Shaft Alignment:

Introduction
Summary
“Introduction to Shaft Alignment” is the first in a series of
articles designed to provide the novice with the rudimentary
knowledge needed for equipment shaft alignment. This article
explains the basics of alignment such as: types of alignment,
alignment tolerances, alignment process overview, alignment
procedures, pre-alignment, precision alignment, and alignment
methods. With this basic knowledge in hand, the reader will be
better prepared for subsequent articles in the series.

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May 2003

SKF Reliability Systems

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 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

Table of Contents

Table of Contents.............................................................................................................................2

Introduction......................................................................................................................................4

Misalignment ...................................................................................................................................4
Stationary and Movable Machines ...........................................................................................4
Horizontal Misalignment ..........................................................................................................5
Vertical Misalignment ..............................................................................................................5

Types of Misalignment ....................................................................................................................5

Shaft Offset...............................................................................................................................6
Shaft Angularity........................................................................................................................7

Alignment Tolerances Overview .....................................................................................................7

Alignment Tolerance Chart Example .......................................................................................8
Alignment Process Overview ...................................................................................................8
Alignment Check Procedure.....................................................................................................8
Alignment Correction Procedure..............................................................................................8

Three Stages of Alignment Tasks ....................................................................................................9

1. Pre-Alignment Stage.............................................................................................................9
2. Rough-In Alignment Stage ...................................................................................................9
3. Precision Alignment Stage ...................................................................................................9

Alignment Methods .........................................................................................................................9

Alignment methods overview...................................................................................................9
Mechanical Methods...............................................................................................................10
Dial Indicator Methods ...........................................................................................................10
Rim-Face Method ...................................................................................................................10
Reverse-Rim Method..............................................................................................................11
Laser Systems .........................................................................................................................12

Conclusion .....................................................................................................................................13

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 2

 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

Further Reading .............................................................................................................................13

Additional Resources .....................................................................................................................14

Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................................14

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 3


Introduction
Shaft misalignment induces abnormal loads,
which causes equipment to run improperly
and eventually leads to a decreased life
expectancy. One must first understand
misalignment in order to perform proper shaft
alignment. All shafts, whether they are
straight or bent, rotate on an axis called the
rotational center. The rotational center forms a
straight line.
Figure 1 Rotational Center.
Two shafts are said to be co-linear when their
respective rotational centers form a single line.
If this is not the case, the two shafts are said to
be misaligned.
Figure 2 Co-Linearity.
This article explains in detail the basics of
shaft alignment such as: types of alignment,
alignment tolerances, alignment process
overview, alignment procedures, pre-
alignment, precision alignment, and alignment
methods.
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved
Shaft Alignment: Introduction
Misalignment
Shafts are misaligned when their rotational
centerlines are not co-linear when the
machines are operating.
Figure 3 Misalignment
Stationary and Movable Machines
When aligning any two machines, one is
designated as stationary and one as movable.
The driven component is usually designated as
the stationary machine, the driver as the
movable machine. Therefore, misalignment is
expressed by describing the position of the
movable machine relative to the stationary
machine.
Figure 4 Stationary and Movable Machine
The rotational center of the stationary machine
is a datum or reference line designated zero.
Misalignment is determined by finding the
position of the movable rotational center in
relation to the stationary in two planes,
horizontal (X) and vertical (Y).
4

Figure 5 The rotational center of the stationary
machine is a datum or reference line. In the system of
coordinates, plus is to the right horizontally and up
vertically. The symbols show the clock values 9 o’clock
and 3 o’clock on the X-axis and 12 o’clock on the Y-
axis.
Figure 6 The position of the movable rotational center
in relation to the stationary.
Horizontal Misalignment
Misalignment conditions viewed from the top
view and corrected by sliding the front and
back of the machine from side to side are
termed horizontal misalignment.
Figure 7 Horizontal misalignment.
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved
Shaft Alignment: Introduction
Vertical Misalignment
Misalignment conditions viewed from the side
view (elevation) and corrected by making
shim changes, or adjusting "Vibracon"
elements at the front and back of the machine,
are termed vertical misalignment.
Figure 8 Vertical misalignment
Types of Misalignment
Most discussions of shaft alignment begin by
defining two types of misalignment: offset
misalignment and angular misalignment.
These two types of misalignment are typically
illustrated as shown below.
Figure 9 Offset misalignment
Figure 10 Angular misalignment
5

