.4 Average and Sum of concrete masses in water and air

Figure 4.4 (above) gives a graphical representation of the results, sum of

masses in air and water and the average for each type of concrete tested
as given in table 4.6.

Page 55 of 84
The Density of Each Concrete type of concrete mix can be computed using
equation 4.1

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(𝑎𝑎𝑎) × 103
𝜌=
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(𝑎𝑎𝑎) − 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤)

Where:

ρ=Density of Concrete in g/cm3

Μ=mass of concrete gr

Table 4.7 presents the densities and average densities results

Integral Liquid Normal Rapid Hardener
Waterproofer Frostproofer
Mass in Mass in Mass in Mass in Mass in Mass in Mass in Mass in
Air (gr) Water Air (gr) Water Air (gr) Water Air (gr) Water
(gr) (gr) (gr) (gr)
2373,5 1361,5 2361,5 1332,5 2453,5 1410,5 2453,5 1410,5
2497 1430 2397 1361 2404 1372,5 2404 1372,5
2469 1410 2383,5 1328 2397,5 1373 2397,5 1373
3
Density g/cm
234,5356 229,4947 221,1174 235,2349
234,0206 231,3707 224,6712 233,0587
233,1445 225,8171 225,2369 234,0166
Average Density g/cm3
233,9002 228,8942 223,6752 234,1034

Table 4.7 Densities and Average Density of Concrete Cubes

Page 56 of 84
The results from table 4.7 Densities and Average Densities of Concrete Cubes
can also be seen in figure 4.5.

Densities of Concrete Cubes

240
235
230
g/cm3

225
220
215 Cube 1
210 Cube 2
Liquid Rapid
Waterproofer Normal
Frostproofer hardener Cube 3
Cube 1 229.4947 234.5356 221.1174 235.2349 Average
Cube 2 231.3707 234.0206 224.6712 233.0587
Cube 3 225.8171 233.1445 225.2369 234.0166
Average 228.8942 233.9002 223.6752 234.1034
Concrete Mix Designs

Figure 4.5 Densities and Average Density of Concrete Cubes

Page 57 of 84
 4.3 Concrete compressive and tensile cube results

The following subchapter illustrates the results obtained from the cube
testing done in the laboratory as described in 3.5.
Testing was done using the VJ Tech 3000kN automatic, concrete testing
machine.
The following table 4.8 below, presents the data obtained from the
laboratory experiment.

Rapid Hardener Liquid Integral Normal Concrete

Frostproofer Waterproofer
Tensi Compres Tensi Compres Tensi Compres Tensi Compres
on sion on sion on sion on sion

Force Load Force Load Force Load Force Load

4,6 305,2 3,11 258,9 2,79 227,9 1,95 170,9
4,2 304,5 2,38 278,3 2,75 245,5 2,36 134,8
4,02 325,7 2,4 249,9 2,29 256,4 2,65 166,4

Table 4.8 Compressive and tensile test results

Page 58 of 84
 Tensile test results
5
4.5
4
Force N/mm2 3.5
3
2.5 Cube 1
4.6
2 4.2 4
Cube 2
1.5 3.11 2.8 2.75
1 2.362.65 2.38 2.4 2.3 Cube 3
1.95
0.5
0
Normal Frostproofer Waterproofer Rapid Hardener
Concrete Types

Figure 4.6 Tensile test results

Figure 4.6 (tensile test results) gives the visual representation of the
tensile strengths of the different kind of concrete mixes tested in the
laboratory.

Compression load applied

350
300
Load at failure Kn

250
200
150
100
50
0
Normal Frostproofer Waterproofer Rapid Hardener
Cube 1 258.9 227.9 170.9 305.2
Cube 2 278.3 245.5 134.8 304.5
Cube 3 249 256.4 166.4 325.7
Concrete mix type

Figure 4.7 Load applied (compression)

Figure 4.7 above also represents the results of table 4.8. From here it is
clear what different amounts of compression loading each concrete mix
can take.

Page 59 of 84
 It is also necessary to compute the compressive strength of the concrete
cubes from the load obtained from the test. This is done using equation
2.1.

𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝑁)

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝑚𝑚2 )

Equation 2.1

The dimensions of the test cubes can be seen in Table 4.9 below.

