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Introduction
Spinal cord injury (SCI) in children is a rare injury that can result in permanent loss of motor and sensory
function, and dysfunction of the bowel and bladder. Impairment of these functions result in significant
social and psychological consequences for the child and their family. SCI is often associated with a
traumatic brain injury. In children and adolescents SCI is most commonly a result of road traffic accidents,
falls or diving into water.
Children with SCI experience multiple health care problems including autonomic instability, complications
of immobility and bowel or bladder dysfunction. Management in the acute phase is aimed at preventing
further spinal cord injury, maintaining physiological stability, and commencing routine care of the skin and
establishing good bladder and bowel care.
Aim
This guideline is aimed at the acute management of children with injury to the spinal cord.
Definition of terms
o AIS: ASIA (American Spinal Injury Association) Impairment Scale. An international
classification system for level of impairment as a result of spinal cord injury. There are five
classifications for traumatic spinal cord injury: A-E.
o Quadriplegia (also referred to as tetraplegia): dysfunction of arms, legs, bowel & bladder
due to SCI in the cervical region
o Paraplegia: dysfunction of lower body, bowel & bladder due to SCI in the thoracic, lumbar
or sacral region
o Spinal shock: Temporary areflexic state with loss of autonomic control, and muscle tone
below the level of the injury which lasts up to six weeks after injury. It usually occurs in spinal cord
injury to cervical & upper thoracic spinal cord. Functional recovery may improve after spinal shock
resolves.
o Neurogenic shock: hypotension as a result of bradycardia and vasodilation due to loss of
thoracic sympathetic innervation following SCI. Profound effects are noted if injury is at level of T6
or above. Most dramatic effects noted in the first few weeks with most patients stabilizing in 7-10
days
o A complete SCI results in loss of all motor and sensory function below the level of injury
(AIS A).
o An incomplete SCI results in preservation of sensory function below the level of injury
(AIS B), or a combination of varying degrees of sensory and motor preservation below the level of
injury (AIS C or D).
Cause of injury
o The spinal cord can be injured by transection, distraction, compression, bruising,
haemorrhage or ischaemia of the cord or by injury to blood vessels supplying it. These injuries
can all result in permanent cord injury and may be complete or incomplete.
o Concussion of the spinal cord can result in temporary loss of function for hours to weeks
Pathophysiology
Management
Initial assessment
See major trauma-primary survey guideline (link) and cervical spine injury guideline (link) for initial
assessment
o Be aware the loss of thoracic sympathetic innervation (T1-T5) may inhibit tachycardia
and vasoconstriction as signs of hypovolaemia. Thus haemorraghic injuries may not be indicated
by the usual signs.
Referrals
Admission location
Spinal immobilisation
See cervical spine injury guideline (link)
Immobilize the entire spine of any patient with known or potential SCI
Immobilize neck with a hard collar. See guideline for cervical spine assessment
(link)
Use log roll with adequate personnel to turn patient while maintaining spine
alignment
For children < 8 years of age use an airway pad to promote neutral cervical spine
position (link to resource)
Remove from spinal board on arrival in ED or as soon as resuscitation allows
Maintain neck in neutral position by use of a hard collar, but change to two-piece
collar for comfort and avoidance of complications (e.g. pressure area, venous
obstruction, aspiration) within 6 hours of admission.
Early surgery:
Surgery may be required in the situation of a reversible compression injury, or
deteriorating neurology with a spinal injury amenable to some form of reduction and or
fixation.
Halo & Orthotic devices:
Some patients may have Halo devices applied by surgeons, or a brace made by
orthotics to maintain correct alignment of the spine. These devices are fixed to the child’s
chest.
Ensure you know how to open devices to perform chest compressions in the
event of a cardiac arrest, and that spinal immobilisation is maintained manually
throughout any resuscitation
Move patient using slide sheets or pat slide with adequate number of personnel
to maintain spinal alignment
No pharmacological agent has been proven to limit damage and optimize
recovery of function. If steroids have already been given, cease them when resuscitation
completed. Aim for normal perfusion pressure and oxygenation of SC.
