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Department of Asian Studies at the University of British Columbia

Vowel Final & Initial

(Cell denotes transformation of final and initial vowels)

Initial
Final
a ā i ī u ū ṛ e ai o au

a ā ā e e o o ar ai ai au au

ā ā ā e e o o ar ai ai au au

i* ya yā ī ī yu yū yṛ ye yai yo yau

ī* ya yā ī ī yu yū yṛ ye yai yo yau

u* va vā vi vī ū ū vṛ ve vai vo vau

ū* va vā vi vī ū ū vṛ ve vai vo vau

ṛ ra rā ri rī ru rū ṝ re rai ro rau

e* e ' a ā a i a ī a u a ū a ṛ a e a ai a o a au

ai ā a ā ā ā i ā ī ā u ā ū ā ṛ ā e ā ai ā o ā au

o o ' avā ** avi avī avu avū avṛ ave avai avo avau

au āva āvā āvi āvī āvu āvū āvṛ āve āvai āvo āvau
* if the final vowel is not at the end of a dual form. Also! the [-i/-ī] of the pronoun [amī] as well as all vowel
endings of particles or interjections do not undergo sandhi (e.g. [he])
**transformation of [o] into [a] and resulting hiatus (e.g. -a ā-) is also possible

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Consonant Final & Initial

(Cell denotes transformation of final consonant; initial consonant unchanged)

Initial
Final
k/kh g/gh c/ch j/jh ṭ/ṭh ḍ/ḍh t/th d/dh p/ph b/bh n/m
k g g g g g ṅ

ṭ ḍ ḍ ḍ ḍ ḍ ṇ

t d c j ṭ ḍ d d n

p b b b b b m

n ṃś ñ ṃṣ ṇ ṃs

m ṃ ṃ ṃ ṃ ṃ ṃ ṃ ṃ ṃ ṃ ṃ

Consonant Final,
Vowel/Semivowel/Sibilant Initial
(Cell denotes transformation of final consonant; initial letter in brackets)

Initial
Final
vowels y r l v ś ṣ s h
k g g g g g g g(gh)

ṭ ḍ ḍ ḍ ḍ ḍ ḍ(ḍh)

t d d d l d c(ch) d(dh)

p b b b b b b(bh)

ṅ ṅṅ *

n nn * ṃl ** ñ(ś/ch) ***

m ṃ ṃ ṃ ṃ ṃ ṃ ṃ ṃ
* only when preceding vowel is short
** anusvara written as candrabindu ँॉ
*** word-initial transformation into either [ś] or [ch] is acceptable.

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Visarga Final,
Vowel/Semivowel/Sibilant Initial
(Cell denotes transformation of final visarga)

Initial
Final
vowels y r l v ś ṣ s h

aḥ a/ o ' ** o o o o o

āḥ ā ā ā ā ā ā

(V)ḥ * r r *** r r r
* (V) = any vowel other than [a]/[ā]
** if initial vowel is [a] = [o] + avagraha; otherwise [aḥ] = a
*** [ḥ] disappears and preceding vowel is lengthened

Visarga Final,
Consonant Initial
(Cell denotes transformation of final consonant; initial consonant unchanged)

Initial
Final
k/kh g/gh c/ch j/jh ṭ/ṭh ḍ/ḍh t/th d/dh p/ph b/bh n/m

aḥ o* aś o* aṣ o* as o* o* o*

āḥ ā* āś ā* āṣ ā* ās ā* ā* ā*

(V)ḥ** r ś r ṣ r s r r r
* if final [ḥ] is represents original [r] then it reverts back to [r]
** (V) = any vowel other than [a]/[ā]

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vowel sandhi
condition rule example
~V vowel in absolute no change अपऩ
final position
~C V~ consonant-final word consonant becomes voiced, तत ् एव ⇒ तदे व
followed by vowel- vowel is attached onto
initial word consonant सम्मक् अस्तत ⇒ सम्मगस्तत

