1

Introduction
• Solar energy is our planet’s
fundamental energy source
• It’s the source of the light and
heat that allows life to survive
and even flourish on the
earth
• It’s also the main determinant
of climate around the globe,
creating winds, currents,
temperature, regimes and
seasons
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 Introduction cont.

• The sun has produced energy for billions

of years

• Solar energy is the sun’s rays (solar

radiation) that reach the earth.

• Solar energy can be converted into other

forms of energy, such as heat and
electricity
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 Introduction cont.

Solar energy can be converted to thermal

(or heat) energy and used to:

• Heat water – for use in homes, buildings,

or swimming pools.
• Heat spaces – inside greenhouses,
homes, and other buildings.

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 Introduction cont
Solar energy can be converted to electricity in
two ways:
• Photovoltaic (PV devices) or “solar cells”:
change sunlight directly into electricity

• Solar Power Plants: indirectly generate

electricity when the heat from solar thermal
collectors is used to heat a fluid which
produces steam that is used to power
generator

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 Introduction cont

Solar Power Tower

PV home system

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 Introduction cont.

Why Solar Energy

• Energy Demand is large and growing
• Concern for climate change are growing
• Solar resource is large and inexhaustible
• Substantial environmental benefits
• Substantial economic benefits

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 Growth of Solar Energy

http://atmoz.org/blog/2007/11/19/tom‐hansen‐tep‐watt‐choices‐for‐the‐future/
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Growth of Solar Energy cont.

http://www.rise.org.au/info/Tech/pv/index.html
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Price of PV System

http://www.rise.org.au/info/Tech/pv/index.html
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Solar Radiation

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Solar Radiation cont.

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 Solar Radiation cont.

• In Cambodia, the solar radiation increases

gradually from the northwest of the country
with an average low of 4.11 kWh/m2 to the
southwest of the country with an average
high of 5.23 kWh/m2 (NEDO, 2004).

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 Solar Radiation cont.

The World Solar Energy Map showing the global solar resource available to PV applications

Source: http://www.rise.org.au/info/Applic/Array/index.html#ben
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 Solar Collector

There are two types of solar collector:

Concentrating collectors

Flat plate collectors

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 Solar Collector cont.

Flat plate collectors: the solar radiation falls

directly on the surface that serves to absorb the
radiation. These collectors are normally used for
low temperature application

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 Solar Collector cont.

Concentrating collectors: the solar radiation is

first received by one or more reflecting or
refracting surfaces which serve to convey it to a
relatively small absorbing surface. It’s used for high
temperature applications

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 PV System

Photovoltaic materials produce electrical power from

sunlight. The basic component of photovoltaic power
conversion is the solar cell. The history of photovoltaic
materials goes back to 1839 when Edmund Becquerel
discovered the photo galvanic effect: where electric
currents were produced from light induced chemical
reactions. However it was not until 1954 that the first
solar cell was developed with an efficiency of 6%:
efficiency = power output/available solar power. Solar
cells found their first use in powering satellites

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PV System cont.
The most common solar
cell is a p-n junction,
where the p-type
(positive) and n-type
(negative) materials are
doped semiconductor(s).
The p-n junction is a
boundary in a
semiconductor material
where a region of electron
depletion neighbors a
region of electron surplus.
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 PV System cont.
• Solar cells are devices which convert solar energy
into electricity, either directly via the photovoltaic
effect, or indirectly by first converting the solar
energy to heat or chemical energy
• The most common form of solar cells are based
on the photovoltaic (PV) effect in which light falling
on a two layer semi-conductor device produces a
photovoltage or potential difference between the
layers. This voltage is capable of driving a current
through an external circuit and thereby producing
useful work.

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 PV System cont.

• Commonly, PV cells are made using either

single crystal wafers, polycrystalline
wafers or thin films of silicon.

Single crystal solar cells in panel

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 PV System cont.

Amorphous silicon solar panel

Polycrystalline solar panel

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 PV System cont.

Solar Module

Solar Array

Solar Cell
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 PV System cont.

• The amount of power available from a PV

device is determined by;

– The type and area of the material;

– The intensity of the sunlight; and
– The wavelength of the sunlight

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 PV System cont.

The current and voltage output of a solar cell at

different light intensities 25
 PV System cont.

• PV cells have a working voltage of about

0.5 V, they are usually connected together
in series (positive to negative) to provide
larger voltages.

• Panels are made in a wide range of sizes

for different purposes

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 PV System cont.

