Ec6411 Lab Manual

Dr.N.G.P.
Institute of Technology
Coimbatore – 48
DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
LABORATORY MANUAL
EC 6411 – CIRCUITS AND SIMULATION
INTEGRATED LABORATORY
IV SEMESTER ECE
R2013
Prepared by
C.SENTHILLUMAR, ASP /ECE
WWW.Vidyarthiplus.Com
SYLLABUS
EC6411 CIRCUITS AND SIMULATION INTEGRATED LABORATORY
LTPC0032
OBJECTIVES:
 To gain hands on experience in designing electronic circuits.
 To learn simulation software used in circuit design.
 To learn the fundamental principles of amplifier circuits
 To understand Bias in Amplifier circuits
 To differentiate feedback amplifiers and oscillators.
 To study the characteristic of source follower
 To understand the concepts of multivibrators
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF THE FOLLOWING CIRCUITS

1. Series and Shunt feedback amplifiers-Frequency response, Input and output impedance
calculation
2. RC Phase shift oscillator and Wien Bridge Oscillator
3. Hartley Oscillator and Colpitts Oscillator
4. Single Tuned Amplifier
5. RC Integrator and Differentiator circuits
6. Astable and Monostable multivibrators
7. Clippers and Clampers
8. Free running Blocking Oscillators
SIMULATION USING SPICE (Using Transistor):
1. Tuned Collector Oscillator
2. Twin -T Oscillator / Wein Bridge Oscillator
3. Double and Stagger tuned Amplifiers
4. Bistable Multivibrator
5. Schmitt Trigger circuit with Predictable hysteresis
6. Monostable multivibrator with emitter timing and base timing
7. Voltage and Current Time base circuits
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
On completion of this lab course, the students will be able to
 Analyze various types of feedback amplifiers
 Design oscillators, tuned amplifiers, wave-shaping circuits and multivibrators
 Design and simulate feedback amplifiers, oscillators, tuned amplifiers, wave-shaping
circuits and multivibrators using SPICE Tool.
CONTENTS
Lab
S.No Date Name of the Experiment Marks
Inchagre
1
10
11
12
13
14
15
Content Beyond the syllabus (Using Virtual lab)
Marks (Average)
Ex.No.1
SERIES AND SHUNT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS-FREQUENCY
Date: RESPONSE, INPUT AND OUTPUT IMPEDANCE CALCULATION
A. CURRENT SERIES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER
OBJECTIVE
To design and construct a current series feedback amplifier,

 obtain its frequency response
 measure input and output impedances
EQUIPMENT
S.No. Description Range Qty
THEORY
The circuit diagram of CE Amplifier with current series feedback is shown below. The
resistor RF in emitter is the feedback element. The voltage drop Vf across RF constitutes the
feedback signal while the current Ic forms the sampled signal. Hence, this forms a current
series feedback .Due to negative feedback, though the voltage gain of the amplifier is
decreased, it improves stability and increases the bandwidth. This is the advantage of
negative feedback. Using h-parameter model for ac analysis the amplifier parameters such as
the voltage gain, bandwidth can be calculated. For this, following steps have to be followed.
To find the input circuit, set I0=0, ie open the output loop. Hence RE appears in input
side.
To find the output circuit set I1=0, i.e. open the input loop. Hence RE appears in output
loop.
DESIGN
VCC = 12V, IC = 1mA, AV = 40
Transistor BC107: hie = 1.1KΩ, hfe = 220
Typical values: VCE = 3V; VRE = 5V
Selection of RC & RE
Applying KVL on Collector loop, VCC = VRC + VCE + VRE
 VRC = VCC – VCE – VRE =
𝑉𝑅𝐶
RC = 𝐼𝐶
=
RE = 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐸
= 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐶
= (since IC = IE)
Selection of RL
RL = 10 RC =
Selection of R1 & R2
Typical value of R2 = 10 RE =
𝐼𝑐
I2 = 10 =
VB = VBE + VRE = (VBE = 0.7V for Si Transistor)
R1 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐−𝑉 𝐵 =
𝐼2
Selection of Rf
−( RC || RL)
AV =
𝑅𝑓
−( RC || RL)
 Rf = 𝐴𝑉
=
Now RE = RE – Rf =
Selection of CE
XCE = Rf at f1 ; f1 = lower cutoff frequency = 100Hz
1
XCE = 2𝜋 𝑓1 𝐶𝐸
= Rf
1
 CE = 2𝜋 𝑓1 Rf
=
Selection of C1 & C2
XC1 = 𝑍𝑖𝑛+𝑟𝑠
10
at f1 ; f1 = lower cutoff frequency = 100Hz
Zin = R1 || R2 || (hie +(1+hfe) Rf) =
rs = 600Ω
𝑍𝑖𝑛+𝑟𝑠
10
=
X C1 = 1
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝐶1
= 𝑍𝑖𝑛+𝑟𝑠
10
=
1
Now, C1 = =
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝑍𝑖𝑛+𝑟𝑠
10
XC2= 𝑍𝑜
10
Zo = RC + RL
1 𝑍𝑜
XC2= =
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝐶2 10
1
Now, C2 = =
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝑍𝑜
10
PROCEDURE
Frequency Response (with feedback)
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Connect a sine-wave generator set at 1000Hz frequency and 50mV peak-to-peak signal voltage at the
input of the amplifier circuit.
3. Connect an oscilloscope across the output nodes. Observe the sine wave output on the oscilloscope.
Adjust the output of the sine-wave generator until undistorted. Maximum signal output is obtained.
4. Observe and measure the peak-to-peak amplitude of input and output signal and record the values in the
tabulation provided.
5. Now, sweep the input signal frequency in the range 30Hz to 1 MHz by adjusting the sine wave generator
output.
6. For each setting of input frequency, measure the output signal voltage.
7. Draw the frequency response curve on a semi-log graph sheet. From this plot, obtain the values of mid-
band voltage gain, upper and lower cut-off frequency and BW (fh-fl).
Frequency Response (without Negative Feedback)
8. Remove Rf from the circuit and connect RE and CE directly to the emitter terminal.
9. Measure and record in the table, the frequency response of this circuit without Rf by repeating steps 5
through 6.
10. Draw the response curve on the same graph as before. Obtain the values of mid-band voltage gain,
lower and upper cut-off frequency and BW. Comment on the differences between this response curve and
the previous curve.
Impedance Measurement
Measurement of input impedance Measurement of output impedance
11. In the above assembled circuit, keep the magnitude and frequency of the source same, ie., Vi at 1KHz
frequency.
12. Connect a potentiometer Rin (variable resistance) in series with the circuit input terminal and the signal
source.
13. Connect a two-channel CRO to simultaneously monitor the input and output signal voltage waveforms.
14. Adjust the POT until a new output signal VO, equal to one-half the original measured value of VO is
obtained. Now, remove Rin from the circuit and measure its resistance using DMM. The measured value in
ohms equals the input impedance, Zi.
15. To measure the output impedance ZO of the amplifier, connect a potentiometer Rout to the output
circuit.
obtained. Now, remove Rout from the circuit and measure its resistance using DMM. The measured value
in ohms equals the output impedance, Zo.
17. Tabulate the readings in table.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PIN SPECIFICATION OF BC107
TABULATION
Input Voltage Vi =
Frequency f Output Voltage Vo 𝑽𝒐 Gain in dB

Gain Av = 𝑽𝒊
(Hz) (V) 20 log Av
Frequency Response (without feedback)
Input Voltage Vi =

Gain Av =
(Hz) (V) 𝑽𝒊 20 log Av
Particulars Measured Value Calculated Value

Input Impedance, Zi
Output Impedance, Zo
MODEL GRAPH
FL – Lower cut-off frequency without feedback

FU – Upper cut-off frequency without feedback
FLf – Lower cut-off frequency with feedback
FUf – Upper cut-off frequency with feedback
Bandwidth (without feedback) = FU - FL
Bandwidth (with feedback) = FUf - FLf
RESULT
1. The current series feedback amplifier is designed, constructed and its frequency
Response is plotted.
2. The input and output impedance of the constructed amplifier is measured.
B. VOLTAGE SHUNT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER
OBJECTIVE
To design and construct a voltage shunt feedback amplifier,

 obtain its frequency response
 measure input and output impedances
EQUIPMENT
THEORY
In Voltage shunt feedback amplifier, the feedback signal voltage is given to the base of the transistor in
shunt through the feedback resistor Rf. This shunt connection tends to decrease the input resistance and the
voltage feedback tends to decrease the output resistance. In the circuit Rf appears directly across the input
base terminal and output collector terminal. The feedback path consists of Rf and Cf. Since the feedback
tends to reduce the input, negative feeback exists. This feedback amplifier is known as transresistance
amplifier as it amplifies the input current to required output voltage
DESIGN
VCC = 12V, IC = 1mA, AV = 40
Feedback ratio β = -0.025 x 10-3 A/V
𝑉𝑅𝐶
RC = 𝐼𝐶
=
RE = 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐸
= 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐶
= (since IC = IE)
Selection of RL
RL = 10 RC =
𝐼𝑐
I2 = 10 =
R1 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐−𝑉
𝐼2
𝐵
=
Selection of Rf & Cf
Rf = - - 𝛽1
 Rf =
𝑅𝑓
XCf = 10 at f1 ; f1 = lower cutoff frequency = 100Hz
1 𝑅𝑓
XCf = 2𝜋 𝑓1 𝐶𝑓
= 10 =
1
Now, Cf = =
𝑅𝑓
2𝜋 𝑓1
10
Selection of CE
XCE = re’ at f1 ; f1 = lower cutoff frequency = 100Hz
re’ = 26𝑚𝑉 = 26𝑚𝑉 =

𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐶
1
XCE = 2𝜋 𝑓1 𝐶𝐸
= r e’
1
 CE = 2𝜋 𝑓1 re’
=
XC1 = 𝑍𝑖𝑛+𝑟𝑠
10
Zin = R1 || R2 || Rf || hie =
rs = 600Ω
𝑍𝑖𝑛+𝑟𝑠
=
10
XC1 = 1
= 𝑍𝑖𝑛+𝑟𝑠 =
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝐶1 10
1
Now, C1 = =
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝑍𝑖𝑛+𝑟𝑠
10
XC2= 𝑍𝑜 at f1 ; f1 = lower cutoff frequency = 100Hz

10
Zo = (RC || Rf) + RL =
1 𝑍𝑜
XC2= 2𝜋 𝑓1 𝐶2
= 10
=
1
Now, C2 = =
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝑍𝑜
10
PROCEDURE
2. Connect a sine-wave generator set at 1000Hz frequency and 50mV peak-to-peak signal voltage at the
input of the amplifier circuit.
Adjust the output of the sine-wave generator until undistorted. Maximum signal output is obtained.
4. Observe and measure the peak-to-peak amplitude of input and output signal and record the values in the
tabulation provided.
5. Now, sweep the input signal frequency in the range 30Hz to 1 MHz by adjusting the sine wave generator
output.
6. For each setting of input frequency, measure the output signal voltage.
7. Draw the frequency response curve on a semi-log graph sheet. From this plot, obtain the values of mid-
band voltage gain, upper and lower cut-off frequency and BW (fh-fl).
Frequency Response (without Negative Feedback)
8. Remove Rf from the circuit and connect RE and CE directly to the emitter terminal.
9. Measure and record in the table, the frequency response of this circuit without Rf by repeating steps 5
through 6.
10. Draw the response curve on the same graph as before. Obtain the values of mid-band voltage gain,
lower and upper cut-off frequency and BW. Comment on the differences between this response curve and
the previous curve.
Measurement of input impedance Measurement of output impedance
11. In the above assembled circuit, keep the magnitude and frequency of the source same, ie., V i at 1KHz
frequency.
12. Connect a potentiometer Rin (variable resistance) in series with the circuit input terminal and the signal
source.
13. Connect a two-channel CRO to simultaneously monitor the input and output signal voltage waveforms.
obtained. Now, remove Rin from the circuit and measure its resistance using DMM. The measured value in
ohms equals the input impedance, Zi.
15. To measure the output impedance ZO of the amplifier, connect a potentiometer Rout to the output
circuit.
obtained. Now, remove Rout from the circuit and measure its resistance using DMM. The measured value
in ohms equals the output impedance, Zo.
17. Tabulate the readings in table.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PIN SPECIFICATION OF BC147/547
TABULATION
Input Voltage Vi =

Gain Av = 𝑽𝒊
(Hz) (V) 20 log Av
Frequency Response (without feedback)
Input Voltage Vi =

Gain Av =
(Hz) (V) 𝑽𝒊 20 log Av
Particulars Measured Value Calculated Value

Input Impedance, Zi
Output Impedance, Zo
MODEL GRAPH
FL – Lower cut-off frequency without feedback

FU – Upper cut-off frequency without feedback
FLf – Lower cut-off frequency with feedback
FUf – Upper cut-off frequency with feedback
Bandwidth (without feedback) = FU - FL
Bandwidth (with feedback) = FUf - FLf
RESULT
1. The voltage shunt feedback amplifier is designed, constructed and its frequency
Response is plotted.
2. The input and output impedance of the constructed amplifier is measured.
Viva - Questions
1. What is meant by feedback?
A portion of the output signal is taken from the output of the amplifier and is combined
with the normal input signal. This is known as feedback.
(OR)
Feedback is a part of output is sampled and fedback to the input of the amplifier.
2. Give the different types of feedbacks used in amplifier circuits.

1. Positive feedback
2. Negative feedback.
3. Define the positive feedback.

When input signal and part of the output signal are in phase, the feedback is calledPositive
feedback.
4. Define negative feedback.

When input signal and part of the output signal are in out of phase, the feedback is called
negative feedback.
5. What type of feedback is used in oscillator?

Positive.
6. Give the classification of amplifiers.

The amplifiers can be classified into four broad categories: voltage, current, Tranconductance
and Tranresistance amplifiers.
7. Define feedback factor or feedback ratio.

The ratio of the feedback voltage to output voltage is known as feedback factor or feedback
ratio.
8. What is the purpose of mixer network in feedback amplifier?
The mixer network is used to combine feedback signal and input at input of an amplifier.
9. What are the advantages of introducing negative feedback?

1. Input resistance is very high.
2. Output resistance is low.
3. The transfer gain Af of the amplifier with feedback can be stabilized against Variations of
the h-parameters or hybrid π parameters of the transistors or the Parameters of the others
active devices used in the amplifiers.
10. List the four basic feedback topologies.