~V C~ vowel-final word छ् ⇒ च्छछ् before simple vowels; याभतम च्छछात्र्

followed by consonant-
no change elsewhere
initial word

~V V~ vowel-final word
followed by vowel-
initial word case-by-case changes

homorganic अ/आ followed by अ/आ vowels assimilate to long vowel भा अततु ⇒ भाततु
vowels
इ/ई followed by इ/ई गच्छछतत इतत ⇒ गच्छछतीतत
उ/ऊ followed by उ/ऊ गुरु उऩेतत ⇒ गुरूऩेतत
ऋ/क followed by ऋ/क

guṇation अ/आ followed by simple vowels coalesce into the guṇa of न इतत ⇒ नेतत
the latter vowel
vowel (इ/ई/उ/ऊ/ऋ/क) याभेण उक्त् ⇒ याभेणोक्त्
भहा ऋपष् ⇒ भहपषष्

vṛddhization अ/आ followed by vowels coalesce into the vṛddhi न एतत ⇒ नैतत
of the latter vowel
complex vowel भहा ओषधध् ⇒ भहौषधध्
याभतम ऐक्मभ ् ⇒ याभतमैक्मभ ्
(ए/ऐ/ओ/औ)
semivowels simple vowel former vowel becomes इतत उवाच ⇒ इत्मुवाच
(except अ/आ) followed corresponding semivowel
दे वी अस्तत ⇒ दे व्मस्तत
by any vowel (इ/ई ⇒ म ्; उ/ऊ ⇒ व ्;
दे वी आगच्छछतत ⇒ दे व्मागच्छछतत
ऋ/क ⇒ य्; ख ⇒ र ्)
कुरु अद्म ⇒ कुवषद्म
फहु इतत ⇒ फस्ववतत
भधु अति ⇒ भध्वति
गुरु आसनभ ् ⇒ गुवाषसनभ ्

guṇa vowels guṇa vowels (ए/ओ) former vowel unchanged, अ is ते अपऩ ⇒ तेऽपऩ
followed by अ elided ( अ ⇒ ऽ )
guṇa vowels (ए/ओ) former vowel becomes अ, latter ते उवाच ⇒ त उवाच
followed by any other vowel remains unchanged गह
ृ े उत ⇒ गह
ृ उत
vowel
vṛḍdhi ऐ becomes आ, धिमै अथष् ⇒ धिमा अथष्
vowels
औ becomes आव ्; उबौ उवाच ⇒ उबावव
ु ाच
latter vowel remains unchanged

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consonant sandhi
condition rule example
~C absolute final depends on case
consonants
non-palatal क,ख,ग,घ; replaced by unvoiced, unaspirated अनुष्टुब ् ⇒ अनुष्टुऩ ्
stops consonant of the class
ट,ठ,ड,ढ; सुरृद् ⇒ सुरृत ्
त,थ,द,ध;
ऩ,प,फ,ब

palatal stops in final position: becomes either वाच ् ⇒ वाक्

च, छ, ज, झ unvoiced/unaspirated velar or
retroflex पवयाज ् ⇒ पवयाट्
ददश ् ⇒ ददक्
nasals in final position: remains unchanged ऩुततकभ ्
ङ, ञ, ण, न, भ
कभषन ्
s and r in final position: स, य becomes visarga (:) तऩस ् ⇒ तऩ्
पऩतय् ⇒ पऩत्
consonant cluster in final position cluster is reduced to its first बवन्त ् ⇒ बवन ्
clusters consonant
~C C~ final stops before word-initial
stops case-by-case changes
general rule former stop assimilates within its वाक् बट: ⇒ वाग्बट:
own class
वाक् भम् ⇒ वाङ्भम्
final dental final त before word-initial assimilates to corresponding बवत ् जन्भ ⇒ बवज्जन्भ
unaspirated member of the latter
palatal, retroflex, and dental
stop’s class एतत ् धनभ ् ⇒ एतद्धनभ ्
stops
बवत ् दे हभ ् ⇒ बवद्देहभ ्

final त before श ् the entire cluster becomes च्छछ् तत ् शयभ ् ⇒ तच्छछयभ ्

final m final भ before any initial
consonant
final n final न before voiced stop
final न before unvoiced palatal,
retroflex, and dental stops
before l final त or न before र
before h final stops before ह
भ becomes the anusvārā (ँॊ)
न becomes corresponding nasal
न becomes anusvārā + sibilant
corresponding to latter stop
त becomes र ्;
न becomes ’candrabindu’
anusvāra (ँॉ) + र
former stop becomes voiced, and ह
becomes corresponding voiced and
aspirated member of the former’s
class
ऩुततकभ ् ऩठतत ⇒ ऩुसतकॊ
ऩठतत
वनभ ् गच्छछामभ ⇒ वनॊ गच्छछामभ
भहान ् डभय् ⇒ भहाण्डभय्
एतान ् गच्छछतत ⇒ एताङ्गच्छछतत
गच्छछन ् च ⇒ गच्छछॊ श्च
तान ् तान ् ⇒ ताॊततान ्
अस्तभन ् टीका ⇒ अस्तभॊष्टीका
तत ् रोक् ⇒ तल्रोक्
तान ् रोकान ् ⇒ ताॉल्रोकान ्
वाक् दह ⇒ वास्ग्घ
तत ् दह ⇒ तपद्ध