Rapid Hardener Liquid Integral Normal Concrete

Frostproofer Waterproofer
Dimensions Dimensions Dimensions Dimensions ( mm x mm )
( mm x mm ) ( mm x mm ) ( mm x mm )
Cube 1 102x99 Cube 1 102x99 Cube 1 102x98 Cube 1 101x100

Cube 2 102x99 Cube 2 102x99 Cube 2 10x99 Cube 2 102x100

Cube 3 102x99 Cube 3 102x98 Cube 3 95x99 Cube 3 101x100

Table 4.9 Cube Dimensions

From table 4.9 it is clear that some cubes have deformities.

Page 60 of 84
 Thus the Compressive strength of the test cubes can be copulated. The
results of the compressive strengths of the cubes can be seen in 4.10.

Liquid Integral
Rapid Hardener Normal Concrete
Frostproofer Waterproofer
Compressive Compressive Compressive Compressive
strength N/mm2 strength N/mm2 strength N/mm2 strength N/mm2
Cube Cube Cube
Cube 1 30,218 25,639 22,569 17,097
1 1 1
Cube Cube Cube
Cube 2 29,853 27,56 24,312 13,616
2 2 2
Cube Cube Cube
Cube 3 32,248 24,748 25,65 17,693
3 3 3
Table 4.10 Compressive strength of concrete test cubes

Page 61 of 84
 As mentioned above, table 4.10 gives the compressive strength results
of the four concrete mixes tested. Figure 4.8 below graphically
represents those results.

Compressive Strenght of Concrete Mixes

35
Compressive Strength N/mm2

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3
Rapid Hardener 30.2178 29.8529 32.2475
Liquid Frostproofer 25.6387 27.5599 24.7475
Integral Waterproofer 22.5688 24.3117 25.6503
Normal Concrete 17.0968 13.6162 17.6927
Concrete Mixes

Figure 4.8 Compressive Strength of concrete mixes

Page 62 of 84
 Finally table 4.11illustrates the average compressive and tensile
strength of the test cubes obtained from tables 4.10 and 4.9.

Rapid Hardener Liquid Integral Normal Concrete

Frostproofer Waterproofer
Ten Comp Ten Comp Ten Comp Ten Comp

Average Average Average Average

4.27 30.77 2,63 25,982 2,61 24,1769 2.31 16.1352
33

Table 4.11 Average Compression and Tensile Strengths

Average Tension / Compression Results

35

30

25

20
Kn/mm2

15 Tension

10 Compression

0
Rapid Hardener Liquid Integral Normal Concrete
Frostproofer Waterproofer
Concrete mix Type

Figure 4.9 Average Tension / Compression Results

Figure 4.9 gives a visual representation of the variation of tensile and

compressive strengths of the concrete mixes tests.

Page 63 of 84
5. Analysis

This chapter will analyze the results obtained from the concrete tensile and
compressive test experiment and presented in chapter 4 Results. It will also
interpret the findings and observations, and compare them to published data
and relevant information provided in chapter 2 Literature review. Finally the
interpretation of the graphs will also be explained in this chapter.

Page 64 of 84
5.1 Analysis of tensile and compressive lab test results.
Subchapter 5.1 (Analysis of tensile and compressive lab test results) will
give an interpretation of the engineering data obtained from the compressive
and tensile, concrete cube test.
As mentioned in chapter 3 Methodology, 3.2 basic concepts of mix design,
all mixes had different water contents due to the inclusion of different
admixtures for the purpose of this dissertation.
Table 5.1 Alterations in water content of concrete mixes, below illustrates
those different values as shown in chapter 4.1 Alteration in the mix design,
tables 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4.

Normal Rapid Frostproofer Integral

Concrete Hardener Waterproofer

Water 1,4L 1,1878L 1,23L 1,366L

Table 5.1 Alterations in water content of concrete mixes

The reduction in water content in the three concrete mixes containing

admixtures (rapid hardener, frostproofer and intergral waterproofer), is
due to the fact that each admixture type required different quantities of
admixture to be included, depending on the amount of cement the mix
consisted of.

So the admixture content that was cumulated was then deducted from
the whole amount of water (L) that was required for the specific mix
design.

Thus the reduction observed in table 5.1 ‘Alterations in water content of

concrete mixes’ occurs.