1. Voltage amplifier with voltage series feedback.
2. Transconductance amplifier with current-series feedback.
3. Current amplifier with current-shunt feedback
4. Transresistance amplifier with voltage shunt feedback
11. Give the expression for gain of an amplifier with feedback.

Avf = AV/ 1+ AV β
Where, Avf – feedback voltage gain. AV – Voltage gain.
β - Feedback factor
12. What is the effect of lower cut-off frequency with negative feedback?
Lower cutoff frequency with feedback is less than lower cutoff frequency without feedback by
factor (1+Amid β)
13. What is the effect of upper cut-off frequency with negative feedback?
Upper cutoff frequency with feedback is greater than upper cutoff frequency without
feedback by factor (1+Amid β)
14. What is the effect of negative feedback on bandwidth?

Bandwidth of amplifier with feedback is greater than bandwidth of amplifier without
feedback.
15. Why gain bandwidth product remains constant with the introduction of negative
feedback?
Since bandwidth with negative feedback increases by factor (1+A β) and gain decreases by
same factor, the gain-bandwidth product of an amplifier does not altered, when negative
feedback is introduced.
16. What is the effect of negative feedback on feedback distortion?

The frequency distortion is reduced with the negative feedback.
17. What is the effect of negative feedback on noise?

The noise is reduced with the negative feedback.
18. What is the effect of negative feedback on non linear distortion?

The linear distortion is reduced with the negative feedback.
19. What are the types of distortions in an amplifier?

1. Frequency
2. Noise and non linear
20.What type of feedback is employed in emitter follower amplifier?
Voltage series feedback.
Ex.No.02
RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR & WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
Date:
A. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
OBJECTIVE
To design, construct a RC Phase Shift Oscillator using BJT for a desired frequency of oscillation and to
observe its output waveform.
EQUIPMENT
THEORY
The circuit illustrates BJT version of RC phase shift oscillator using CE configuration. The circuit consists
of an amplifier circuit, causes a phase shift of 180o and 3–stage positive feedback network (each RC
combination introducing shift of 60o) create phase shift 180o, which satisfies Barkhausen criterion. The
Oscillator circuit doesn’t have any external input with it. Additional RC (feedback) stages improve the
stability of the oscillator. With the proper selection of R & C values, the phase of the voltage at the resistor
will be advanced by 60o. The frequency of oscillation of a RC phase shift oscillator is given by,
1 Rc
fo  , Where K  .
2RC (6  4 K ) R
DESIGN
VCC = 8.6 V; Q = (VCE , IC) = (3V, 1mA)
Frequency of oscillation fo = 3KHz
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
For Feedback network, Let R = 1KΩ, k = 2.75
Typical Values: VRE = 3V
𝑉𝑅𝐶
RC = =
𝐼𝐶
RE = 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐸
= 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐶
= (since IC = IE)
𝐼𝑐
I2 = =
10
𝐼2
𝐵
=
Selection of CE
XCE = re’ at f1 ; f1 = lower cutoff frequency = 100Hz
re’ = 26𝑚𝑉
𝐼𝐸
= 26𝑚𝑉
𝐼𝐶
=
1
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝐶𝐸
= re’
1
 CE = 2𝜋 𝑓1 re’
=
Selection of C1
XC1 = 𝑍𝑖𝑛
10
Zin = R1 || R2 || hie =
X C1 = 1
= 𝑍𝑖𝑛 =
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝐶1 10
1
Now, C1 = =
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝑍𝑖𝑛
10
Feedback Network
Selection of R’ & C
R’ = R – hie =
1
fo = 2𝜋𝑅𝐶 𝛤(6+4𝑘)
 C = 2𝜋 𝑓𝑜 𝐶 1𝛤(6+4𝑘) =
PROCEDURE
3. Observe and measure the peak-to-peak amplitude and frequency of the output signal and record the
values in the tabulation provided.
4. Sketch the Output waveform on a graph.
TABULATION
Amplitude(peak to peak) Time Period Frequency

Particular
A T f = 1/T
Output
Waveform
MODEL GRAPH
RESULT
The BJT version of RC phase shift oscillator for the given frequency is designed, constructed and the output
signal is observed.
Theoretical fo =
Observed fo =
B. WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
OBJECTIVE
To design, construct a Wein bridge Oscillator using BJT for a desired frequency of oscillation and to
observe its output waveform
EQUIPMENT
THEORY
The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called because the circuit is based on a frequency-selective form of the
Wheatstone bridge circuit. The Wien Bridge Oscillator is a two-stage RC coupled amplifier circuit that has
good stability at its resonant frequency, low distortion and is very easy to tune making it a popular circuit as
an audio frequency oscillator but the phase shift of the output signal is considerably different from the
previous phase shift RC Oscillator.
The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a feedback circuit consisting of a series RC circuit connected with a
parallel RC of the same component values producing a phase delay or phase advance circuit depending
upon the frequency. At the resonant frequency ƒr the phase shift is 0o.
The feedback network consists of a series RC circuit connected to a parallel RC forming basically aHigh
Pass Filter connected to a Low Pass Filter producing a very selective second-order frequency
dependant Band Pass Filter with a high Q factor at the selected frequency, ƒr.
At low frequencies the reactance of the series capacitor (C1) is very high so acts like an open circuit and
blocks any input signal at Vin. Therefore there is no output signal, Vout. At high frequencies, the reactance
of the parallel capacitor, (C2) is very low so this parallel connected capacitor acts like a short circuit on the
output so again there is no output signal. However, between these two extremes the output
voltage reaches a maximum value with the frequency at which this happens being called the Resonant
Frequency, (ƒr).
At this resonant frequency, the circuits reactance equals its resistance as Xc = R so the phase shift between
the input and output equals zero degrees.
1
Frequency of Wein bridge oscillator, fr = 2𝜋𝑅𝐶 where, R = R1 = R2; C = C1 = C2
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
DESIGN
VCC = 10V, IC = 2mA
Transistor BC547: hie = 1KΩ, hfe = 200
Frequency of oscillation fo = fr = 3KHz
𝑉𝑅𝐶
RC = =
𝐼𝐶
RE = 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐸
= 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐶
= (since IC = IE)
𝐼𝑐
I2 = =
10
R1 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐−𝑉 𝐵 =
𝐼2
Selection of CE
ℎ𝑖𝑒
XCE = 1+ℎ𝑓𝑒 at f1 ; f1 = lower cutoff frequency = 100Hz
ℎ𝑖𝑒
1+ℎ𝑓𝑒
=
1 ℎ𝑖𝑒
XCE = = =
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝐶𝐸 1+ℎ𝑓𝑒
1
 CE = =
2𝜋 𝑓1 ℎ𝑖𝑒
1+ℎ𝑓𝑒
Selection of C1, C2 & C3
XC1 = 𝑍𝑖𝑛1
10
Zin1 = R1 || R2 || (hie + (1+hfe)RE)
XC1 = 1
= 𝑍𝑖𝑛1
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝐶1 10
1
Now, C1 = =
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝑍𝑖𝑛1
10
XC2= 𝑍𝑖𝑛2
10
Zin2 = (R3 || R4 || hie)+ RC
1
XC2= 2𝜋 𝑓1 𝐶2
= 𝑍𝑖𝑛2
10
1
Now, C2 = =
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝑍𝑖𝑛2
10
XC3= 𝑍𝑜
10
Zo = RC
1
XC3= 2𝜋 𝑓1 = 𝑍𝑜
𝐶3 10
1
Now, C3 = =
𝑍𝑜
2𝜋 𝑓1
10
Feedback Network
1
fo = 2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Assume C = 0.1μF
Now, R = 2𝜋 1𝑓𝑜 𝐶 =
𝑅𝑓
1+ ≥3
𝑅𝐸1
𝑅𝑓
 𝑅𝐸1
≥2
 Rf ≥ 2 RE1
 Assuming RE1 = 50Ω, Rf ≥ 100Ω (Use DRB to adjust Rf )
PROCEDURE
TABULATION
Amplitude(peak to peak) Time Period Frequency

Particular
A T f = 1/T
Output
Waveform
MODEL GRAPH
RESULT
The BJT version of Wein bridge oscillator for the given frequency is designed, constructed and the output
signal is observed.
Theoretical fo =
Observed fo =
Viva - Questions
1. What is an oscillator?
An oscillator is a circuit which basically acts as a generator, generating the output signal which
oscillates with constant amplitude and constant desired frequency.
2. What is the difference between open loop and closed loop gain of the circuit?
Closed loop gain
S.NO Open loop gain
The gain of the amplifier is ratio The ratio of the output to input,
of output to input when no considering the overall effect of the
1. feedback is used is called open feedback is called closed loop gain.
loop gain
3. State the Barkhausen criterion for an oscillator.

1. The total phase shift around a loop, as the signal proceeds from input through amplifier,
feedback network back to input again, completing a loop, is precisely 00 or 3600.
2. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier
(A) and the feedback factor β is unity. i.e., A β = 1.
4. Explain the concept of positive feedback.
The feedback is a property which allows to feedback the part of the output, to the same circuit as
its input. Such a feedback is said to be positive whenever the part tf the output that is fed back to
the amplifier as its input, is in phase with the original input signal applied to the amplifier.
5. From where starting voltage for the oscillator is derived?

Every resistance has some free electrons. Under the influence of room temperature, these free
electrons move randomly in various directions. In such a movement of the free electrons
generate a voltage called noise voltage, across the resistance. Such noise voltage provides the
starting voltage for the oscillator.
6. Why in practice A β is kept greater than unity?

To amplify small noise voltage present, so that oscillations can start, A β is kept initially greater
than unity.
7. Give the overall classification of oscillators?

a. Waveform type (sinusoidal, square, triangular,etc.,)
b. Circuit components (LC, RC,etc.,)
c. Range of frequency –A.F (audio), R.F (radio)
d. Type of feedback (RC phase shift, Wein bridge are feedback used, UJT relaxation
oscillators uses no feedback)
8. What is the gain requirement in the wein bridge oscillator?

The gain requirement for wein bridge oscillator is minimum 3.
9. Write down the advantages of RC phase shift oscillator.

a) Simplicity of the circuit.
b) Useful for frequencies in the audio range.
c) A sine wave output can be obtained.
10. Write down disadvantages of RC phase shift oscillator.

Poor frequency stability.
It is difficult to get a variable frequency output, because to change
the frequency, we need to vary all the resistors and capacitors simultaneously
which is practically very difficult.
11. Give the comparison between RC and LC oscillators.

S.NO RC oscillators LC oscillators
1. Frequency of oscillations is Frequency of oscillations is dependent on
dependent on values of R and C values of L and C
2. These are used at low and These are preferred at high frequencies
medium frequencies
12.Write down the general applications of oscillators.

a) As a local oscillator in radio receivers.
b) In T.V receivers.
c) In signal generators.
d) As clock generation for logic circuits.
e) AM and FM transmitters.
f) In phase lock loops.
13. Name two high frequency Oscillators.

i. Hartley Oscillator
ii. Colpitts Oscillator
iii. iii. Crystal Oscillator
14.What are the types of feedback oscillators?

a) RC-Phase shift Oscillator,
b) LC-Oscillators
Tuned collector Oscillator
Tuned emitter Oscillator
Tuned collector base Oscillator
Hartley Oscillator
Colpits Oscillator
Clap Oscillator
15.What are the conditions for oscillation?

The total phase shift of an oscillator should be 360o. For feedback oscillator it
should satisfies Barhausen criterion.
16. Define Piezoelectric effect.

When applying mechanical energy to some type of crystals called piezoelectric
crystals the mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy is called
piezoelectric effect.
17. What is the necessary condition for a wein bridge oscillator to have sustained
oscillations?
In Wein Bridge oscillator gain of the amplifier must be atleast 3 for oscillation to start. And the
phase shift of feedback circuit must be 0 degree as it used as non inverting amplifier.
18. In a RC Phase shift oscillator, if R1=R2=R3=200 KΩ and c1=c2=c3=100pf find the

frequency of the oscillator.
f= 1/ 2πRC= 7.957khz.
19. In an RC phase shift oscillator ,if its frequency of oscillation is 955 Hz and
R1=R2=R3=680KΩ, find the value of capacitors.
f= 1/ 2πRC 955=1/2π*680*10^3*c
c=0.245nF
20. A parallel resonant circuit has an inductance if 150µH and capacitance of 150 Pf find
the resonant frequency.
fp= 1/2π√LCeq= 1/2π√150*10^-6*100*10^-12=1.3MHz.
Ex.No.03
HARTLEY OSCILLATOR & COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
Date:
A. HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
OBJECTIVE
To design, construct a Hartley Oscillator using BJT for a desired frequency of oscillation and to observe its
output waveform
EQUIPMENT
THEORY
Hartley oscillator was invented in 1915 by the american engineer Ralph Hartley while he was working for
the Western Electric company. The original design was tube based and he got a patent for it in the year
1920.
In a Hartley oscillator the oscillation frequency is determined by a tank circuit comprising of two inductors
and one capacitor. The inductors are connected in series and the capacitor is connected across them in
parallel. Hartley oscillators are commonly used in radio frequency (RF) oscillator applications and the
recommended frequency range is from 20KHz to 30MHz. Hartley oscillators can be operated at frequencies
lower than 20KHz, but for lower frequencies the inductor value need to be high and it has a practical limit.
The circuit diagram of a typical Hartley oscillator is shown in the figure.
In the circuit diagram resistors R1 and R2 give a potential divider bias for the transistor Q1. Re is the
emitter resistor, whose job is to provide thermal stability for the transistor. CE is the emitter by pass
capacitors, which by-passes the amplified AC signals. If the emitter by-pass capacitor not there, the
amplified ac voltages will drop across Re and it will get added on to the base-emitter voltage of Q1 and will
disrupt the biasing conditions. Cin is the input DC decoupling capacitor while Cout is the output DC
decoupling capacitor. The task of a DC decoupling capacitor is to prevent DC voltages from reaching the
succeeding stage. Inductor L1, L2 and capacitor C1 forms the tank circuit.
When the power supply is switched ON the transistor starts conducting and the collector current increases.
As a result the capacitor C1 starts charging and when the capacitor C1 is fully charged it starts
discharging through coil L1. This charging and discharging creates a series of damped oscillations in the
tank circuit and it is the key.
The oscillations produced in the tank circuit is coupled (fed back) to the base of Q1 and it appears in the
amplified form across the collector and emitter of the transistor. The output voltage of the transistor
(voltage across collector and emitter) will be in phase with the voltage across inductor L1. Since the
junction of two inductors is grounded, the voltage across L2 will be 180° out of phase to that of the voltage
across L1. The voltage across L2 is actually fed back to the base of Q1. From this we can see that, the feed
back voltage is 180° out of phase with the transistor and also the transistor itself will create another 180°
phase difference. So the total phase difference between input and output is 360° and it is very important
condition for creating sustained oscillations.
The frequency “F” of a Hartley oscillator can be expressed using the equation;
C is the capacitance of the capacitor C1 in the tank circuit.
L = L1+L2, the effective series inductance of the inductors L1 and L2 in the tank circuit.
Here the coils L1 and L2 are assumed to be winded on different cores. If they are winded on a single
core then L=L1+L2+2M where M is the mutual inductance between the two coils.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PIN SPECIFICATION OF SL100
DESIGN
VCC = 12V, IC = 1mA
Transistor SL100
Typical values: VCE = 3V; VRE = 3.5V
𝑉𝑅𝐶
RC = 𝐼𝐶
=
RE = 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐸
= 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐶
= (since IC = IE)
Let RE be RE = 1KΩ + RE1 = 2.5KΩ(Pot.) adjustable to obtain sustained oscillations
𝐼𝑐
I2 = 10 =
𝐼2
𝐵
=
Selection of C1, C2 & CE
Choose C1 = 0.1μf & C2 = CE = 0.01μF
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Connect the CRO across the output terminals of the oscillator.
3. Switch on the power supply to both the oscillator and CRO.
4. Select proper values of C, L1 and L2 in the oscillator circuit to obtain the sine waveform on the
screen of CRO. Adjust the Potentiometer to get undistorted output.
5. Observe and measure the peak-to-peak amplitude and time period(T) of the output signal and record the
values in the tabulation provided. The reciprocal of T gives the frequency of the observed waveform
TABULATION
Inductance(mH) Frequency (Hz)