These illustrations are correct. However, they
focus our attention on the couplings. In many
plants, “coupling alignment” is performed
using a straight edge to remove offset and
feeler gauges to remove angular
misalignment. Looking at a specific point
along the shaft length, many people
interchange the terms “offset misalignment”
and “parallel misalignment.” Such use of the
terms assumes that the two shaft centerlines
are equidistant at all points along the shaft
lengths.
In the vast majority of real-world conditions,
such parallelism obviously does NOT exist.
This is because both of these two types of
misalignment, offset and angular, exist at the
same time.
Shaft Offset
Offset is the deviation of a position from a
known point of reference. Offsets are
designated by the amount and direction of
deviation. In shaft alignment, offset
Figure 11 Shaft offset. The deviation of one shaft centerline from another shaft centerline at a given point (or
plane) along the length.
Remark: It is important to keep in mind that
our goal during alignment is to make the
rotational centerlines of the shafts co-linear,
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved
Shaft Alignment: Introduction
misalignment pertains to the deviation of one
shaft centerline from another shaft centerline
at a given point (or plane) along the length.
Note the following in the illustration below:
• The offset is designated for the movable
shaft in reference to the stationary
machine centerline.
• At Point 1, the movable shaft centerline is
35 mils low.
• At Point 2, the movable shaft centerline is
7.5 mils low.
• At Point 3, the movable shaft centerline is
7 mils high.
• At Point 4, the movable shaft centerline is
52.5 mils high.
that is, eliminate offset, at all points along the
length.
6

Shaft Angularity
Angular misalignment is most easily defined
as the slope relationship of two rotational
centers. In most illustrations of offset
misalignment, the reference shaft is thought of
as level or parallel (though it rarely is) for
Figure 12 Shaft angularity. The slope relationship between two rotational centers.
The slope can be quantified by first
determining the offset difference in any two
planes (offset #2 - offset #1) and dividing the
difference by the distance between the two
points along the shaft length where the offsets
are measured.
In the example above, the shaft angularity
(slope) can be calculated as:
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved
Shaft Alignment: Introduction
visual simplicity. Because two shafts are
seldom parallel, our example shows a movable
shaft sloped upward with respect to the
reference shaft.
Alignment Tolerances Overview
"Alignment Tolerances" is a subject of much
debate and one that often brings many
questions to mind.
• How bad can it be and still be called good?
• How has the vibration been?
• What is the speed of this machine?
• How much time should I spend on this
job?
• What type of bearings does the machine
have?
• How long have the bearings lasted?
• Is this machine critical to operations?
• What type of coupling is being used?
7

Answers to such questions are all important,
more important on high-speed, critical
machines, but to put it more simply, what we
are really asking is: "Exactly how precise
should we be?"
Alignment Tolerance Chart Example
While the final decision on alignment
tolerances must be made by individual
companies based on the nature of the
equipment and its criticality to the business,
the following chart is typical of commonly
accepted alignment tolerances.
Figure 13 Tolerance chart table
More important than tables is to point out
what the difference is between target
alignment. For example, that a generator
should be (in a cold situation) 0,5 mm under
the diesel engine; the alignment should then
be -0,5±0.05. Where 0.05 is the tolerance,
which is, within our company, nearly always
constant. For parallel misalignments we
always use ±0,05mm and for angular
misalignment we us 0,05 / full coupling
diameter. It is also useful to point out that the
coupling is not influencing the tolerance.
Some couplings can handle more then 1 mm
misalignment, which does not imply that the
tolerance could be closer to ±0,5 mm.
Alignment Process Overview
Different types of alignment procedures are
performed based on the purpose of the task.
The first step in the alignment process is
determining the purpose:
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved
Shaft Alignment: Introduction
• Is this an alignment check?
• Is this an alignment correction?
You will perform alignment check procedures
to determine and document “as-found”
conditions. Alignment checks are typically
performed:
• When misalignment is suspected, but not
known.
• To document alignment conditions prior to
removing machines from service.
• To verify that alignment conditions are
within tolerances.
You will perform the alignment correction
procedure:
• Prior to new or rebuilt machines being put
into service.
• When alignment conditions are known to
be outside tolerances.
• After an alignment check procedure
indicates misalignment is outside
tolerances.
Alignment Check Procedure
To complete an alignment check you will:
• Set up the alignment fixtures or system.
• Measure misalignment.
• Document and store alignment conditions.
• Evaluate machinery alignment conditions.
Alignment Correction Procedure
To complete the entire precision alignment
process you will:
• Perform pre-alignment checks and
corrections.
• Set up the alignment fixtures or system.
• Check and correct soft foot.
8