Page 65 of 84
 Figure 5.1 alterations in water content below, as seen in chapter 4.1 also,
illustrates the alterations of the final water content in all four concrete
mixes.

Water Content
1.45

1.4

1.35

1.3

1.25
Water (Liters)
1.2

1.15

1.1

1.05
Frostproofer Rapid hardener normal concrete waterproofer

Figure 5.1 Alterations in water content

As it is clear from figure 5.1, the concrete mix containing the rapid
hardener admixture contains the least amount of water, 1.18 liters, 15%
less; the reason for this is that rapid hardener admixtures accelerate the
setting processes taking place in the concrete. The water cement ratio of
the concrete mix also plays a vital role in the concrete setting time. Thus
lower water content will increase the setting time of the specific concrete
mix as mentioned in chapter 2, methodology.

Page 66 of 84
 Subchapter 4.2 Variation in concrete masses, table 4.6 (table5.2 below)
illustrates the masses of the concrete cubes when weighed in air and
submerged in water.

Integral Liquid Normal Rapid

Waterproofer Frostproofer Hardener
Mass in Mass in Mass Mass Mass in Mass in Mass Mass
Air (gr) Water in Air in Air (gr) Water in Air in
(gr) (gr) Water (gr) (gr) Water
(gr) (gr)
2373,5 1361,5 2361,5 1332,5 2453,5 1410,5 2453,5 1410,5
2497 1430 2397 1361 2404 1372,5 2404 1372,5
2469 1410 2383,5 1328 2397,5 1373 2397,5 1373
3
Density g/cm
234,5356 229,4947 221,1174 235,2349
234,0206 231,3707 224,6712 233,0587
233,1445 225,8171 225,2369 234,0166
Average Density g/cm3
233,9002 228,8942 223,6752 234,1034

Table 5.2 Variation in concrete masses

Using the data from table 5.2 the relative Density of the concrete cubes
can be calculated, using the formula below.

Equation 5.1

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(𝑎𝑎𝑎) × 103
𝜌=
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(𝑎𝑎𝑎) − 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀(𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤)

As it is clear from table 5.2 there are some variations in concrete

densities. This may be due to variations in the dimensions of the different
cubes tested, aggregates that each cube consisted or human error.

Page 67 of 84
 Figure 5.2 below shows the variation observed in densities for all the
concrete mixes.

Densities of Concrete Cubes

240
235
230
g/cm3

225
220
215 Cube 1
210 Cube 2
Liquid Rapid
Waterproofer Normal
Frostproofer hardener Cube 3
Cube 1 229.4947 234.5356 221.1174 235.2349 Average
Cube 2 231.3707 234.0206 224.6712 233.0587
Cube 3 225.8171 233.1445 225.2369 234.0166
Average 228.8942 233.9002 223.6752 234.1034
Concrete Mix Designs

Figure 5.2 variation observed in densities

Page 68 of 84
 Moving on to the Compressive and Tensile strength of concrete , values
shown in table 4.8 Compressive and Tensile variations chapter 4.3, are
also shown here table 5.3 for the purpose of this chapter.

Rapid Hardener Liquid Integral Normal Concrete

Frostproofer Waterproofer
Tensi Compres Tensi Compres Tensi Compres Tensi Compres
on sion on sion on sion on sion

Force Load Force Load Force Load Force Load

4,6 305,2 3,11 258,9 2,79 227,9 1,95 170,9
4,2 304,5 2,38 278,3 2,75 245,5 2,36 134,8
4,02 325,7 2,4 249,9 2,29 256,4 2,65 166,4
Table 5.3 Compressive and Tensile strength results

The table above, table 5.3 illustrates the numerical values for Tension-
Force N/mm2 and Compression-Load, at failure for each type of concrete
cube mix tested.

Page 69 of 84
 To begin with the author will analyze the tensile strength results obtained
which can be observed also on table 5.3.

The graph below Figure 5.3, shows the variation of those tensile strength
results.

Tensile test results

5
4.5
4
3.5
Force N/mm2

3
2.5 Cube 1
4.6
2 4.2 4 Cube 2
1.5 3.11 2.8 2.75 Cube 3
2.362.65 2.38 2.4 2.3
1 1.95
0.5
0
Normal Frostproofer Waterproofer Rapid Hardener
Concrete Types

Figure 5.3 Tensile strength variations

It is clear from figure 5.3 that normal concrete has a weaker tensile
strength in contrast to those concrete cubes with admixtures.