Capacitance Time period
C(µF) T 1
L1 L2 L=L1+L2 f=𝑇
MODEL GRAPH
RESULT
The BJT version of Hartley oscillator for the given frequency is designed, constructed and the output signal
is observed.
Theoretical fo =
Observed fo =
B. COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
OBJECTIVE
To design, construct a Colpitts Oscillator using BJT for a desired frequency of oscillation and to observe its
output waveform
EQUIPMENT
THEORY
Colpitts oscillator was invented by American scientist Edwin Colpitts in 1918. It is another type of
sinusoidal LC oscillator which has a lot of applications. The Colpitts oscillator can be realized using valves,
transistors, FETs or op-amp. It is much similar to the Hartley oscillator except tank circuit. In Colpitts
oscillator the tank circuit consists of two capacitors in series and an inductor connected in parallel to the
serial combination. The frequency of the oscillations are determined by the value of the capcitors and
inductor in the tank circuit.
Collpitts oscillator is generally used in RF applications and the typical operating range is 20KHz to
300MHz. In Colpitts oscillator, the capacitive voltage divider setup in the tank circuit works as the feed
back source and this arrangement gives better frequency stability when compared to the Hartley oscillator
which uses an inductive voltage divider setup for feedback.
In the circuit diagram resistors R1 and R2 gives a voltage divider biasing to the transistor. Resistor R4
limits the collector current of the transistor. Cin is the input DC decoupling capacitor while Cout is the
output decoupling capacitor. Re is the emitter resistor and its meant for thermal stability. Ce is the emitter
by-pass capacitor. Job of the emitter by-pass capacitor is to by-pass the amplified AC signals from dropping
across Re. The the emitter by-pass capacitor is not there, the amplified AC signal will drop across Re and it
will alter the DC biasing conditions of the transistor and the result will be reduced gain. Capacitors C1, C2
and inductor L1 forms the tank circuit. Feedback to the base of transistor is taken from the junction of
Capacitor C2 and inductor L1 in the tank circuit.
When power supply is switched ON, capacitors C1 and C2 starts charging. When they are fully charged
they starts discharging through the inductor L1. When the capacitors are fully discharged, the electrostatic
energy stored in the capacitors gets transferred to the inductor as magnetic flux. The the inductor starts
discharging and capacitors gets charged again. This transfer of energy back and forth between capacitors
and inductor is the basis of oscillation. Voltage across C2 is phase opposite to that of the voltage across the
C1 and it is the voltage across C2 that is fed back to the transistor. The feedback signal at the base base of
transistor appears in the amplified form across the collector and emitter of the transistor.
The energy lost in the tank circuit is compensated by the transistor and the oscillations are sustained. The
tank circuit produces 180° phase shift and the transistor itself produces another 180° phase shift. That
means the input and output are in phase and it is a necessary condition of positive feedback for maintaining
sustained oscillations. The frequency of oscillations of the Colpitts oscillator can be determined using the
equation below.
Where L is the inductance of the inductor in the tank circuit and C is the effective
capacitance of the capacitors in the tank circuit. If C1 and C2 are the individual capacitance, then the
effective capacitance of the serial combination C= (C1C2)/(C1+C2). By using ganged variable capacitors in
place of C1 and C2, the Colpitts oscillator can be made variable.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PIN SPECIFICATION OF SL100
DESIGN
VCC = 12V, IC = 1mA
Transistor SL100
Typical values: VCE = 3V; VRE = 3.5V
𝑉𝑅𝐶
RC = 𝐼𝐶
=
RE = 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐸
= 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐶
= (since IC = IE)
Let RE be RE = 1KΩ + RE1 = 2.5KΩ(Pot.) adjustable to obtain sustained oscillations
𝐼𝑐
I2 = 10 =
𝐼2
𝐵
=
Selection of C1, C2 & CE
Choose C1 = C2 = CE = 0.1μF
PROCEDURE

4. Select proper values of L, C1 and C2 in the oscillator circuit to obtain the sine waveform on the
screen of CRO. Adjust the Potentiometer to get undistorted output.
5. Observe and measure the peak-to-peak amplitude and time period(T) of the output signal and record the
values in the tabulation provided. The reciprocal of T gives the frequency of the observed waveform
TABULATION
Capacitance
Frequency (Hz)
Inductance C(µF)
Time period
L(mH)
T 1
C1 C2 C= C1|| C2 f=𝑇
MODEL GRAPH
RESULT
The BJT version of Colpitts oscillator for the given frequency is designed, constructed and the output signal
is observed.
Theoretical fo =
Observed fo =
Viva - Questions
1.How to obtain Hartley oscillator from the basic form of LC oscillator?
Using X1 and X2 as inductors and X3 as capacitor, Hartley oscillator from basic form of LC
oscillator is obtained.
2. How to obtained colpitt’s oscillator form basic form of LC oscillator?

Using X1 and X2 as capacitors and X3 as inductors, colpitt’s oscillator from basic form of
LC oscillator is obtained.
3. Write down the advantages, disadvantages and applications of

colpitt’s oscillator.
Advantages:
a) Simple construction.
b) It is possible to obtain oscillations at very high frequencies.
Disadvantages:
a) It is difficult to adjust the feedback as it demands change in capacitor values.
b) Poor frequency stability.
Application:
a) As a high frequency generator.
4. Write down the general applications of oscillators.

g) As a local oscillator in radio receivers.
h) In T.V receivers.
i) In signal generators.
j) As clock generation for logic circuits.
k) AM and FM transmitters.
l) In phase lock loops.
5. What are the conditions for oscillation?

The total phase shift of an oscillator should be 360o. For feedback oscillator it
6. Define Piezoelectric effect.

When applying mechanical energy to some type of crystals called piezoelectric
crystals the mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy is called
piezoelectric effect.
7. Draw the equivalent circuit of crystal oscillator.
8. What are th classifications of Oscillators?

Based on wavegenerated:
i. Sinusoidal Oscillator,
ii. Non-sinusoidal Oscillator or Relaxation Oscillator
Ex: Square wave, Triangular wave, Rectangular wave etc.
According to principle involved:
i. Negative resistance Oscillator,
ii. Feedback Oscillator.
9. Differentiate oscillator and amplifier.
AMPLIFIER OSILLATOR
Use negative feed back Uses positive feedback
Requires input to produce output Does not require any input to produce
output
Produces output of similar type as that of Produces oscillations at the output with
the input with higher power level. constant amplitude and constant desired
frequency.
10.What is piezo electric effect?

The piezo electric Crystals exhibit a property that if a mechanical stress is applied across one
face the electric potential is developed across opposite face. The inverse is also live. This
phenomenon is called piezo electric effect.
11.List the disadvantages of crystal Oscillator.

It is suitable for only low power circuits
Large amplitude of vibrations may crack the crystal.
It large in frequency is only possible replacing the crystal with another one by different
frequency.
12.What are parasitic Oscillators?

In a practical amplifier circuit due to stray capacitances and lead inductances, oscillations
result, since the circuit conditions satisfy the Barkhavsen’s criterion. These Oscillators are
called as unwanted or parasitic Oscillations
13.What is damped Oscillation?

The electrical Oscillations in which the amplitude decreases with time are called as damped
Oscillation.
14.What are the types of sinusoidal oscillator? Mention the different types of sinusoidal
oscillator?
RC phase shift Oscillator. Wein bridge
Oscillator. Hartley Oscillator Colpitts
Oscillator Crystal Oscillator
15.What is Barkhausan criterion?

The conditions for oscillator to produce oscillation is given by Barkhausan
criterion. They are :
(i). The total phase shift produced by the circuit should be 360o or 0o (ii).The
Magnitude of loop gain must be greater than or equal to 1
i.e. . A‫׀‬β‫≥ ׀‬1.

iv. Hartley Oscillator
ii. Colpitts Oscillator iii.Crystal Oscillator
17. What are the essential parts of an Oscillator?
i. Tank circuit (or) Oscillatory circuit.
ii. Amplifier (Transistor amplifier)
iii. Feedback Circuit.
18. Define gain bandwidth product of a tuned amplifier.

A gain band width product of a tuned amplifier is defined as product of 3 db band width and gain
at response of the tuned amplifier.

Every resistance has some free electrons. Under the influence of room temperature, these free
electrons move randomly in various directions. In such a movement of the free electrons
20. Why in practice A β is kept greater than unity.

To amplify small noise voltage present, so that oscillations can start, A β is kept initially greater
than unity.
Ex.No.04 SINGLE TUNED AMPLIFIER
Date:
OBJECTIVE
To design and construct a single tuned amplifier and obtain its frequency response
EQUIPMENT
THEORY
A tuned amplifier uses a tuned circuit i.e. circuit that selects a particular band of frequencies. A
tuned amplifier has a tuned or resonance circuit passes only a relatively narrow band of frequencies. The
center of this frequency is the resonance frequency of the tuned Circuit . The modulated signal has a
relatively narrow band of frequencies centered around the carrier frequency.
This circuit selects and amplifies only a narrow band of frequencies and rejects or suppress all
frequencies outside this band . The tuned circuit in the output presents a large output load impedance at its
tuned frequency and a low impedance at all other frequencies . Since the amplitude of the output signal
depends on the value of the output impedance , large outputs are developed only at tuned frequency. In the
fig. resistors R1 and R2 provide the voltage divider bias and stabilize the operating point . The tuned circuit
consists of an inductor and capacitor . The inductor is the primary of the transformer . Either L or C , or
both , are made variable so that the resonant frequency of the circuit can be changed . The voltage gain of
an amplifier depends on the output impedance (on the impedance of the tuned circuit) . At resonance , this
impedance is maximum and is resistive . Hence , at this frequency fr , the voltage gain will be maximum but
, as we move away from fr on either side , the impedance and hence , the voltage gain decreases.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
DESIGN
VCC = 10V, IC = 1mA
Typical values: VRE = 10% of VCC = 1V
Frequency of resonance fr = 5KHz
Tank Circuit
Selection of L & C
1
fr =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
Given fr = 5KHz. Assume C = 0.1μF
1
 L = 4∗𝜋∗𝜋∗𝑓𝑟∗𝑓𝑟∗𝐶 =
Selection of RE, R1 & R2
RE = 𝑉𝑅𝐸 = 𝑉𝑅𝐸 = (since IC = IE)

𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐶
VR2
R2 = 𝐼2
𝐼𝑐
I2 = 10 =
VR2 = VB = VBE + VRE = (VBE = 0.7V for Si Transistor)

VR2
Now, R2 = 𝐼2
=
𝐼2
𝐵
=
Selection of C1 , C2 & CE
Choose C1 = C2 = 0.1μF
XCE = RE at f1 ; f1 = lower cutoff frequency = 20Hz
1
XCE = = RE
2𝜋 𝑓1 𝐶𝐸
1
 CE = =
2𝜋 𝑓1 RE
PROCEDURE

2. Connect a sine- wave generator set at 1000Hz frequency and 50mV (p-p) signal voltage
at the input of the amplifier circuit.
3. Connect an oscilloscope across the output nodes. Observe the sine wave output on the
oscilloscope. Adjust the output of the sine-wave generator until undistorted. Maximum
signal output is obtained.
4. Observe and measure the peak-to-peak amplitude of input and output signal and record
the values in the tabulation provided.
5. Now, sweep the input signal frequency in the range 30HZ to 1 MHZ by adjusting the sine
wave generator output.
6. For each setting of input frequency, measure and record the output signal voltage.
7. Draw the frequency response curve on a semi-log graph sheet. From this plot, obtain the
values of resonant frequency, upper and lower cut-off frequency and BW.
TABULATION
Frequency Response
Input Voltage Vi =

Gain Av = 𝑽𝒊
(Hz) (V) 20 log Av
MODEL GRAPH
RESULT
Single tuned amplifier is designed, constructed and its frequency response is plotted.
The tuned frequency is observed
Theoretical (fT) :
Practical (fP) :
Quality factor (Q) (fo/BW) :
Viva - Questions
1. What do you mean by tuned amplifiers?

The amplifiers which amplify only selected range of frequencies (narrow band of frequencies)
with the help of tuned circuits (parallel LC circuit) are called tuned amplifiers.
2. What are the various types of tuned amplifiers?

1)Small signal tuned amplifiers
a. Single tuned amplifiers
(i) Capacitive coupled
Inductively coupled (or) Transformer coupled
b. Double tuned amplifiers
c. Stagger tuned amplifiers
2)Large signal tuned amplifiers
3. Give the expressions for the resonance frequency and impedance of the tuned
circuit.
1 L
fr
= 2 L & ZR =C
π C R
4. What is the response of tuned amplifiers?