Once the extent and stability of the injury has been determined a documented
plan should be formulated to ensure immobilisation and stabilisation.
Imaging
Multiple levels of injury in the spine are common. In the under 8 age group
especially, there is a high proportion of missed craniocervical injuries with/ without associated
cranial nerve involvement.
plain film imaging of the entire cervical, thoracic and lumbar spines
Further early imaging will at least involve an urgent MRI of the entire spine
looking for remediable lesions
CT scan may be used to further identify the extent of bony injury
Neurological assessment
Neurological assessment and documentation in the EMR including:
Sensory level
Motor function
After 72 hours, the ASIA guide should be completed documenting
sensory and motor levels. Contact the rehabilitation registrar to assist with this
assessment
Glasgow coma score
Pupil response
Perform hourly for 1st 24 hours then decrease to 4 hourly if condition stabilised
Note evidence of brain injury as well as spinal cord injury
Heart rate
Blood pressure
Loss of autonomic control results in loss of vasomotor tone. Patient may be quite
vasodilated and hypotensive. This phase of neurogenic shock can last up to several weeks.
Hypotension should be treated to prevent secondary poor perfusion of the spinal cord.
Blood pressure monitoring should be:
Continuous in PICU
At least hourly in the ward
Ensure patient is adequately fluid resuscitated but not overloaded
Patient may need vasopressor drugs such as nor-adrenaline or intravenous fluids
to maintain BP (but excessive fluids will cause pulmonary oedema). Patients requiring
vasopressors should be managed in PICU
Temperature
Breathing
Respiratory difficulty is common in the early stages of spinal shock but will
ultimately depend on injury level
C1-C4: paralysis of diaphragm and intercostal muscles: will need
mechanical ventilation via endotracheal intubation or tracheostomy. May need long-term
ventilation of phrenic/diaphragm pacing
C5-T6: paralysis of intercostals, diaphragm OK – may need some form of
respiratory support
T6-12: abdominal muscles paralysed, may have some decreased
function
Asses respiratory status including pattern, effort, ability to cough, auscultate
chest, Monitor SpO2 ETCO2, ABG
Intubate & ventilate if respiration is inadequate
Maintain strict ventilator associated pneumonia (VAP) prevention
strategies
Nurse head up, but tilt entire bed so that spine remains in line & immobilised-do
not just simply raise head of bed up
Note at later stage of admission when patient is allowed to sit up, that if
abdominal muscles are paralysed, breathing difficulty may be worsened when sitting up
and eased when semi-recumbent
Give O2 as required
Ensure abdomen not distended (NG should be inserted)
Refer to physiotherapist to establish a regimen of chest physiotherapy, assisted
coughing and BiPAP.
Skin
See Pressure injury prevention guideline (link)
A patient who has a SCI is at high risk of damage to their skin integrity. The SCI causes loss of sensation
of pain, pressure & temperature. The patient may also have lost motor control and have poor autonomic
nervous system function. The end result is a lack of sensory warning mechanisms, an inability to move
and circulatory changes all impacting on skin integrity.
High risk for pressure areas, measures need to be implemented to assess and
prevent skin breakdown:
A baseline skin assessment should be completed on admission
For all patients a Pressure Injury Prevention Plan must be commenced
Pressure mattress (low air loss or alternating pressure) or gel mat if
approved
Air or alternating pressure mattresses should not be used for unstable
spines
Reposition 2 hourly
This should occur from the time of admission
Reduce friction and shear during repositioning and transfers
If skin breakdown occurs it can progress rapidly. Pressure must be kept
off this area. Refer to stomal therapy for advice on appropriate dressing
Take care with water temperature for washes, and use of hot or cold devices
against skin
The patient will not feel the temperature extreme, or be able to withdraw
from it
Hygiene
Daily wash to keep skin clean
Dry thoroughly after washing
Do not leave patient in damp/wet bed
Commence bowel regime as outlined below
Hard collar needs to be removed & skin underneath checked & washed
daily
Manually immobilised head whenever the hard collar is off
Collar fit & position to be checked each shift
Inspect the skin of the occiput each shift
Refer to surgeons & orthotics for advice on access to skin under halo
jackets and braces
Adequate nutrition is important for good skin integrity. Enteral nutrition is
preferred.