While the concrete cubes containing frostproof and waterproof

admixtures have similar tensile strengths 2,63 (frostproofer) and 2,61
(waterproofer) on average, and 38.4% less than those with rapid
hardener admixtures 4,21, the test cubes containing no admixtures show
a significant difference of 44.9%.

Page 70 of 84
 Adding the results from table 5.1 and figure 5.3, it is clear that the water
content each concrete cube mix contains plays a key role in the tensile
strength development of each cube.

Those containing Rapid Hardener concrete cubes with 1.18liters of water

produced higher tensile strength (4, 21 N/mm2) than those with higher
water content.

Normal casted concrete cubes which have the highest water content
(1.4L) also produced the lowest tensile strength 2, 32 N/mm2

Bearing in mind that the cement content was kept constant throughout
testing of all the concrete cubes (2,122Kg), the only variation that
occurred was the addition of admixtures and the variation in water
content.

Thus the reduction in Water means a lower ratio which, as mentioned in

chapter 2 Literature review – 2.4 How are those properties affected by
water cement ratio, cement content, type of cement ,aggregates, age,
degree of hydration?, and shown in figure 2.2 illustration of the effect of
water/cement ratio in concrete strength, leads to higher strength.

Figure 5.4 illustration of the effect of water/cement ratio in concrete strength

Page 71 of 84
 Moving on to Compressive Strength analysis, the author will interpret the
data from chapter 4.3 Concrete compressive strength Table 4.10
Compressive strength of concrete test cubes, which can also be seen
below on table 5.4.

Liquid Integral
Rapid Hardener Normal Concrete
Frostproofer Waterproofer
Compressive Compressive Compressive Compressive
strength N/mm2 strength N/mm2 strength N/mm2 strength N/mm2
Cube Cube Cube
Cube 1 30,218 25,639 22,569 17,097
1 1 1
Cube Cube Cube
Cube 2 29,853 27,56 24,312 13,616
2 2 2
Cube Cube Cube
Cube 3 32,248 24,748 25,65 17,693
3 3 3
Table 5.4 Test Results

Page 72 of 84
 Figure 5.5 below illustrates the data from Table 5.4 Test Results, so an
interpretation is easier.

Compressive Strenght of Concrete Mixes

35
Compressive Strength N/mm2

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3
Rapid Hardener 30.2178 29.8529 32.2475
Liquid Frostproofer 25.6387 27.5599 24.7475
Integral Waterproofer 22.5688 24.3117 25.6503
Normal Concrete 17.0968 13.6162 17.6927
Concrete Mixes

Figure 5.5 Compressive Strength of Concrete Mixes

As is clear from Table 5.4 and figure 5.5 above, concrete compressive
strength has a similar reaction to the water cement ratio as the tensile
strength.

Meaning that, as seen in figure 5.1, those cubes that have a greater
water cement ratio, produce a lower value of compressive strength.

Page 73 of 84
 Having analyzed the effect water cement ratio and density have on
concrete strength, it is possible to plot both relationships on the same
graph for further analysis as seen in figure 5.6.

Compressive Strength Density

35 236

30 234
Compressive Strength

25 232

Density
20 230

15 228

10 226

5 224

0 222
0.54 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68
Water Cement Ratio

Figure 5.6 Relationship between Compressive Strength Water Cement

ratio and Density

The red line represents the density decrease in relation to the increase in
the water to cement ratio, while the blue line represents the decrease in
the compressive strength of the concrete mix in relation to the increase in
the water cement ratio.

Page 74 of 84
 Data relevant to Figure 5.6 can be observed below in table 5.5

Water Cement Compressive Density Concrete Mix

ratio Strength
0,55975 30,77 Rapid H
234,1034
0,57964 25,982 Frost
233,9002
0,64373 24,1769 228,89 Liquid
0,65975 16,1352 223,68 Normal

Table 5.5 Relationship between Compressive Strength Water Cement

ratio and Density

Figure 5.6 and table 5.5 both give the relationship between water to
cement ratio and compressive strength and density. It is clear from both
the table and the graph that, the reduction in the ratio (in water content is
particularly due to the fact that the cement content is kept constant) has
a positive effect on both the strength and density of concrete. It is also
clear that an increase in Concrete Density also leads to an increase in
the strength of concrete; a denser concrete cube is more durable thus it
can withstand a bigger load.