The response of tuned amplifier is maximum at resonant frequency and it falls sharply for
frequencies below and above the resonant frequency.
5. When tuned circuit is like resistive, capacitive and inductive?

At resonance, circuit is like resistive.
For frequencies above resonance, circuit is like capacitive.
For frequencies below resonance, circuit is like inductive.
6. What are the various components of coil losses?

Copper loss
Eddy current loss
Hysteresis loss
7. Define Q factor of resonant circuit.

It is the ratio of reactance to resistance.
It also can be defined as the measure of efficiency with which inductor can store the energy.
Q=2п *(Maximum Energy Stored per cycle / Energy dissipated per cycle)
8. What is dissipation factor?

It is defined as 1/Q.
It can be referred to as the total loss within a component.
9. Define unloaded and loaded Q of tuned circuit.

The unloaded Q or QU is the ratio of stored energy to dissipated energy in a reactor or resonator.
10. The loaded Q or QL of a resonator is determined by how tightly the resonator
is coupled to its terminations. Why quality factor is kept as high as possible in tuned
circuits?
1. When Q is high, bandwidth is low and we get better selectivity. Hence Q is kept as high as
possible in tuned circuits.
2. When Q is high inductor losses are less.
11. List various types of cascaded Small signal tuned amplifiers.

1. Single tuned amplifiers.
2. Double tuned amplifiers.
3. Stagger tuned amplifiers.
12. How single tuned amplifiers are classified?

1. Capacitance coupled single tuned amplifier.
2. Transformer coupled or inductively coupled single tuned amplifier.
13. What are single tuned amplifiers?

Single tuned amplifiers use one parallel resonant circuit as the load impedance in each
stage and all the tuned circuits are tuned to the same frequency.
14. What are double tuned amplifiers?

Double tuned amplifiers use two inductively coupled tuned circuits per stage, both the tuned
circuits being tuned to the same frequency.
15. What are stagger tuned amplifiers?

Stagger tuned amplifiers use a number of single tuned stages in cascade, the successive tuned
circuits being tuned to slightly different frequencies.
16. What is the effect of cascading single tuned amplifiers on bandwidth?

Bandwidth reduces due to cascading single tuned amplifiers.
17. List the advantages and disadvantages of tuned amplifiers.

Advantages:
1. They amplify defined frequencies.
2. Signal to Noise ratio at output is good.
Disadvantages:
1. Since they use inductors and capacitors as tuning elements, the circuit is bulky and costly.
2. If the band of frequency is increased, design becomes complex.
18. What are the advantages of double tuned amplifier over single tuned amplifier?
1. It provides larger 3 dB bandwidth than the single tuned amplifier and hence provides the
larger gain-bandwidth product.
2. It provides gain versus frequency curve having steeper sides and flatter top.
19. What the advantages are of stagger tuned amplifier?

The advantage of stagger tuned amplifier is to have better flat, wideband characteristics.
20. Mention the applications of class C tuned amplifier.

1. Class C amplifiers are used primarily in high-power, high-frequency applications
such as Radio-frequency transmitters.
2. In these applications, the high frequency pulses handled by the amplifier are not themselves
the signal, but constitute what is called the Carrier for the signal.
Ex.No.05
RC INTEGRATOR AND DIFFERNTIATOR CIRCUITS
Date:
OBJECTIVE
To design, construct Integrator and differentiator circuits using simple RC network and study their time
response.
EQUIPMENT
THEORY
A differentiator gives the derivative of input voltage as output. A differentiator using passive
components resistors and capacitors is a high pass filter. The circuit is shown .It acts as a differentiator only
when the time constant is too small. The voltage at output is proportional to the current through the
capacitor. The current through the capacitor can be expressed as C dv/dt. The output is taking across the
resistor. So output will be RC dv/dt. Thus differentiation of input takes place.
When a square wave is applied at the input, during the positive half cycle capacitor charges. So
initially the voltage across the resistor will be the applied voltage. As the capacitor charges, the voltage
across resistor decreases.
Now consider the case of integrator. It is a low pass filter. Here the time constant of the circuit
should be very large. Here output is taking across the capacitor. As the input square wave is applied, during
the positive half cycle the voltage across capacitor increases from zero, to the maximum (peak value of
applied voltage). During the negative half cycle, the capacitor starts to discharge and comes to zero. This
process repeats for the remaining cycles and a triangular wave is obtained.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
RC Integrator
RC Differentiator
MODEL GRAPH
RC Integrator RC Differentiator
DESIGN
Select Vin = 5VP-P, 1KHz (both Square & Pulse)
Integrator
For an Integrator, RC ≥ 16T

The frequency of the input signal is 1KHz, then Time period T = 1ms.
In order to avoid loading of the signal, choose the value of R as ten times the output impedance of the
function generator (600Ω).
So, R = 10 x 600Ω = 6KΩ (6.8KΩ Std.)

16𝑇
Therefore, C≥ 𝑅
16∗1𝑚𝑠
≥ 6.8𝐾
≥ 2.3μF (Use 2.2μF Std.)
Differentiator
For a Differentiator, RC ≤ 0.0016T

The frequency of the input signal is 1KHz, then Time period T = 1ms.
In order to avoid loading of the signal, choose the value of R as ten times the output impedance of the
function generator (600Ω).
So, R = 10 x 600Ω = 6KΩ (6.8KΩ Std.)

0.0016𝑇
Therefore, C≤ 𝑅
0.0016∗1𝑚𝑠
≤ 6.8𝐾
≤ 235pF (Use 220pF Std.)
PROCEDURE
RC Integrator
1. Connect the Integrator circuit as shown in figure.

2. Connect signal from the OUTPUT socket of the FG to the RC circuit, and also to the CH-1 input of the
CRO.
3. Choose square wave signal and adjust the amplitude control to obtain a 5VP-P, 1KHz
4. Connect the output of the RC circuit to CH-2 input of the CRO. Be sure to choose the DC mode for both
CH-1and CH-2 inputs so as to observe the dc levels of the signals.
i. Time response when T << τ, τ = RC(time constant) :
Choose the waveform frequency (f) to be 5 kHz. Observe and sketch Vi and V0 with respect to
time. Note down the salient features of V0.
ii. Time response when T ≈ τ, τ = RC(time constant) :
Choose f to be 1 kHz. Observe and sketch Vi and V0 with respect to time. Note down the salient
features of V0.
Choose any two convenient points on the rising and falling parts of V0 and measure the
corresponding voltages and the time intervals. From these readings, obtain the time constant  of
the circuit. Compare the result with that obtained using the values of the components (R and C)
used in the circuit.
iii. Time response when T > τ, τ = RC(time constant) :
Choose f = 100 Hz. Observe and sketch Vi and V0.
RC Differentiator
1. Connect the differentiator circuit as shown in figure.

2. Connect signal from the OUTPUT socket of the FG to the RC circuit, and also to the CH-1 input of the
CRO.
3. Choose square wave signal and adjust the amplitude control to obtain a 5VP-P, 1KHz.
4. As in the case of the RC integrator circuit, obtain time response of this circuit for the following three
cases. Sketch Vi and V0 for each case.
i. Time response when T << τ, τ = RC(time constant) : Choose f = 5KHz.
ii. Time response when T ≈ τ, τ = RC(time constant) : Choose f = 1KHz.
iii. Time response when T > τ, τ = RC(time constant) : Choose f = 100Hz.
iv. Increase the input signal frequency beyond 8 kHz and note the minimum frequency at which the
linear tilt (droop) seen in the output waveform is negligible.
TABULATION
INPUT OUTPUT
CIRCUIT AMPLITUDE TIME (ms) AMPLITUDE (V) TIME (ms)
(V)
INTEGRATOR
DIFFERENTIATOR
RESULT
The RC Integrator and differentiator circuits are designed, constructed using simple RC network and the
time response is studied.
Viva - Questions
1.What is High pass RC circuit? Why it is called high-pass filter?

A simple circuit consisting of a series capacitor and a shunt resistor is called high pass RC
circuit. At very high frequencies the capacitor acts as a short circuit and all the higher frequency
components appear at the output with less attenuation than the lower frequency components.
Hence this circuit is called high-pass circuit.
2.Why high-pass RC circuit is called Differentiator?

High-pass RC circuit gives an output waveform similar to the first derivative of the input
waveform. Hence it is called Differentiator.
3.What is Low pass RC circuit? Why it is called low-pass filter?

A simple circuit consisting of a series resistor and a shunt capacitor is called Low pass RC
circuit. At very high frequencies the capacitor acts as a virtual short circuit and output falls to
zero. Hence this circuit is called low-pass filter
4.Why low-pass RC circuit is called Integrator?

Low pass RC circuit gives an output waveform similar to the time integral of the input
waveform. Hence it is called Integrator.
5.What is High pass RL circuit? Why it is called high-pass filter?

A simple circuit consisting of a series resistor and a shunt inductor is called high-pass RL
circuit. At very high frequencies, the inductor acts as an open circuit and all the higher
frequency components appear at the output. Hence this circuit is called high-pass filter.
6.What is Low pass RL circuit? Why it is called low-pass filter?

A simple circuit consisting of a series inductor and a shunt resistor is called low pass RL
circuit. At very high frequencies, the inductor acts as a virtual open circuit and the output falls
to zero. Hence this circuit is called low pass filter.
7.What is Delay time (td) in transistor?

The time needed for the collector current to rise to 10% of its maximum (saturation)
value i.e. iC(Sat) = VCC/RC is called the delay time.
8.What is Rise time (tr) in transistor?

The time required for the collector current to rise from 10% to 90% of the maximum value is
called rise time (tr).
9.What is Turn-ON time (tON) in transistor?

The sum of the delay time (td) and the rise time (tr) is called the turn-ON time (tON).
tON = td + tr
10. What is storage time (ts) in transistor?

The time when collector current (iC) dropped to 90% of its maximum value is called the
storage time.
11. What is fall time (tf) in transistor?

The time required for the collector current to fall from 90% to 10% of its maximum
value is called fall time (tf).
12. What is Turn-off time (tOFF) in transistor?
The sum of the storage time (ts) and the fall time (tf) is called the turn-OFF
time (tOFF). (tOFF) = (ts) + (tf)
13. Define integrator.

Integrator is a circuit that passes low frequencies of the input and attenuates high frequencies.
Integrator implies that the output voltage is an integral of the input voltage.
14. What is the use of commutating capacitors?

The Commutating capacitors can be used to reduce the transition time in a low to high level and
vice versa.
15. Define transition time.

The time interval during which the conduction transfer from one transistor to another transistor
is defined as transition time.
16. What is delay time?

The time required for the current to rise to 10% of its maximum (saturation) value Ics is called
the delay time td.
17. What is the total turn on time?

The total turn on time is ton is the sum of the delay time and rise time, ton = td
+ tr , Where,td = Delay time. tr = Rise time.
18. What is storage time?

The interval that elapses between the transition of the input waveform and the time when the
collector current has dropped to 90 % of total output is called the storage time ts.
19. Define transition time.

The time interval during which the conduction transfer from one transistor to another transistor is
defined as transition time.
20. Define differentiator.

Differentiator is a circuit that passes high frequencies of the input and attenuates low
frequencies. It implies that the output voltage is the differential of the input.
Ex.No.06
ASTABLE AND MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
Date:
A. ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
OBJECTIVE
To design and construct a Astable multivibrator using BJT and observe its collector and base
waveforms
EQUIPMENT
THEORY
Multivibrators are Sequential regenerative circuits either synchronous or asynchronous and are used
extensively in electronic timing applications. Multivibrators produce an output wave shape resembling that
of a symmetrical or asymmetrical square wave and as such are the most commonly used of all the square
wave generators. Multivibrators belong to a family of oscillators commonly called “Relaxation Oscillators“.
Generally speaking, discrete multivibrators consist of a two transistor cross coupled switching circuit
designed so that one or more of its outputs are fed back as an input to the other transistor with a resistor and
capacitor ( RC ) network connected across them to produce the feedback tank circuit.
Transistorized Astable Multivibrator is a cross coupled transistor network capable of producing sharp
continuous square wave. It is free running oscillator or simply a regenerative switching circuit using
positive feedback. Astable Multivibrator switches continuously between its two unstable states without the
need for any external triggering.
Time period of Astable multivibrator can be controlled by changing the values of feedback components
such as coupling capacitors and resistors.
When a transistor is ON, its collector and emitter act as a short circuit. But when it is OFF they acts as open
circuit. So in the above circuit when a transistor is in OFF state its collector will have the voltage Vcc and
when it is ON its collector will be grounded. When one transistor is ON the other will be OFF. The OFF
time of transistor is determined by RC time constant.
When the circuit is switched on, one of the transistor will be more conducting than the other due imbalance
in the circuit or difference in the parameters of the transistor. Gradually the more conducting transistor will
be driven to Saturation and the less conducting transistor will be driven to Cutoff.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
DESIGN
VCC = 10V; IC = 2mA

1
Pulse width T = 1ms; Duty cycle =
3
Selection of RC1 & RC2
Take RC1 = RC2 = RC

(𝑉𝐶𝐶−𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡)
RC = = (VCEsat = 0.3V)
𝐼𝐶
The value of R1 & R2 must be selected such that it must be able to provide enough base current to keep
transistors in saturation
𝐼𝑐
IBmin = ℎ𝑓𝑒 =
To ensure the operation of transistor in saturation,
IB = 5 IBmin =
(𝑉𝐶𝐶−𝑉𝐵𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡)
R1 = 𝐼𝐵
= (VBEsat = 0.7V)
Take R1 = R2 =
For stable operation, value of R1 & R2 should be less than hfe RC; Ensure if R1 & R2 are less than hfe RC
𝑇𝑂𝑁 1
Given, pulse width T = TON + TOFF = 1ms & Duty cycle, D = 𝑇𝑂𝑁+𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹 = 3
1
 TON = D(TON + TOFF) = 3(1ms) = 0.333ms
 TOFF = T - TON = 1ms – 0.333ms = 0.667ms
TON = 0.693 R1C1

𝑇𝑂𝑁
 C1 = 0.693 R1 =
TOFF = 0.693 R2C2

𝑇𝑂𝐹𝐹
 C2 = 0.693 R2 =
PROCEDURE

4. Observe and measure the amplitude and time period of the collector and base waveforms on both
transistors and record the values in the tabulation provided.
5. Sketch the waveforms on a graph.
TABULATION
Particulars Amplitude (v) Time Period (ms)