They generally fall into one of three basic

categories:
• Low voltage/low power panels are made by
connecting between 3 and 12 small segments of
amorphous silicon PV with a total area of a few
square centimetres for voltages between 1.5 and 6 V
and outputs of a few milliwatts. Although each of
these panels is very small, the total production is
large. They are used mainly in watches, clocks,
calculators, cameras and devices for sensing light and
dark, such as night lights.
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 PV System cont.

• Small panels of 1 - 10 watts (and 3 - 12 V with areas

from 100cm2 to 1000cm2) are made by either cutting
100cm2 single crystal or polycrystalline cells into
pieces and joining them in series, or by using
amorphous silicon panels. The main uses are for
radios, toys, small pumps, electric fences and trickle
charging of batteries.

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 PV System cont.

• Large panels, ranging from 10 to 60 watts (and

generally either 6 or 12 volts with areas of 1000cm2
to 5000cm2) are usually made by connecting from 10
to 36 full-sized cells in series. They are used either
separately for small pumps and caravan power (lights
and refrigeration) or in arrays to provide power for
houses, communications, pumping and stand-alone
power supplies (SPS).

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 PV System cont.

The power output for tracked and a stationary

array 30
 PV System cont.

Trackers are used to keep PV panels directly facing

the sun, thereby increasing the output from the
panels. Trackers can nearly double the output of an
array. Careful analysis is required to determine
whether the increased cost and mechanical
complexity of using a tracker is cost effective in
particular circumstances

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Stand Alone PV System

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 Stand Alone PV System cont.

• PV Array: A number of PV panels connected in

series and/or in parallel giving a DC output out of
the incident irradiance. Orientation and tilt of
these panels are important design parameters, as
well as shading from surrounding obstructions.

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 Stand Alone PV System cont.

• PV controller: control battery bank charge and

discharge reasonable and safety.

The MARK 15 is available for 12 or 24‐ volt 

systems with charging current up to 15 amps, 
and provides efficient charging while 
protecting the batteries from damage due to 
overcharging. This controller is designed for 
use in mobile or stationary photovoltaic 
energy systems, with complete system 
monitoring of battery voltage, solar charging 
current, and charge set‐point calibration.
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 Stand Alone PV System cont.

• Inverter: A power converter that “inverts” the

DC power from the panels into AC power. The
characteristics of the output signal should match
the voltage, frequency and power quality limits in
the supply network.

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 Stand Alone PV System cont.

• Battery bank: can be a single battery or multiple

batteries connected together to create essentially
one large battery of the required voltage and amp-
hour capacity. In some ways the battery
configuration and capacity are the most important
electrical power decision to make, and a wise
choice can help guarantee a steady supply of
electrical power as well as a system that is simple
to operate and maintain.

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 Stand Alone PV System cont.

• Loads: Stands for the network connected

appliances in the building that are fed from the
inverter, or, alternatively, from the grid.

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 Fill Factor
 The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of
quality of the solar cell and it can be computed
using the relation
Vm  I m
FF 
Voc  I sc
 A healthy fill factor for a silicon solar cell ranges
from 0.6 to 0.8

 Any drop in Fill Factor of solar cells can be a sign

of possible degradation

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 Effect of Solar Intensity

The voltage variation is frequently negligible

The short circuit current is calculated by the
relation
I sc (G )  I sc (at 1KW / m 2 )  G (in KW / m 2 )
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 Effect of Temperature

The short circuit current is often negligible

The open circuit voltage can be calculated by
dVoc
 2.3  nc [ mV / oc ]
dT 40
 NOCT

 Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT)

defined as the cell temperature when the module
operates under the following conditions at open
circuit :
- Irradiance : 0.8 W/m2
- Spectral distribution : AM1.5
- Ambient temperature : 20 oC
- Wind speed : > 1 m/s
 This parameter is used to calculate the cell
temperature during module operation
NOCT  20
Tc  Ta   G[ KW / m 2 ] 41
0.8
 Example

Determine the parameters of a module formed by 34

solar cells in series under the operating conditions :
G=700 W/m2 and Ta=34 oC. The manufacturer’s
values under standard conditions are : Isc=3A;
Voc=20.4V; Pmax=45.9W; NOTC=43 oC.

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 Cell Losses and Hot Spots

• Mismatch Losses: The output power of a

whole PV system is less than the sum of the
values of the individual modules. This gives rise
to “mismatch” losses. These losses can be
minimized by sorting the modules prior to
interconnection, and forming series of strings
from modules with similar values of short-circuit
current.

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Cell Losses and Hot Spots cont.