Page 75 of 84
 The tensile strength of the concrete test cubes reacts similarly to the
compressive strength that can be seen in figure 5.6 above. As mentioned
before, they (tensile and compressive strengths) are highly dependent on
the water to cement ratio, and because the cement content is kept
constant throughout the experimental cubes, as noted above, the only
variable is the water content.

Water content also affects the density of the concrete test cubes, which
determines (density) how durable the concrete cubes will be which, as
mentioned before, sets the tensile strength of the test cubes. The
similar graph for the relationship of tensile strength, water content and
density can be seen below in figure 5.7.

Tensile Strength N/mm^2 Density g/cm^3

4.5 236
4 234
3.5
Compressive Strength

232
3

Density
2.5 230
2 228
1.5
226
1
0.5 224

0 222
0.54 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68
Water Cement Ratio

Figure 5.7 Relationships of Tensile Strength, Water Content and Density

The red line represents the density decrease in relation to the increase in
the water to cement ratio, while the blue line represents the decrease in
the tensile strength of the concrete mix in relation to the increase in the
water cement ratio.

Page 76 of 84
 Relevant data from figure 5.7 Relationships of Tensile Strength, Water
Content and Density, can be seen in table 5.6 below.

Water Cement Tensile Density Concrete Mix

ratio Strength
0,55975 4.27 Rapid H
234,1034
0,57964 2.63 Frost
233,9002
0,64373 2.61 228,89 Liquid
0,65975 2.51 223,68 Normal

Table 5.6 Relationships of Tensile Strength, Water Content and Density

Page 77 of 84
It is also necessary to analyze the effect that permeability has on
concrete strength development. As mentioned in Chapter 2 Literature
review, permeability is defined as the ability of the aggregate cement and
sand paste to allow water to flow.

Permeability is highly dependent on the water to cement ratio of the

concrete mix design. An increase in the ratio also increases the
permeability of concrete.

A more permeable concrete mix means a mix with a higher water content
which as mentioned previously indicates a weaker concrete mix.

Thus it is clear that the decrease in the water content in the concrete
mixes tested, leads also to a decrease in the permeability of the mixes.
And both lead to the increase in compressive and tensile strength.

All three of the admixtures used rapid hardener, Sealfrost and

Waterproofer affect the strength of concrete either by lowering the water
to cement ratio directly or by decreasing the permeability of the mix
design, as sealproof integral waterproofer and retarder
(Reduces water permeability Mix Ratios: 0.25 – 0.5L Sealoproof per
25Kg cement) does.

Page 78 of 84
6. Conclusions

This Chapter summarizes any findings presented in chapter 5 Discussion.

• For the purpose of this dissertation 4 types of concrete mixes

were tested. The variation of the concrete mixes included the
addition of different types of admixtures. Those concrete mixes
were: Normal Concrete, Concrete with Sealocrete Rapid
Hardener, Concrete with Sealfrost Liquid Frostproofer and
Concrete with Sealproof integral Waterproofer.
• All three of the admixtures used also had a direct effect on the
permeability of the concrete mixes in relation to the normal
concrete mix design. Permeability measures the amount of water
that can pass through the paste. The admixtures used decreased
the permeability of the concrete mixes tested. Thus a decrease in
water was observed.
• The reduction of water content in the concrete mixes had as a
direct result the alteration/increase in the densities of the cubes.
• With the increase of the concrete cubes’ densities, an increase in
the compressive and tensile strength of concrete was observed.
• The concrete mix cubes that showed the greatest decrease in the
water-cement ratio were also the ones which gave a higher
Tensile and Compressive strength (Rapid Hardener) in
comparison to the rest of the concrete mixes.
• Thus it is clear that, water content affects directly the properties of
concrete, i.e. The tensile and compressive strength development.

Page 79 of 84
 Concrete Mix Design

Inclusion of Admixtures

Decrease of concrete permeability

Reduction in water cement Ratio

Increase in concrete Density

Increase in concrete Tensile and Compressive strength

• Lab experiments would produce finer results rather than

theoretical conclusions on the effects that concrete admixtures
have on concrete permeability but time constraints prevented such
experiments.