V B1
V C1
V B2
V C2
MODEL GRAPH
RESULT
The Astable Multivibrator using BJT is designed, constructed and the collector and base waveforms are
observed.
B. MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
OBJECTIVE
To design and construct a Monostable multivibrator using BJT and observe its collector and base
waveforms
EQUIPMENT
THEORY
Monostable Multivibrators or “One-Shot Multivibrators” as they are also called, are used to generate a
single output pulse of a specified width, either “HIGH” or “LOW” when a suitable external trigger signal or
pulse T is applied. This trigger signal initiates a timing cycle which causes the output of the monostable to
change its state at the start of the timing cycle and will remain in this second state.
The timing cycle of the monostable is determined by the time constant of the timing capacitor, CTand the
resistor, RT until it resets or returns itself back to its original (stable) state. The monostable multivibrator
will then remain in this original stable state indefinitely until another input pulse or trigger signal is
received. Then, Monostable Multivibrators have only ONE stable state and go through a full cycle in
response to a single triggering input pulse.
The basic collector-coupled transistor Monostable Multivibrator circuit and its associated waveforms are
shown above. When power is firstly applied, the base of transistor TR2 is connected to Vcc via the biasing
resistor, RT thereby turning the transistor “fully-ON” and into saturation and at the same time
turning TR1 “OFF” in the process. This then represents the circuits “Stable State” with zero output. The
current flowing into the saturated base terminal of TR2 will therefore be equal toIb = (Vcc – 0.7)/RT.
If a negative trigger pulse is now applied at the input, the fast decaying edge of the pulse will pass straight
through capacitor, C1 to the base of transistor, TR1 via the blocking diode turning it “ON”. The collector
of TR1 which was previously at Vcc drops quickly to below zero volts effectively giving capacitor CT a
reverse charge of -0.7v across its plates. This action results in transistor TR2 now having a minus base
voltage at point X holding the transistor fully “OFF”. This then represents the circuits second state, the
“Unstable State” with an output voltage equal to Vcc.
Timing capacitor, CT begins to discharge this -0.7v through the timing resistor RT, attempting to charge up
to the supply voltage Vcc. This negative voltage at the base of transistor TR2 begins to decrease gradually
at a rate determined by the time constant of the RT CT combination. As the base voltage of TR2 increases
back up to Vcc, the transistor begins to conduct and doing so turns “OFF” again transistor TR1 which
results in the monostable multivibrator automatically returning back to its original stable state awaiting a
second negative trigger pulse to restart the process once again.
Monostable Multivibrators can produce a very short pulse or a much longer rectangular shaped waveform
whose leading edge rises in time with the externally applied trigger pulse and whose trailing edge is
dependent upon the RC time constant of the feedback components used. This RCtime constant may be
varied with time to produce a series of pulses which have a controlled fixed time delay in relation to the
original trigger pulse.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
DESIGN
VCC = 12V; IC = 2mA; Typical Values: VRE = 2V
Pulse width T = 1.5ms
Selection of RE
RE = 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐸
= 𝑉𝑅𝐸
𝐼𝐶
= (since IC = IE)
Selection of RC1 & RC2
Take RC1 = RC2 = RC
(𝑉𝐶𝐶−𝑉𝐶𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡−𝑉𝑅𝐸)
RC = 𝐼𝐶
= (VCEsat = 0.3V)
Selection of R
The value of R must be selected such that it must be able to provide enough base current to keep transistor,
Q2 in saturation
𝐼𝑐
IBmin = ℎ𝑓𝑒 =
To ensure the operation of transistor in saturation,
IB = 5 IBmin =
(𝑉𝐶𝐶−𝑉𝐵𝐸𝑠𝑎𝑡−𝑉𝑅𝐸)
RC = 𝐼𝐵
= (VBEsat = 0.7V)
i) Considering the stable state: Q1 – OFF & Q2 – ON

For ensuring Q1 in OFF state; VBE1 = -1V
Then, VB1 = VR1 = VBE1 + VRE

Since, IB = 0, current through R2 = current through R1
𝑉𝐶1 𝑅2
VB1 = 𝑅1+𝑅2
VC1 = VCEsat + VRE = 0.3 + 2 = 2.3V
2.3 𝑅2
VB1 = 𝑅1+𝑅2
Substituting for VB1, and simplifying we get R2 = 1.3R1
ii) Considering the quasi stable state: Q1 – ON & Q2 – OFF
Since Qs is OFF ; VC2 = 12V
VB1 = VBEsat + VRE = 0.7+2 = 2.7V
Also, IR2 = IB1 + IR1
(𝑉𝐶𝐶−𝑉𝐵1) 𝑉𝐵1
𝑅2
= IB + 𝑅1
Substituting for VB1, IB & R2 = 1.3R1, we obtain R1 =
Then, R2 = 1.3R1 =
Selection of C
Given, T = 0.693RC = 1.5ms
𝑇
 C = 0.693𝑅 =
Selection of speed up capacitor, C1
C1 R2 = Cπ R1
Where, Cπ => base emitter capacitance of Q1 (Cπ = 12pF from datasheet)
Cπ R1
C1 = 𝑅2
=
Design of triggering (differentiator) circuit

Condition to be satisfied, Rd Cd ≤ 0.0016Tt; Tt = 2ms
Take Rd = 6.8KΩ
0.0016 𝑇𝑡
 Cd ≤ 𝑅𝑑
=
PROCEDURE

4. Observe and measure the amplitude and time period of the collector and base waveforms on both
transistors and record the values in the tabulation provided.
5. Sketch the waveforms on a graph.
TABULATION
Particulars Amplitude(v) Time Period(ms)

Trigger
V B1
V C1
V B2
V C2
MODEL GRAPH
RESULT
The Monostable Multivibrator using BJT is designed, constructed and the collector and base waveforms are
observed.
Viva - Questions
1. Define the Bistable multivibrator.

Bistable multivibrator signifies a circuit which can exist indefinitely in either of two stable states
and which can be induced to make an abrupt transition from one state to other by applying an
external triggering signal.
2. Define resolving time.

It is the minimum time interval between two consecutive trigger pulses and equals to transition
time plus the settling time.
4. What are different types of triggering of bistable multivibrator?

Asymmetrical triggering.
Symmetrical triggering.
5. What is a linear waveform-shaping circuit?

The process by which the shape of a nonsinusoidal signal is changed by passing the signal
through the network consisting of linear elements is called Linear Wave Shaping.
6. What is meant by multivibrator?

Multivibrators are two stage switching circuits in which the output of the first stage is fed to the
input of the second state and vice-versa. The outputs of two stages are complementary.
7. Define Astable multivibrator.

Astable multivibrator is a multivibrator in which neither state is stable. There are two temporary
states. The circuit changes state continuously from one quasi stables state to another at regular
intervals without any triggering. This generates continuous square waveform without any
external signal.
8. Define monostable multivibrator.
When a trigger pulse is applied to the input circuit, the circuit state is changed abruptly to
unstable state for a predetermined time after which the circuit returned to its original stable state
automatically.
9. Which circuits are called multivibrators?

The electronic circuits which are used to generate nonsinusoidal waveforms are called
multivibrators.
They are two stage switching circuits in which the output of the first stage is fed to the
input of the second stage and vice-versa.
10.Which are the various types of multivibrators?

 Astable multivibrator
 Bistablemultivibrator
 Monostable multivibrator
11. What is astablemultivibrator?

A multivibrator which generates square wave without any external triggering
pulse is called astablemultivibrator.
It has both the states as quasi-stable states. None of the states is stable.
12. List the applications of Astable multivibrator?
Used as square wave generator,.
production of harmonic frequencies of higher order.
Construction of digital voltmeter and SMPS.
13.State the basic action of monostablemultivibrator.
It has only one stable state. The other state is unstable referred as quasi-stable state.It is
also known as one-short multivibrator or univibrator.
When an external trigger pulse is applied to the circuit, the circuit goes into the quasi-
stable state from its normal stable state.After some time interval, the circuit
automatically returns to its stable state.
14. Mention the applications of one short multivibrator?

It is used to function as an adjustable pulse width generator.
It is used to generate uniform width pulses from a variable width pulse train.
It is used to generate clean and sharp pulses from the distorted pulses.
It is used as a time delay unit since it produces a transition at a fixed time after the trigger
signal.
15.Which multivibrator would function as a time delay unit? Why?

Monostable multivibrator would function as a time delay unit since it produces a transition at
a fixed time after the trigger signal.
16.What is Bistablemultivibrator?
The Bistablemultivibrator has two stable states.
The multivibrator can exist indefinitely in either of the two stable states.
It requires an external trigger pulse to change from one stable state to another.
The circuit remains in one stable state unless an external trigger pulse is applied.
17.List the applications of bistable multivibrator?

It is used as memory elements in shift registers, counters, and so on.
It is used to generate square waves of symmetrical shape by sending regular triggering pulse
to the input. By adjusting the frequency of the trigger pulse, the width of the square wave can
be altered.
It can also be used as a frequency divider.
18.What are the two methods of triggering for bistablemultivibrators?

 Unsymmetrical triggering
 Symmetrical triggering
19.How many stable states do bistableMultivibrator have?

Two stable states.
20.When will the circuit change from stable state in bistable Multivibrator?
When an external trigger pulse is applied, the circuit changes from one stable state to
another.
Ex.No.07
CLIPPERS AND CLAMPERS
Date:
A. CLIPPERS
OBJECTIVE
To construct, study various Clipping circuits and observe their output waveforms.
EQUIPMENT
THEORY
Diode clipper Circuits

A clipper is a circuit in which the output of an input sinusoidal (or any time-dependent signal)
waveform can be clipped at different levels. A clipping circuit requires at least two fundamental
components, a diode and a resistor. A DC battery, however, is also frequently used. The output
waveform can be clipped at different levels simply by interchanging the position of the various
elements and changing the magnitude of the DC battery. Generally, ideal diodes are considered
and the complete analysis can be based on non-ideal diodes with specific V-I characteristic.
For networks of this type, it is often helpful to consider particular instants of the time-varying input
signal to determine the state of the diode (ON or OFF). Keep in mind that even the though input
varies, at a specific time instant this time varying signal can be replaced by a DC source of the
same value. Error! Reference source not found.Examples of various clipping circuits are shown
below. Note that the input to all circuits is a sinusoidal waveform.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM – PART I: IDEAL CLIPPING CIRCUITS
Circuit 1
Positive Clipper
VB = +V
Circuit 2
Negative Clipper
VB = +V
Vout Vout
+ + + +
R R
V in Vout V t V in Vout t
V V V
- - - -
Clipping circuits
For two circuits on the left, the maximum output voltage is clipped at Vout = V. (Ideal diode)
For two circuits on the right the minimum output voltage is clipped at Vout= V. (Ideal diode)
For a non-ideal diode, maximum or minimum output voltage is Vout = V + Vd, or –V - Vd where Vd is the
voltage drop across the diode.
PROCEDURE
PART I: IDEAL CLIPPING CIRCUITS (Circuit 1 & 2)
NOTE: Set Vin = 8VP-P at 1kHz with 0V DC offset and R = 1kΩ for all circuits.
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure.
2. Set voltage VB to 0V using the Variable Power Supply (VPS) front panel.
3. Measure Vin and Vo using the oscilloscope. Make an accurate sketch of the input and output
waveforms on the same graph, making note of the peak values of Vo (minimum Vo and maximum Vo) and
the input voltage at which clipping occurs.
4. Set VB = 2V and repeat step (3).
5. Sketch the input and output waveforms.
6. Record the voltage at which clipping occurs.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM – PART II: SERIES – BIASED CLIPPER
Circuit 3
Series biased Clipper
PART II: SERIES-BIASED CLIPPING CIRCUITS (Circuit 3
NOTE: The Function Generator (FGEN) in the following circuits will provide both the VSIN and VB voltages.
DO NOT USE SUPPLY+ OR SUPPLY–(RPS) IN THE CIRCUITS.
R = 1kΩ for all circuits.
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 4.6(a) using the function generator to supply both VSIN and VB. Set
the AMPLITUDE voltage to 8VP-P. Set the frequency to 1kHz. Set the DC offset to 0V.
2. Measure VSIN and Vo using the oscilloscope using SCOPE CH0 and CH1, respectively. Set the coupling
on CH0 and CH1 to DC. Click “Autoscale”. Make an accurate sketch of VSIN and Vo on the same graph,
making note of the peak values of Vo (minimum Vo and maximum Vo) and the value of VSIN at which
clipping occurs. Use the cursors as needed.
3. Set the DC offset of the function generator to 2V (which is same as VB=2V) and repeat step(2).
PART III: PARALLEL-BIASED CLIPPER (Circuit 4)
It is possible to clip wave forms at two different voltages. The circuit shown in Figure clips the waveform
ideally at VB1 (SUPPLY+ = 2V) and VB2 (SUPPLY– = –2V).
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure using the function generator to supply both VSIN and VB. Set the
AMPLITUDE voltage to 8VP-P. Set the frequency to 1kHz. Set the DC offset to 0V.
2. Measure VSIN and Vo using the oscilloscope using SCOPE CH0 and CH1, respectively.
3. Make an accurate sketch of the input and output voltage waveforms for the circuit in Figure, noting the
peaks of the output waveform and the input voltage at which clipping occurs.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM – PART III: PARALLEL – BIASED CLIPPER
Circuit 4
Parallel
Biased
Clipper
TABULATION
Particulars Input Output

Amp (V) Time (ms) Amp (V) Time (ms)
Circuit 1
Ideal Clipping Circuits
Circuit 2
Series – Biased
Clipping Circuit Circuit 3
Parallel – Biased
Clipping Circuits Circuit 4
RESULT
The various Diode Clipping circuits are constructed and their output waveforms are observed.
B. CLAMPERS
OBJECTIVE
To construct, study various Clamping circuits and observe their output waveforms.
EQUIPMENT
THEORY
Diode clamper circuits