Skin should be fully inspected once per shift
Bladder
Urinary bladder function may be affected by SCI. The muscles and sphincters of the bladder are normally
controlled by neurological input and spinal reflexes. Loss of this normal neurological control of the bladder
is commonly referred to as a neurogenic bladder. The aim of bladder care is to prevent infections,
minimise and contain incontinence and find an appropriate way to empty the bladder. This will need to be
related to the child’s developmental level, lifestyle, and family needs. For the adolescent patient sexual
function also needs to be considered.
Bowels
Bowel function will be affected by loss of neurological control of its function (neurogenic bowel). In
addition, medications such as antibiotics and opioids, immobility, alterations is food, fibre and fluid intake
may affect function. Patients are at risk of constipation, impaction and diarrhoea. It is important to achieve
regular bowel emptying. Constipation is not only troublesome but can also trigger major complications
such as autonomic hyper-reflexia (dysreflexia).
Nutrition
Insert naso/oro gastric tube early to limit risk of vomiting and aspiration as patient
will often have paralytic ileus initially. NG placement also allows for enteral feeding to commence
Refer to Dietician early to ensure adequate nutrition, fluid & fibre in the feeds
Consider gastric ulcer prophylaxis
Re-introduce oral feeding after ensuring ability to swallow and protect airway
Gastrostomy may be required
Thromboprophylaxis
Postural hypotension
Patients with SCI are at risk for postural hypotension when moving from supine to sitting upright. This is
due to loss of sympathetic autonomic nervous system innervation and include an inability to regulate BP
normally with vasoconstriction. Do not attempt to start sitting patient up until medical approval given.
To avoid problems with postural hypotension:
Anti embolic stockings and/or SCCD’s will encourage venous return from the legs
Abdominal binders encourage venous return through the IVC
Orthotics can make these to fit
Slowly increase bed angle to sitting position, rather than in one quick move. It
may take weeks for the patient to tolerate sitting upright.
Involve physiotherapy team in this process
Joint contractures
Abnormal muscle tone and lack of movement can result in joint contractures. Referrals should be made to
Physiotherapy, Occupational Therapy and Orthotics within 1-2 days of admission:
Sexual function
Sexual function can be of great concern to families even in very young children
Important topic for adolescents with SCI
Topic needs to be discussed with family & child in age appropriate manner so
that they understand implications for the child’s lifetime
Puberty will occur as for other children; for females pregnancy is possible, and
for males treatment may be required for erection, ejaculation & fertility
Psychological
A diagnosis of spinal cord injury is often devastating for children and their
families. There are frequently preconceptions about spinal cord injury that need addressing and
there may also be pre-existing issues for the child or family.
Social work
Clinical psychology
Victorian Paediatric Rehabilitation Service
Link to support groups or other children with similar injury
Pressure sores
Autonomic Hyperreflexia (Dysreflexia)
Pneumonia and retained secretions
Urinary tract infections
Constipation
Deep venous thrombosis
Bone demineralisation/ hypercalcaemia
Latex allergy
Spasticity – deformities/pain
Special considerations
Referral must be made to the rehabilitation team in the first 24 hours
If long term mechanical ventilation is required, phrenic nerve/diaphragm pacing
may be considered
Companion documents
Medical management of spinal cord injury
Acute traumatic spinal cord injury admission process