• Module Hot Spots: PV modules can suffer

damage due to the hot spot effect which is caused
by partial shading, e.g. by soiling, neighbouring
obstacles etc. or by mismatch of malfunctioning
cells in the module. In some circumstances a cell
can operate as a ‘load’ for the other cells acting as
‘generators’.

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Cell Losses and Hot Spots cont.

The hot spot effect is simply the dissipation of

module-generated energy in a non-generating cell
due to the forcing into reverse bias of the faulty or
shaded cell. Excessive hot spot formation can
damage cells and reduce the lifetime of the
module. To limit the hot spot effect modules are
usually fitted with by-pass diodes across the
terminals of the module or sections of the module.

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Cell Losses and Hot Spots cont.

A blocking diode is connected in series with each

string, to prevent battery discharge at night and
also to prevent reverse currents flowing between
imperfectly matched strings. Schottky diodes are
used in PV systems for by-pass and blocking
diodes due to their low voltage drop. However, a
Schottky blocking diode will produce some
voltage drop and hence result in energy loss.

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Cell Losses and Hot Spots cont.

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 Battery Storage

• Batteries are used in stand alone PV systems to

buffer the energy between the varying supply
from the PV to a varying load demand.
• Two types of battery technology are used in PV
systems: Lead-acid and Nickelcadmium, each
with advantages and disadvantages.

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 Battery Storage cont.

• The size and configuration of the battery

determines its capacity measured in ampere-
hours(Ah), which multiplied by battery nominal
voltage gives energy storage capacity in watt-
hours (Wh).
• To increase the battery store voltage, in multiples
of 12V, batteries are connected in series.
• To increase the battery store energy capacity
series strings of batteries are connected in
parallel.
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 Battery Storage cont.

• No real battery operates at 100% efficiency; more

energy is supplied to the battery than can be
extracted from it.
• A good battery will operate at 80-90% efficiency,
and will have some self-discharge.
• The percentage of the total capacity withdrawn is
called the depth of discharge (DOD).

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 Battery Storage cont.

Batteries can be damaged by:

a) Over-discharging i.e. a certain “depth of
discharge” must not be exceeded
b) Over-charging
c) Discharging or charging too quickly
d) Storing in a discharged state.

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 Charge Regulator
 To prevent overcharge and excessive discharge of
battery, a charge regulator is needed
 Excessive discharge is avoided by monitoring the
battery voltage and disconnecting the load from the
battery
 The main role of the regulator is to limit the
maximum battery voltage to prevent overcharging the
battery
 There are two types of charge regulator
* Shunt regulator
* Series regulator 52
Charge Regulator cont.

Shunt regulator

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Charge Regulator cont.

Series regulator

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 Concentrating Collector

• Concentrating or focusing collector intercept

direct radiation over a large area and focus it onto
a small absorber area.
• These collectors can provide high temperatures
more efficiently than flat collectors.
• Most concentrating collectors require mechanical
equipment that constantly orients the collectors
toward the sun and keeps the absorber at the focus
point
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 Concentrating Collector cont.

Type of concentrating collectors:

• Parabolic through system
• Parabolic dish system

• Power tower system

• Stationary concentrating solar collectors

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 Parabolic through system

It’s a device that are shape like the letter “U” and
the through concentrate sunlight onto a receiver
tube that is positioned along the focus line of the
through.

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Parabolic through system cont.

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 Parabolic dish system

It’s similar in appearance to large satellite dish,

but has mirror-like reflectors and absorber at the
focus point.

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 Power tower system

A heliostat uses a field of dual axis sun

trackers that direct solar energy to a large
absorber located on a tower. To date, the
only application for heliostat collector is
power generation.

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Power tower system cont.

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 Stationary concentrating solar
collectors
• Stationary concentrating collectors use compound
parabolic reflectors and flat reflectors for directing
solar energy to an accompanying absorber or aperture
through a wide acceptance angle.
• The wide acceptance angle for these reflectors
eliminates the need for a sun tracker. This class of
collector includes parabolic trough flat plate collectors,
flat plate collectors with parabolic boosting reflectors,
and solar cookers.
• Development of the first two collectors has been done
in Sweden. Solar cookers are used throughout the
world, especially in the developing countries.
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 Application of Solar Energy

• Solar water heating

• Solar space heating
• Solar refrigeration and cooling
• Solar drying
• Electricity generation from solar energy

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Solar water heating

•Solar water heating is

one of the most reliable
renewable energy
technologies.

•There are many

commercial building as
well as residential used
solar water heating.

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 Solar water heating cont.

Active solar water heating Passive solar water heating

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Solar space heating

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Solar refrigeration and cooling

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Solar drying

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