A clamper is a circuit which will add or subtract a DC component from any input voltage. The
clamping circuit has a minimum requirement of three elements: a diode, a capacitor, and a resistor.
The clamping circuit may also include a DC battery. The magnitude of R and C must be chosen
such that the time constant  = R·C is large enough to ensure that the voltage across the capacitor
does not change significantly during the interval of time, determined by the input, that both R and
C affect the output waveform. It is usually advantageous when examining clamping circuits to first
consider the conditions that exist when the input is such that the diode is forward-biased. Error!
Reference source not found.shows examples of various clamping circuits and their output
waveforms. Note that the input is a square wave with peak-to-peak value of 2V. The peak-to-peak
value of all the output waveforms is always 2V but the waveforms are shifted depending on the dc-
biasing of the circuits.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Vout Vout
+ + + +
C C
V in Vout V t V in Vout t
R R
V V V
- - - -
Clamping circuits
DESIGN
Assume C, and for clamping to occur, select R such that RC>>T where T is the period of input signal
RC>>T, Assume T = 2ms
Let RC = 50T = 100 ms
Let R = 100KΩ, => C = 1µF
Positive Peak Clamper(Positive Reference)
Assume Vin = 10VP-P, VR = 2V, VD = 0.6V
a. During the positive half of the input signal, diode D is forward biased, therefore D = ON
Applying KVL to the loop
Vin – VC – VD – VR = 0
VC = Vin – VD – VR
VC = 5 – 0.6 – 2
VC = 2.4V
b. During the negative half of the input signal, diode D is reverse biased, therefore D = OFF
Vin – VC – Vo = 0
Vo = Vin – VC
When Vin = 0V, Vo = -2.4V
Vin = 5V, Vo = 2.6V
Vin = -5V, Vo = -7.4V
The output varies between 2.6V and -7.4V
Negative Peak Clamper(Negative Reference)
Assume Vin = 10VP-P, VR = 2V, VD = 0.6V
a. During the negative half of the input signal, diode D is forward biased, therefore D = ON
-Vin + VC + VD + VR = 0
VC = -(-Vin + VD + VR)
VC =-(- 5 + 0.6 + 2)
VC = 2.4V
b. During the positive half of the input signal, diode D is reverse biased, therefore D = OFF
Vin + VC – Vo = 0
Vo = Vin + VC
When Vin = 0V, Vo = 2.4V
Vin = 5V, Vo = 7.4V
Vin = -5V, Vo = -2.6V
The output varies between -2.6V and 7.4V
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Particulars Input Output

Amp (V) Time (ms) Amp (V) Time (ms)
Positive peak Clamper
Negative peak Clamper
PROCEDURE
1. Build the circuit shown in figure.
2. Measure Vin and Vo using the oscilloscope using SCOPE CH0 and CH1, respectively. Set the coupling
of both oscilloscope channels to DC.
3. Make an accurate sketch of the input and output waveforms for a 8VP-P sine wave input voltage for each
of the circuit.
4. Record the Values.
RESULT
The various Diode Clamping circuits are constructed and their output waveforms are observed.
Viva - Questions
1. What is clipper?
The circuit with which the waveform is shaped by removing (or clipping) a portion
of the input signal without distorting the remaining part of the alternating waveform is
called a clipper.
2.What are the four categories of clippers?

 Positive clipper
 Negative clipper
 Biased clipper
 Combination clipper
3. What is comparator?
The nonlinear circuit which was used to perform the operation of clipping may also be
used to perform the operation of comparison is called the comparator.
The comparator circuit compares an input signal with a reference voltage.
4. What is clamper?
A circuit which shifts (clamps) a signal to a different dc level, i.e. which introduces a dc
level to an ac signal is called clamper. It is also called dc restorer.
5. Why does one of the transistor start conducting ahead of other?

The characteristic of both the transistors are never identical hence after giving supplies one of the
Transistors start conducting ahead of the other.
6. What is feed back?

It is the process of injecting some energy from the output and then returns it back tothe
input.
7. What is the disadvantage of negative feed back?

Reduces amplifier gain.
8. Define sensitivity.
It is the ratio of percentage change in voltage gain with feedback to the percentage change in
voltage gain without feed back.
9. Define Desensitivity.
It is the ratio of percentage change in voltage gain without feedback to the percentage change
in voltage.
10. What is delay time?

the delay time td.
11. What is the total turn on time?

The total turn on time is ton is the sum of the delay time and rise time, ton = td +
tr;Where,td = Delay time. Tr = Rise time.
12.What is storage time?

13.Define transition time.
14. Define resolving time.
The smallest allowable interval between triggers is called resolving time.
15. Give the expression of fmax with respect to resolving time.

Fmax = 1/resolving time.
16. Define gate width.

The pulse width is the time for which the circuit remains in the quasi stable state. It is also
called gate width.
17. What is UTP of the Schmitt Trigger?

The level of Vi at which Q1 becomes ON and Q2 OFF is called Upper Threshold Point.
18. What is the other name for UTP?

It is also called input turn on threshold level.
19. Define transfer Characteristics of Schmitt trigger.

The graph of output voltage against input voltage is called transfer characteristics of
Schmitt trigger.
20. Define Duty cycle.

The duty cycle is defined as the ratio of the ON time tp to the time period T.
Mathematically it is given by, D= tp/T
Ex.No.08
BLOCKING OSCILLATOR
Date:
OBJECTIVE
To observe the characteristics of blocking oscillator.
EQUIPMENT
THEORY
A blocking oscillator is the minimal configuration of discrete electronic components which can
produce a free-running signal, requiring only a capacitor, transformer an one amplifying component. The
name is derived from the fact that the transistor is cut-off or blocked for most of the duty cycle, producing
periodic pulses. The non-sinusoidal output is not suitable for use as a radio frequency local oscillator, but it
can serve to flash lights or LEDs, and the simple tones are sufficient for applications such as alarms or a
morse-code practice device. Some cameras use a blocking oscillator to strobe the flash prior to a shot to
reduce the red-eye effect.
Due to the simplicity of the circuit, it forms the basis for many of the learning projects in commercial
electronic kits. A secondary winding of the transformer can be fed to a speaker, a lamp, or the windings of a
relay. Potentiometer placed in parallel with the timing capacitor permits the frequency to be adjusted, but at
low resistances the transistor will be overdriven, and possibly damaged. The output signal will jump in
amplitude and be greatly distorted. The frequency of the oscillator is also affected by the supply voltage.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
MODEL GRAPH
PROCEDURE
RESULT
The BJT version of Free running blocking oscillator is constructed and the output signal is observed.
Viva - Questions
1.Write the equation for finding the bandwidth.
Bandwidth= f2-f1
Where f1= lower cut off frequency and f2= higher cut off frequency
2.What is blocking oscillator?

The circuit which uses a regerative feedback, producing a single pulse or pulse train is called a
blocking oscillator.
3.Which are the two important elements of a blocking oscillator?

1. Active element like transistor.
2. A pulse transformer.
4. What is pulse transformer?

A pulse transformer is basically a transformer which couples a source of pulses of electrical
energy to the load, keeping the shape and other properties of pulses unchanged. The voltage level
of the pulse can be raised or lowered by designing the proper turns ratio for the pulse
transformer.
5.What is an Oscillator?
An Oscillator is a Circuit, which generates an alternating voltage of any desired frequency. It
can generate an a.c output signal without requiring any externally applied input signal.
6.What is a beat frequency oscillator?

Beat frequency Oscillator (BFO) is an Oscillator in which a deserved signal frequency such as
the beat frequency produced by combining the different signal frequencies such as on different
radio frequencies.
7.What is sustained Oscillation?

The electrical oscillations in which amplitude does not change with time are called as
sustained oscillations. It is also called as Undamped Oscillation.
8.What is meant by resonant Circuit Oscillators?

LC Oscillators are known as resonant circuit oscillator because the frequency of operation of
LC Oscillator is nothing but a resonant frequency of tank circuit or LC tank circuit produces
sustained Oscillation at the resonant circuit oscillator.
9.What is delay time?

the delay time td.
10.What is the total turn on time?

The total turn on time is ton is the sum of the delay time and rise time, ton = td
+ tr
Where,td = Delay time. tr = Rise time.

13.What is current time base generator?

The circuit which produces current which linearly increases with time is called current time base
generator.
14.What are the application of the blocking oscillator?

The blocking oscillator can be used as low impedance switch used to discharge a capacitor very
quickly. To produce large peak power pulses, both the types of oscillators cab be used. The
output of the blocking oscillator can be used to produce gating waveform with very low mark
space ratio. It may be used as frequency divider or counter in digital circuits.
15.List varies sweep circuits.

Exponential charging circuit Constant-current
charging circuit. Miller circuit
poot strap circuit Inductor circuit.
16.What do you mean by voltage time base generators?

Ciruits used to generate a linear variation of voltage with time are called voltage time base
generators.
17.What is the effect of ‘Q’ on stability?

Higher the value of Q,provides better selectivity, but smaller bandwidth and larger gain. Hence it
provides less stability.
18.What is meant by unloaded and loaded Q of tank circuit.

Unloaded Q is the ratio of stored energy to dissipated energy in a reactor or resonator.
The loaded Q (or) QL of a resonator is determined by how tightly the resonator is coupled to its
terminations.
19. What is the other name of astableBlocking Oscillator?

1. Diode controlled Astable Blocking Oscillator.
2. Re controlled Astable Blocking Oscillator.
20. How high duty cycle is obtained?

1. Using temperature compensated zener diode.
2.Using Ge diode in series with tertiary winding across the supply voltage
Ex.No: 09
Date: TUNED COLLECTOR OSCILLATOR
Aim:
To design the p-spice circuit for the given tuned collector oscillator circuit and simulate the waveforms.
Software Needed:
PSPICE Software
Circuit Diagram:
2 R4 3
C3 V1
C1 1kΩ 12 V
10nF 0
120pF
0 50%
Key=A
T1 XSC1
R1
10kΩ 4 Ext Trig
+
0 _
A B
+ _ + _
Q1
1
0
2N3904 C4
6 0
R2
2.2kΩ R3 10nF
10kΩ
0 0
5
C2
100pF
Procedure:
1) Open new PSPICE schematic design window.

2) Select the required components using place part tool.
3) Connect the components as per the circuit.
4) Connect the sources and output indicators in the nodes.
5) Save the design and Run the simulation.
6) Observe the waveforms.
Output:
Result:
Thus the P-Spice circuit for tuned oscillator circuit has been designed and output waveform is simulated.
Viva - Questions
1. What is an oscillator?
An oscillator is a circuit which basically acts as a generator, generating the output
signal which oscillates with constant amplitude and constant desired frequency.
2. What is the difference between open loop and closed loop gain of the circuit?
Closed loop gain

S.NO Open loop gain
The gain of the amplifier is ratio The ratio of the output to input,
of output to input when no considering the overall effect of the
1. feedback is used is called open feedback is called closed loop gain.
loop gain
3. State the Barkhausen criterion for an oscillator.

1. The total phase shift around a loop, as the signal proceeds from input through
amplifier, feedback network back to input again, completing a loop, is precisely
00 or 3600.
2. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier
(A) and the feedback factor β is unity. i.e., A β = 1. 4.
4. Explain the concept of positive feedback.

The feedback is a property which allows to feedback the part of the output, to the same
circuit as its input. Such a feedback is said to be positive whenever the part tf the output that is fed
back to the amplifier as its input, is in phase with the original input signal applied to the amplifier.

Every resistance has some free electrons. Under the influence of room temperature, these
free electrons move randomly in various directions. In such a movement of the free electrons
6. Why in practice A β is kept greater than unity.

To amplify small noise voltage present, so that oscillations can start, A β is kept initially
greater than unity.
7.Give the over all classification of oscillators?
a. Waveform type (sinusoidal, square, triangular,etc.,)
b. Circuit components (LC, RC,etc.,)
c. Range of frequency –A.F (audio), R.F (radio)
d. Type of feedback (RC phase shift, Wein bridge are feedback used, UJT
relaxation oscillators uses no feedback)
8.What are the frequency sensitive arms?

The arms which decide the frequency of oscillations i.e., R1-C1 and R2-C2 are the
frequency sensitive arms.

10. How to obtain Hartley oscillator from the basic form of LC oscillator?
Using X1 and X2 as inductors and X3 as capacitor, Hartley oscillator from basic
form of LC oscillator is obtained.

v. Hartley Oscillator
vi. Colpitts Oscillator
vii. iii. Crystal Oscillator
12. What are the essential parts of an Oscillator?

Tank circuit (or) Oscillatory circuit.
Amplifier (Transistor amplifier)
Feedback Circuit.
13.What is meant by tuned amplifiers?
Tuned amplifiers are amplifiers that are designed to reject a certain range of frequencies
below a lower cut off frequency ωL and above a upper cut off frequency ωH and allows only a
narrow band of frequencies.
14.Classify tuned amplifiers.

1.Single tuned amplifier. 2.Double tuned
amplifier. 3.Synchronously tuned amplifier.
4.Stagger tuned amplifier.
15.What are the advantages of double tuned amplifier?

In double tuned amplifiers, the tuning is done both at the primary and
secondary.The double tuned amplifiers provide a wider bandwidth, flatter pass band and a greater
selectivity.
16.What is the other name for tuned amplifier?
Tuned amplifiers used for amplifying narrow band of frequencies hence it is also known as
“ narrow band amplifier” or “Band pass amplifier”.
17.Define resonance.
The reactance of the capacitor equals that of the inductor reactance. i.e
ωC. = 1 / ωL.
18.What is Quality factor?
The ratio of inductive reactance of the coil at resonance to its resistance is known
as quality factor.
Q = XL / R
19.Define gain bandwidth product of a tuned amplifier.
The gain bandwidth(GBW) product is a figure of merit defined in terms of mid band
gain and upper 3-db frequency fh as GBW = | Aim fh | = gm / 2πc
20.What is the other name for tuned amplifier?

Tuned amplifiers used for amplifying narrow band of frequencies hence it is also known as
“ narrow band amplifier” or “Band pass amplifier”.
Ex.No: 10
Date: WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
Aim:
To design the p-spice circuit for the given wein bridge oscillator and simulate the waveforms.
Software Needed:
PSPICE Software
Circuit Diagram:
8
XSC1
V1
0
Ext Trig
+
13 15 V _
R1 R3 A B
10kΩ + _ + _
3kΩ R6 R8 R10 R9
50%
Key=A 4 33kΩ 2.2kΩ 68kΩ 2.2kΩ
C4
2 C1 C3 10
10nF 6
10uF
Q2
R2 Q1 10uF
1kΩ 7
BC107BP
BC107BP
11 C5
5
R5 C2
10kΩ 10nF 100uF
R4 R12 0
1kΩ R11 1kΩ
R7 10kΩ
10kΩ
Procedure:

Output:
Result:
Thus the P-Spice circuit for the given wein bridge oscillator has been designed and output waveform is
simulated.
Viva - Questions

2. How to obtain Hartley oscillator from the basic form of LC oscillator

Using X1 and X2 as inductors and X3 as capacitor, Hartley oscillator from basic
form of LC oscillator is obtained.
3. What is amplifier?
Amplifier is a device which is used to amplification purpose.
4. What is amplification?
A low strength signal is converted into strengthen signal ie) boost up process
5. List the disadvantages of Rc phase shift Oscillator.