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visarga sandhi
condition rule example
~[V:] [C/V]~ word-final visarga
(स ् or य्) depends on case
before another word
-aḥ sandhi अ् before voiced consonants अ् becomes ओ याभ् गच्छछतत ⇒ याभो गच्छछतत
अ् before अ अ् becomes ओ; याभ् अस्तत ⇒ याभो ऽस्तत
अ is elided (becomes ऽ)
अ् before unvoiced consonants visarga assimilates to corresponding याभ् कयोतत
sibilant or remains unchanged
याभ् चरतत ⇒ याभश्चरतत
याभ् टीकाभ ् ⇒ याभष्टीकाभ ्
याभ् तु ⇒ याभततु
याभ् ऩततत
अ् before vowels अ् becomes अ याभ् उवाच ⇒ याभ उवाच
-āḥ sandhi आ् before voiced consonants आ् becomes आ दे वा् वदस्न्त ⇒ दे वा वदस्न्त
and vowels दे वा् एव ⇒ दे वा एव
आ् before unvoiced consonants visarga assimilates to corresponding दे वा् कुवषस्न्त; दे वा् ऩतस्न्त
sibilant or remains unchanged
दे वा् च ⇒ दे वाश्च
दे वा् टीका ⇒ दे वाष्टीका
दे वा् तु ⇒ दे वाततु
-iḥ -īḥ before voiced consonants and visarga is changed to य् भुतन् वदतत ⇒ भुतनवषदतत
-uḥ -ūḥ vowels
-eḥ -oḥ तै् उक्तभ ् ⇒ तैरुक्तभ ्
-aiḥ -auḥ ब् बुवस ् ⇒ बबव
ु ्ष :
before unvoiced consonants visarga assimilates to corresponding भुतन् कयोतत
sibilant or remains unchanged
अस्ग्न् च ⇒ अस्ग्नश्च
भुने् टीकाभ ् ⇒ भुनेष्टीकाभ ्
तै् तु ⇒ तैततु
गरु
ु ् ऩततत
exception: original final य् becomes visarga or corresponding ऩुनय् ऩुनय् ⇒ ऩुन् ऩुन्
ऩुनय् sibilant before unvoiced consonants
ऩुनय् मभराभ् ⇒ ऩुनमभषराभ्
and य;
(ऩुन्)
ऩुनय् यभतत ⇒ ऩुन् यभतत
remains य् before voiced consonants and
vowels ऩन
ु य् उवाच ⇒ ऩन
ु रुवाच

internal sandhi
condition rule example
~V[स]~ -s- rule medial -स- is preceded by any non-अ vowel -स ्- becomes -ष- (-मस) ending: ⇒ कयोपष
or by क् or य् (-स)ु ending: ⇒ दे वेषु
but गच्छछमस, बवत्सु
~[ष/य/ऋ/क][न]~ -n- rule medial -न- is preceded in a word by -न- becomes -ण- याभ + एन ⇒ याभेण
either ष, य, ऋ, or क, with no intervening कामष + एन ⇒ कामेण
palatal, retroflex, or dental consonant, except पवषम + आनाभ ् ⇒ पवषमाणाभ ्
ya
but यतेन, बेषजानाभ ्
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Sounds in absolute final position

only a small set of consonants may appear in the absolute final position, i.e. it is not followed
by any other sound in the sentence or is cited by itself (e.g. case forms). All others are
substituted.

• vowels are OK

• the first (non-voiced, non-aspirated) of each varga of consonants other than palatals, i.e.
[k], [ṭ], [t], [p] are OK. Others of the series are replaced by these.

• palatal consonants cannot appear in absolute final position: [c] -> [k],[j] -> [k] or [ṭ];
[prāc] -> [prāk]; [asṛj] -> [asṛk]; [devrāj-] -> [devrāṭ]

• nasals are OK (except [ñ])

• absolute final [s] and [r] become [ḥ]; [ś] becomes [k] or [ṭ]; final [ṣ] and [h] generally
become [ṭ], rarely [k]; [punar] -> [punaḥ], [devas] -> [devaḥ]; [diś] -> [dik]; [saṣ] -> [ṣaṭ];
[madhulih] -> [madhuliṭ]

• absolute final consonant clusters get reduced to the first consonant of the cluster; [sant] ->
[san]

vowel grade
simple a /--- i, ī u, ū ṛ ḷ

guṇa (a+)
a e o ar al
(full grade)

vṛddhi (ā+)
ā ai au ār ---
(lengthened grade)