Page 80 of 84
Recommendation for future work:

• Test the effect different concrete admixtures (than those used)

have on the properties of concrete.

• Tests using different mix proportions (water/cement ratios,

aggregate, cement content) in order to observe, the influence

those mix proportions have on concrete.

• Lab tests to observe the effect different types of aggregates and

cements have on concrete properties.

• Lab tests to check how permeability is affected by the inclusion of

the admixtures used.

Page 81 of 84
7. References

Books

Ahmed H., 2009. THE EFFECT OF CURING CONDITION ON COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH IN HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE.

Concrete Society Working Party, C.S.W.P, 2002. TR18 A guide to the selection
of admixtures for concrete. 1st ed. London: Concrete Society Working Party.

Dodson V.H., 1990. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. 1st ed. Van
Nostrand Reinhold: Technology & Engineering.

Kosmatka Steven H, 1991. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. Mehta

P.K., Monteiro P.J., 1993. Concrete Structure, Properties, and Materials. 1st
ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Metwally M., 2014. Compressive strength prediction of Portland cement

concrete. Compressive strength prediction of Portland cement concrete with
age using a new model, Volume 10, Issue 2, Pages 145–155.

Panarese S.H. , Kosmatka W. C., 1988. Design and Control of Concrete

Mixtures. 4th ed.

Rixom M.R. ,Mailvaganam N.P., 1986. Chemical Admixtures for Concrete 2.

2nd ed. London: E. & F.N.Spon.

Schaeffer R.E., 1992. Reinforced Concrete, Preliminary design for Architects

and Builders . 1st ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.

Soroka I., 1979. Portland Cement Paste and Concrete. 1st ed. London:
Macmillan

Shirley D.E., 1986. Introduction to concrete

Taylor W.H., 1977. Concrete technology and practice. 4th ed. American
Elsevier

Teychenne D.C., Franklin R.E. , and Erntroy H.C., 1988. Design of concrete
mixes. 2nd ed. Garston Watford : Building Research Establishment Ltd.

Page 82 of 84
Yurdakul E., 2010. Optimizing concrete mixtures with minimum cement content
for performance and sustainability. MASTER OF SCIENCE. Civil Engineering
(Civil Engineering Materials): Iowa State University.

British Standards

BS 8500-1:2006 (BSI, 2006) Concrete. Complementary British Standard to BS

EN 206-1. Specification for constituent materials and concrete.

BS EN 206:2013 Concrete. Specification, performance, production and

conformity

BS 1881:Part 125:1986. Methods for mixing and sampling fresh concrete for
laboratory.

BS 1881: Part 107:1983. Method for determination of density of concrete.

BS 1881: Part 1083:1983. Method of making test cubes from fresh concrete.

BS 1881-113, Method for making and curing cubes.

BS 1881: Part 116:1983. Method for determination of compressive strength of

concrete cubes.

BSI standard BS EN 1881-125 Testing Concrete

BS EN 206:2013 British Standards Publication table 2.1 – Compressive

Strength classes Properties of Concrete for use in Eurocode 2

EN 197-1 Cements – Composition, specifications and conformity criteria.

Online Sites

5.1 - Overview of the Concrete Hydration Process. 2014. 5.1 - Overview of the
Concrete Hydration Process. [ONLINE] Available
at:http://iti.northwestern.edu/cement/monograph/Monograph5_1.html.
[Accessed 15 November 2014].

. 2014. . [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.sealocrete.com/product-guide.pdf.

[Accessed 15 November 2014].

Page 83 of 84
 Journals

Bentz D.P, Weiss J., Sant G., 2008. ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, 20. ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 20) Early-Age
Properties of Cement-Based Materials: I. Influence of Cement Fineness

CSC Journals, CSC, 2014. IJE. International Journal of Engineering (IJE),

Volume (3) : Issue (4)

Reddy M., Rao S., Kumar S., 2013. Effect of W/C Ratio on Workability. Effect of
W/C Ratio on Workability and Mechanical Properties of High Strength Self
Compacting Concrete , Volume 7, Issue 1, PP. 06-13.

Page 84 of 84

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