It is ideal for frequency adjustment over a wide range.
It requires a high β transistor to overcome losses in the network.
6. What is the difference between amplifier and oscillator?

Amplifier is working in the negative feedback while oscillator working in the positive
feedback.
7. Write down the general applications of oscillators.
a) As a local oscillator in radio receivers.
b) In T.V receivers.
c) In signal generators.
d) As clock generation for logic circuits.
e) AM and FM transmitters.
f) In phase lock loops.
8. What are the conditions for oscillation?

o.
The total phase shift of an oscillator should be 360 For feedback oscillator it
9. What is an Oscillator?
An Oscillator is a Circuit, which generates an alternating voltage of any desired
frequency. It can generate an a.c output signal without requiring any externally applied input
signal.
10.What is a beat frequency oscillator?
Beat frequency Oscillator (BFO) is an Oscillator in which a deserved signal frequency such
as the beat frequency produced by combining the different signal frequencies such as on different
radio frequencies.
11.What is sustained Oscillation?
The electrical oscillations in which amplitude does not change with time are called as
sustained oscillations. It is also called as Undamped Oscillation.
12.What is meant by resonant Circuit Oscillators?

LC Oscillators are known as resonant circuit oscillator because the frequency of
operation of LC Oscillator is nothing but a resonant frequency of tank circuit or LC tank circuit
produces sustained Oscillation at the resonant circuit oscillator.
13.What are the types of sinusoidal oscillator? Mention the different types of sinusoidal
oscillator?
RC phase shift Oscillator.
Wein bridge Oscillator.
Hartley Oscillator Colpitts
Oscillator Crystal Oscillator
14.What is Barkhausan criterion?
The conditions for oscillator to produce oscillation is given by Barkhausan
criterion. They are :
(i). The total phase shift produced by the circuit should be 360o or 0o
(ii).The Magnitude of loop gain must be greater than or equal to 1
i.e. . A‫׀‬β‫≥ ׀‬1.
15.Name two high frequency Oscillators.
e. Hartley Oscillator
ii. Colpitts Oscillator
iii.Crystal Oscillator
16.What are the essential parts of an Oscillator?
f. Tank circuit (or) Oscillatory circuit.
g. Amplifier (Transistor amplifier)
h. Feedback Circuit.
17.What is feedback amplifier?

The part of the output is given to the input of the circuit called as feedback amplifier.
18.Classify the feedback amplifiers.

1) Voltage series feedback amplifier
2) Current series feedback amplifier
3) Voltage shunt feedback amplifier
4) Current shunt feedback amplifier
19.What is meant by neutralization?

It is the process by which feedback can be cancelled by introducing a current that is
equal in magnitude but 180o out of phase with the feedback signal at the input of the active device.
The two signals will cancel and the effect of feedback will be eliminated. This technique is termed
as neutralization.
20.What is the application of tuned amplifiers?

The application of tuned amplifiers to obtain a desired frequency and rejecting all other frequency
in
(i). Radio and T .V broadcasting as tuning circuit. (ii).
Wireless communication system.
Ex.No: 11
Date: DOUBLE AND STAGGER TUNED AMPLIFIERS
Aim:
To design the p-spice circuit for the given double tuned and stagger tuned amplifiers and simulate the
waveforms.
Software Needed:
PSPICE Software
Circuit Diagram:
(a) Double tuned amplifier
V1
3 0
R2
82kΩ R6 R7 12 V
24kΩ 5.6kΩ XSC1
1 C3
7 C5 Ext T rig
+
R1 2uF
91kΩ 2 _
Q2 10uF A B
+ _ + _
Q1 0
XFG1
BC107BP
8
0 BC107BP
C1 5
10 4
R9
C2 1.2kΩ
2uF 10uF
R8
4.7kΩ C4 9
R4 6 10uF
R3 6.2kΩ
10kΩ R5 0
1kΩ
R10
11 47kΩ
Procedure:

Output:
(b) Stagger tuned amplifier
V1
3 0
R2
82kΩ R6 R7 12 V
24kΩ 5.6kΩ
1 C3
7 C5
XSC1
R1 2uF
91kΩ 2
Q2 10uF Ext T rig
+
Q1 _
XFG1 A B
+ _ + _
BC107BP 0
8
0 BC107BP
C1 5
10 4
R9
C2 1.2kΩ 14 V2
2uF 10uF
12 0
R8
4.7kΩ C4
R4 6 10uF R15 R16 12 V
R3 6.2kΩ 24kΩ 5.6kΩ
10kΩ R5 0
1kΩ
C10
18
R10 Q4 10uF
47kΩ
BC107BP
15
R18
1.2kΩ
R17
4.7kΩ C9
10uF
11
Output:
Result:
Thus the P-Spice circuit for the given double tuned and stagger tuned amplifiers has been designed and
output waveform are simulated.
Viva - Questions
1. What do you mean by tuned amplifiers?

The amplifiers which amplify only selected range of frequencies (narrow band of
frequencies) with the help of tuned circuits (parallel LC circuit) are called tuned amplifiers.
2.What are the various types of tuned amplifiers?
Small signal tuned amplifiers
Single tuned amplifiers
(i) Capacitive coupled
(ii) Inductively coupled (or) Transformer coupled
Double tuned amplifiers
Stagger tuned amplifiers
Large signal tuned amplifiers
3.Give the expressions for the resonance frequency and impedance of the tuned circuit.
1 L
fr= & ZR =
2π LC CR
4. What is the response of tuned amplifiers?

The response of tuned amplifier is maximum at resonant frequency and it falls
sharply for frequencies below and above the resonant frequency.
5.When tuned circuit is like resistive, capacitive and inductive?
(1) At resonance, circuit is like resistive.
(2) For frequencies above resonance, circuit is like capacitive.
(3) For frequencies below resonance, circuit is like inductive.
6.What are the various components of coil losses?

(4) Copper loss
(5) Eddy current loss
(6) Hysteresis loss
7.Define Q factor of resonant circuit.
(7) It is the ratio of reactance to resistance.
(8) It also can be defined as the measure of efficiency with which inductor can store the
energy.
Q=2п *(Maximum Energy Stored per cycle / Energy dissipated per cycle)
8.What is dissipation factor?

(9) It is defined as 1/Q.
(10) It can be referred to as the total loss within a component.
9.Define unloaded and loaded Q of tuned circuit.

(11) The unloaded Q or QU is the ratio of stored energy to dissipated energy in
a reactor or resonator.
(12) The loaded Q or QL of a resonator is determined by how tightly the
resonator is coupled to its terminations.
10.Why quality factor is kept as high as possible in tuned circuits?
When Q is high, bandwidth is low and we get better selectivity. Hence Q is kept as
high as possible in tuned circuits.
When Q is high inductor losses are less.
11.List various types of cascaded Small signal tuned amplifiers.
2. Single tuned amplifiers.
3. Double tuned amplifiers.
4. Stagger tuned amplifiers.
12.How single tuned amplifiers are classified?
5. Capacitance coupled single tuned amplifier.
6. Transformer coupled or inductively coupled single tuned amplifier.
13.What are single tuned amplifiers?
Single tuned amplifiers use one parallel resonant circuit as the load
impedance in each stage and all the tuned circuits are tuned to the same frequency.
14. What are double tuned amplifiers?
Double tuned amplifiers use two inductively coupled tuned circuits per stage,
both the tuned circuits being tuned to the same frequency.
15. What are stagger tuned amplifiers?
Stagger tuned amplifiers use a number of single tuned stages in cascade, the
successive tuned circuits being tuned to slightly different frequencies.
16.What is the effect of cascading single tuned amplifiers on bandwidth?
Bandwidth reduces due to cascading single tuned amplifiers.
17.List the advantages and disadvantages of tuned amplifiers.
Advantages:
3. They amplify defined frequencies.
4. Signal to Noise ratio at output is good.
5. They are well suited for radio transmitters and receivers.
18.What are the advantages of double tuned amplifier over single tuned amplifier?
1. It provides larger 3 dB bandwidth than the single tuned amplifier and hence provides
the larger gain-bandwidth product.
2. It provides gain versus frequency curve having steeper sides and flatter top.
19.What the advantages are of stagger tuned amplifier?

The advantage of stagger tuned amplifier is to have better flat, wideband
characteristics.
20. Define gain bandwidth product of a tuned amplifier.
A gain band width product of a tuned amplifier is defined as product of 3 db band width
and gain at response of the tuned amplifier.
Ex.No: 12
Date: BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
Aim:
To design the bi-stable multivibrator circuit and simulate the waveforms using P-Spice.
Software Needed:
PSPICE Software
Circuit Diagram:
V1 0
XSC2
9 5V XSC1
Ext T rig
+ R6
_ 3kΩ Ext T rig
+
A B R1 _
+ _ + _
3kΩ A B
_ _
0 + +
R5 0
5
1 R4
47kΩ
47kΩ
4 Q2
Q1
2
BC107BP
BC107BP
D1 D2
1N4007GP 1N4007GP R7
R3 R8 220kΩ
R2 100kΩ 100kΩ
220kΩ
6
8 0
C1 C2
7 V2
1nF -1 V 1 V
1nF
0.5msec 1msec
Procedure:

Output:
Q1 Output
Q2 Output
Result:
Thus the P-Spice circuit for the bi-stable circuit has been designed and output waveform are simulated.
Viva - Questions
1.Which circuits are called multivibrators?

The electronic circuits which are used to generate nonsinusoidal waveforms are
called multivibrators.
They are two stage switching circuits in which the output of the first stage is fed to
the input of the second stage and vice-versa.
2.What are the various types of multivibrators?

 Bistable multivibrator
3. What is astable multivibrator?

A multivibrator which generates square wave without any external
triggering pulse is called astable multivibrator.
4.List the applications of Astable multivibrator?

 Used as square wave generator
 It is used in the construction of digital voltmeter and SMPS.
 It can be operated as an oscillator over a wide range of audio and radio
frequencies.
5.State the basic action of monostable multivibrator.

It has only one stable state. The other state is unstable referred as quasi-stable state.
It is also known as one-shot multivibrator or univibrator.

It is used to generate uniform width pulses from a variable width pulse
train.
signal.

Monostable multivibrator would function as a time delay unit since it produces a
transition at a fixed time after the trigger signal.
8.What is Bistable multivibrator?

The Bistable multivibrator has two stable states.

It is used to generate square waves of symmetrical shape by sending regular triggering
pulse to the input. By adjusting the frequency of the trigger pulse, the width of the square
wave can be altered.
10.What are the two methods of triggering for bistable multivibrators?
11.How many stable states do bistable Multivibrator have?

Two stable states.
another.
13.What are the different names of bistable Multivibrator?

Eccles Jordan circuit, trigger circuit, scale-of-2 toggle circuit, flip-flop and binary.
14. What are the other names of monostable Multivibrator?

One-shot, Single-shot, a single-cycle, a single swing, a single step Multivibrator,
Univibrator.
15.Why is monostable Multivibrator called gating circuit?

The circuit is used to generate the rectangular waveform and hence can be used to gate other
Circuits hence called gating circuit.
16.What are the main characteristics of Astable Multivibrator?

The Astable Multivibrator automatically makes the successive transitions from one quasi- stable
State to other without any external triggering pulse.
17.What is the other name of Astable Multivibrator- why is it called so?

As it does not require any external pulse for transition, it is called free running
Multivibrator.
18.What are the two types of transistor bistable Multivibrator?
Fixed bias transistor circuit
Self bias transistor circuit.
19.Why does one of the transistor start conducting ahead of other?
The characteristic of both the transistors are never identical hence after giving supplies one of
the Transistors start conducting ahead of the other.
20.What are the two stable states of bistable Multivibrator? .

Q1 OFF (cut off) and Q2 ON (Saturation)
Q2 OFF (Cut off) and Q1 On (Saturation)
Ex.No: 13
Date: SCHMITT TRIGGER WITH PREDICTABLE HYSTERESIS
Aim:
To design the p-spice circuit for Schmitt trigger with predictable hysteresis and simulate the waveforms.
Software Needed:
PSPICE Software
Circuit Diagram:
XSC1
7 V3
Ext T rig
5V +
R5 0 _
B
500Ω +
A
_ + _
R1 6
500Ω
XFG1 0
2 R2 3
1kΩ Q2
Q1
1
2N2222A
2N2222A
4 R3
300Ω
R4
100Ω
0
Procedure:

Output:
Result:
Thus the P-Spice circuit for the Schmitt trigger with predictable hysteresis has been designed and output
waveform is simulated.
Viva - Questions
1.What is Schmitt trigger?

It is a wave shaping circuit, used for generation of a square wave from a sine wave input.
It is a bistable circuit in which two transistor switches are connected generatively.
2. What is UTP of the Schmitt Trigger?

The level of Vi at which Q1 becomes ON and Q2 OFF is called Upper Threshold Point.
3. What is the other name for UTP?

It is also called input turn on threshold level.
4. What is LTP of the Schmitt trigger?

The level of Vi at which Q1 becomes OFF and Q2 on is called Lower Threshold Point.
5. Define transfer Characteristics of Schmitt trigger.

The graph of output voltage against input voltage is called transfer characteristics of
Schmitt trigger.
6.What is the important application of Schmitt trigger?

It is used as an amplitude comparator
It is used as a squaring circuit.
7.What is meant by Hysteresis voltage in a Schmitt trigger?

The difference between UTP (Upper Threshold Point) and LTP (Lower Threshold Point)
is called Hysteresis voltage (VH).
It is also known as Dead Zone of the Schmitt trigger.
8.List the applications of Schmitt trigger.

It is used for wave shaping circuits.
It can be used for generation of rectangular waveforms with sharp edges
from a sine wave or any other waveform.
It can be used as a voltage comparator.
9.How a Schmitt trigger is different from a multivibrator?

A Schmitt trigger has an input and an output; the output is a squared-up version of the
input. As long as the input is constant, the output of the Schmitt trigger is also constant.
A multivibrator typically has no inputs (other than power), only an output: an oscillating
signal.
10.What is delay time?

The time required for the current to rise to 10% of its maximum (saturation) value Ics is
called the delay time td.
11.What is the total turn on time?

The total turn on time is ton is the sum of the delay time and rise time, ton =
td + tr
Where,
td = Delay time. tr = Rise time.
The interval that elapses between the transition of the input waveform and the time when
the collector current has dropped to 90 % of total output is called the storage time ts.
The time interval during which the conduction transfer from one transistor to another
transistor is defined as transition time.
14.What is Leading edge response?

At start there is an overshoot and then the pulse settles down. The response till it settles down
after the overshoot is called leading edge response.
15.What is trailing edge response?

The response generally extends below the zero amplitude after the end of pulse width is
called back swing. The portion of response from backswing till it settles down is trailing edge
response.
16.What is flat top response?

The portion of the response between the trailing edge and the leading edge is called flat top
response.
17.Define rise time of a pulse.

The rise time is an important parameter related to this part of the response. It is defined by the
time required by the pulse to rise from 10 % of its amplitude to 90 % of its amplitude.
18.What is Turn-off time (tOFF) in transistor?

The sum of the storage time (ts) and the fall time (tf) is called the turn-OFF
time (tOFF).
(tOFF) = (ts) + (tf)
19.What is comparator?
The nonlinear circuit which was used to perform the operation of clipping may also be
used to perform the operation of comparison is called the comparator.
The comparator circuit compares an input signal with a reference voltage.
20.What are the other names of speed up capacitors?

 Commutating Capacitors
 Transpose capacitors
Ex.No: 14
Date: MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
Aim:
To design the p-spice circuit for the monostable multivibrator and simulate the waveforms.
Software Needed:
PSPICE Software
Circuit Diagram:
V1 0
7 5V XSC1
R6
10kΩ Ext Trig
+
R1
10kΩ R2 _
B
120kΩ 6 +
A
_ + _
C2 R5 0
3
10kΩ
4
10uF
Q2
Q1
2
D2 BC107BP
0
0 BC107BP 1N4148
C1 1
5 V2
100nF
-1 V 1 V
0.2msec 1msec
0 0 R3
10kΩ
Procedure:

Output:
Result:
Thus the P-Spice circuit for monostable multivibrator has been designed and output waveform is
simulated.
Viva - Questions
1. Which circuits are called multivibrators?

The electronic circuits which are used to generate nonsinusoidal waveforms are
called multivibrators.
They are two stage switching circuits in which the output of the first stage is fed to
the input of the second stage and vice-versa.
2.What are the various types of multivibrators?

 Bistable multivibrator
3. What is astable multivibrator?

A multivibrator which generates square wave without any external
triggering pulse is called astable multivibrator.
4.List the applications of Astable multivibrator?

 Used as square wave generator
 It is used in the construction of digital voltmeter and SMPS.
 It can be operated as an oscillator over a wide range of audio and radio
frequencies.
5.State the basic action of monostable multivibrator.

It has only one stable state. The other state is unstable referred as quasi-stable state.
It is also known as one-shot multivibrator or univibrator.

It is used to generate uniform width pulses from a variable width pulse
signal.

Monostable multivibrator would function as a time delay unit since it produces a
transition at a fixed time after the trigger signal.
8.What is Bistable multivibrator?

The Bistable multivibrator has two stable states.

It is used to generate square waves of symmetrical shape by sending regular triggering
pulse to the input. By adjusting the frequency of the trigger pulse, the width of the square
wave can be altered.
10.What are the two methods of triggering for bistable multivibrators?
11.How many stable states do bistable Multivibrator have?

Two stable states.
another.
13.What are the different names of bistable Multivibrator?

Eccles Jordan circuit, trigger circuit, scale-of-2 toggle circuit, flip-flop and binary.
14. What are the other names of monostable Multivibrator?

One-shot, Single-shot, a single-cycle, a single swing, a single step Multivibrator,
Univibrator.
15.Why is monostable Multivibrator called gating circuit?

The circuit is used to generate the rectangular waveform and hence can be used to gate other
Circuits hence called gating circuit.
16.What are the main characteristics of Astable Multivibrator?

The Astable Multivibrator automatically makes the successive transitions from one quasi- stable
State to other without any external triggering pulse.
17.What is the other name of Astable Multivibrator- why is it called so?

As it does not require any external pulse for transition, it is called free running
Multivibrator.
18.What are the two types of transistor bistable Multivibrator?

Fixed bias transistor circuit
Self bias transistor circuit.
19.Why does one of the transistor start conducting ahead of other?
The characteristic of both the transistors are never identical hence after giving supplies one of
the Transistors start conducting ahead of the other.
20.What are the two stable states of bistable Multivibrator? .

Q1 OFF (cut off) and Q2 ON (Saturation)
Q2 OFF (Cut off) and Q1 On (Saturation)
Ex.No: 15
Date: VOLTAGE & CURRENT TIME BASE GENERATOR
Aim:
To design the p-spice circuit for the voltage and current time base generator and simulate the
waveforms.
Software Needed:
PSPICE Software
Circuit Diagram:
1
D3
V1 1N4148
12 V
0 Q4 2
R2
R1 1kΩ
XSC1 20kΩ
2N3906 0
Ext Trig
+
_
A B
+ _ + _
0 D1 D2
1N4148
3
1N4148
Q5 6
5
2N3906
R3
C1 1MΩ
100nF Q1
0
0 4
2N2222A
0
Procedure:

Output:
Result:
Thus the P-Spice circuit for voltage and current time base generator has been designed and output
waveform is simulated.
Viva - Questions
1.Define overshoot.
It is the amount by which the output exceeds its amplitude during first attempt.
2. What is leading edge response?
At start there is an overshoot and then pulse settles down. The response till it settles
down after the overshoot is called leading edge response.
3. What is trailing edge response?
The response generally extends below the zero amplitude after the end of pulse width is
called back swing. The portion of response from back swing till it settles down is called trailing
edge response.
4. Define flat top response.
The portion of the response between the trailing edge and the leading edge is called
flat top response.
5. Define droop or a tilt.
The displacement of the pulse amplitude during its flat response is called droop or a tilt.
6.What are the applications of pulse transformer?
Pulse transformer can be used to
1. Change the amplitude and impedance level of a pulse.
2. Invert the polarity of the pulse.
3. Produce a pulse in a circuit having negligible d.c. resistance.
4. Differentiate a pulse.
7.When does the core saturate?

When L->o as B-> Bm, the core saturates.
8. What is the other name of astable Blocking (Oscillator?

Free running blocking Oscillator.
9.What are the two types of astable Blocking Oscillator?
3. Diode controlled Astable Blocking Oscillator.
4. Re controlled Astable Blocking Oscillator.
10.Define Sweep time in saw tooth generator.

The period during which voltage increases linearly is called sweep time.
11.What is the other name of saw tooth generator?

Ramp generator.
12.Define Displacement error in the saw tooth generator?

It is defined as the maximum differences between the actual sweep voltage and linear
sweep which passes through the beginning and end points of the actual sweep. 13. What is
constant current charging?
A capacitor is charged with a constant current source.
14. What is the miller circuit?

Integrator is used to convert a step waveform into ramp waveform.
15.Mention the various methods of controlling the pulse.

1. Use of common base configuration.
2. Use of common collector configuration.
3. Use of core saturation method.
4. Use of shorted delay line.
16.What is mark space ratio?
The ratio of time for which Q is On to time for which Q is OFF is called mark-space
ratio. If this is unity, then the output is almost symmetrical square wave.
17. Define Duty cycle.
The duty cycle is defined as the ratio of the ON time tp to the time period T.
Mathematically it is given by, D= tp/T
18.How high duty cycle is obtained?

1. Using temperature compensated zener diode.
2. Using Ge diode in series with tertiary winding across the supply voltage.
19.What do you mean by voltage time base generators?

Circuits used to generate a linear variation of voltage with time are called Voltage time-
base generators.
20. What do you mean by linear time base generators?
Circuits provide an output waveform which exhibits a linear variation of voltage with
time are called linear time base generators.
CONTENT BEYOND THE SYLLABUS (USING VIRTUAL LAB)
Ex.No.1
SCHMITT TRIGGER USING OP-AMP
Date:
AIM
(i)To study the operation of Op-Amp based Schmitt trigger circuit and observe the input and
output waveforms of Schmitt trigger.
(ii)To measure the upper and lower threshold points and compare with their calculated values.
APPARATUS REQUIED
LABview Softt ware
THEORY
Schmitt trigger is essentially a multi-vibrator having two stable states. The output remains in
one of the stable states inde nitely. The transition from one stable state to the other takes place
when the input signal changes appropriately (triggers appropriately). Bistable operation needs an
ampli er with a regenerative (positive) feedback with loop gain greater than unity. The circuit is
often used to convert square waves with slowly varying edges to sharp edges required in digital
circuits. It is also used for debouncing the switches.
The circuit shown in Fig. 1 is that of an inverting Schmitt trigger. The circuit has two stable
state outputs. The output will either be at +VSAT or VSAT . The circuit uses a potential divider
formed by R1 and R2 to provide a positive DC feedback. The circuit is essentially a comparator
with positive DC feedback. The voltage at VA is compared with the input signal. The voltage VA
can take either of the two values.
Refer the transfer characteristic in Fig. 2 for understanding how the output changes with the
input signal. When the input signal VIN > VT H the output switches to VSAT and remains at this level
till VIN < VT L when the output switches to +VSAT . The values at which the output makes transition
from one level to the other are called Threshold points or trip points. The input voltage at which
the output makes transition from +VSAT to VSAT is VT H and the input voltage at which the output
makes transition from +VSAT to VSAT is de ned
PROCEDURE
1.Run the experiment by pressing “RUN” button.
2.Choose “Schmitt trigger” from menu list.

3.Press “START” to perform the Schmitt trigger experiment.
4.After performing STEP 3, Schmitt trigger experiment will be displayed.
5. Use cursors to measure value of VTH and VTL from waveform graph.
Result
Thus the operation of Op-Amp based Schmitt trigger circuit is observed the input and
output waveforms of Schmitt trigger is drawn.
Ex.No.2
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR USING OP-AMP
Date:
AIM
To study the operation of Op-Amp based actable multivibrator circuit and observe the input
and output waveforms.
(ii)To measure the upper and lower threshold points and compare with their calculated values.
APPARATUS REQUIED
LABview Softt ware
THEORY
An astable multivibrator switches between two states with a frequency determined by an RC

time constant. This feature may be used to make a square wave generator. When the circuit is
turned ON, the OPAMP's output saturates to either positive or negative rail. Assuming that the
OPAMP saturates at the positive rail (+VSAT ), the capacitorstarts charging through the resistor R,
and the voltage across the capacitor starts to rise exponentially towards +VSAT . As soon as the
voltage at the OPAMP's inverting terminal tries to cross that at the non-inverting terminal (the
OPAMP's output voltage fed back by the potential divider formed byR1 and R2), the output
switches over to the opposite rail �VSAT as shown in Fig. 2 and the capacitor starts to discharge
through R exponentially. Once the inverting terminal reaches the voltage of the non-inverting
terminal, the output again drives to the opposing rail voltage and the cycle begins again.
Thus, the astable multivibrator creates a square wave with no input signal.
Figure 2: Output waveform and VC of Astable Multivibrator
PROCEDURE
1.Run the experiment by pressing “RUN” button.
2.Choose “Astable multivibrator” from menu list.

3.Press “START” to perform the Schmitt trigger experiment.
4.After performing STEP 3, Astable multivibrator experiment will be displayed.
5. Observe the input and output waveforms.
Circuit Diagram & Input, Output:
Result
Thus the operation of Op-Amp based Astable multivibrator circuit is observed the input
and output waveforms.

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Dr.N.G.P.

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

EC 6411 – CIRCUITS AND SIMULATION

C.SENTHILLUMAR, ASP /ECE

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF THE FOLLOWING CIRCUITS

Content Beyond the syllabus (Using Virtual lab)

A. CURRENT SERIES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

To design and construct a current series feedback amplifier,

S.No. Description Range Qty

VCC = 12V, IC = 1mA, AV = 40

Typical values: VCE = 3V; VRE = 5V

Applying KVL on Collector loop, VCC = VRC + VCE + VRE

 VRC = VCC – VCE – VRE =

VB = VBE + VRE = (VBE = 0.7V for Si Transistor)

XCE = Rf at f1 ; f1 = lower cutoff frequency = 100Hz

Frequency Response (with feedback)

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

Frequency Response (without Negative Feedback)

Measurement of input impedance Measurement of output impedance

17. Tabulate the readings in table.

Frequency Response (with feedback)

Frequency f Output Voltage Vo 𝑽𝒐 Gain in dB

Frequency f Output Voltage Vo 𝑽𝒐 Gain in dB

Particulars Measured Value Calculated Value

FL – Lower cut-off frequency without feedback

B. VOLTAGE SHUNT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

To design and construct a voltage shunt feedback amplifier,

S.No. Description Range Qty

VCC = 12V, IC = 1mA, AV = 40

Transistor BC147: hie = 1.36KΩ, hfe = 50

Typical values: VCE = 3V; VRE = 5V

Feedback ratio β = -0.025 x 10-3 A/V

Applying KVL on Collector loop, VCC = VRC + VCE + VRE

 VRC = VCC – VCE – VRE =

VB = VBE + VRE = (VBE = 0.7V for Si Transistor)

re’ = 26𝑚𝑉 = 26𝑚𝑉 =

XC2= 𝑍𝑜 at f1 ; f1 = lower cutoff frequency = 100Hz

Frequency Response (with feedback)

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

Frequency Response (without Negative Feedback)

Measurement of input impedance Measurement of output impedance

PIN SPECIFICATION OF BC147/547

Frequency Response (with feedback)

Frequency f Output Voltage Vo 𝑽𝒐 Gain in dB

Frequency f Output Voltage Vo 𝑽𝒐 Gain in dB

Particulars Measured Value Calculated Value

FL – Lower cut-off frequency without feedback

2. Give the different types of feedbacks used in amplifier circuits.

3. Define the positive feedback.

4. Define negative feedback.

5. What type of feedback is used in oscillator?

6. Give the classification of amplifiers.

7. Define feedback factor or feedback ratio.

9. What are the advantages of introducing negative feedback?

10. List the four basic feedback topologies.

11. Give the expression for gain of an amplifier with feedback.

14. What is the effect of negative feedback on bandwidth?

16. What is the effect of negative feedback on feedback distortion?

17. What is the effect of negative feedback on noise?

18. What is the effect of negative feedback on non linear distortion?

19. What are the types of distortions in an amplifier?

A. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

S.No. Description Range Qty