• Measure misalignment.
• Evaluate machinery alignment conditions.
• Perform precision alignment corrections.
• Re-measure and document the machinery
alignment.
Three Stages of Alignment Tasks
Alignment tasks differ in scope from a
periodic alignment check to complete machine
installation. Obviously, when the task is
simply to gather a complete set of as-found
readings, you will not have to systematically
go through the elaborate procedure that is
required during the installation of a new or
rebuilt machine. For the most part, however,
alignment tasks can be thought of in terms of
three stages. Each of these three stages is
described below.
1. Pre-Alignment Stage
During this stage of the task, you plan the job
and make preliminary checks that will help
make the latter stages go smoothly. In
general, the pre-alignment stage includes
thermal growth checks, alignment method
selection, equipment tag-out, checking shaft
and coupling run-out, checking for and
correcting soft foot, and other preliminary
procedures.
2. Rough-In Alignment Stage
This is the time when you ensure the
machines’ shaft centerlines are “in-the-
Figure 14 Alignment methods
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved
Shaft Alignment: Introduction
ballpark.” There are no set rules for how
close the shaft alignment should be before
attempting a precision alignment or what
method should be used for performing a
precision alignment. A lot depends on the
machines themselves and the experience of
the person doing the alignment. It is during
this stage when you want to ensure the shaft
centerlines are close enough to permit an
efficient precision alignment process. In
general, about .050 inch offset at the coupling
and .010 inch/inch angularity vertically and
horizontally is considered “rough”.
3. Precision Alignment Stage
The precision alignment stage is the final
stage. Attaining precision is usually
accomplished using dial indicators or a laser
system. By the end of this stage, we want to
ensure that the machine shafts are aligned well
within specified alignment tolerances. During
this stage, a very sound and efficient
mechanism for determining and making
alignment corrections is required.
Alignment Methods
Alignment methods overview
There are a wide variety of methods for
measuring alignment, the most common ones
are: Straight Edge, Rim and Face, Reversed
Dial, and Laser.
9
 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

Misalignment at the power planes, where • Relies entirely on the face coupling run
power is transmitted from driver to driven out.
machine, generates vibrations and destructive
forces. Consequently, it is at these points With the straight edge/feeler gauge method,
where alignment should be checked. All the offset is measured using a straight edge and
methods above have in common that readings set of feeler gauges as shown below.
are taken at the shafts or coupling. The
corrections are, however, made at the machine
feet. The positions at the feet must be
calculated to be able to make correct
movements. If this is not done, success will
depend on the aligner’s skill and luck, many
moves will be required and accuracy will be
compromised.
Mechanical Methods
Figure 15 Measure offset misalignment
The mechanical methods include the use of:
Angular misalignment is measured by using
• Straight edges feeler gauges, taper gauges, calipers, etc. The
gap difference between two points 180
• Feeler gauges degrees apart is used to determine the
direction and amount of relative slope
• Calibrated cones between the shafts.
These rough alignment tools are still
commonly used and have their place in the
precision alignment process as a method of
obtaining a rough alignment.
The principles rely on the integrity of the
coupling faces and their run out relative to the
shaft axis. The methods are simple and if, for
example, the couplings are not the same
diameter it is critical to take readings at all Figure 16 Measure angular misalignment
four measurement points.
Dial Indicator Methods
Feeler gauges can still be essentially important The two fundamental dial indicator shaft
when assembling some couplings to maintain alignment methods are the rim-face and
parallelism and should be part of every reverse-rim methods.
alignment kit in helping to eliminate soft-foot.
Rim-Face Method
Advantages of the mechanical methods are:
For many years this was the standard method
• Simplicity. of alignment. The advantages compared to
more modern techniques are relatively few but
• Direct reading. on large face coupling alignment may still be
However, disadvantages are: defined by this method. It can also be used to
check the “run out” of large faces as part of
• Can only be used for thin couplings. the pre-alignment check procedure.
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 10

When using a rim-face method, one
measurement is taken on the rim of the
coupling to determine shaft offset. Another
measurement is taken on the face of the
coupling to determine shaft angularity.
Figure 17 Rim-face method
The main limitations are:
• The sag of the bar limits distance over
which the techniques can be applied.
• The construction of the coupling
sometimes prevents access to the face so it
may have to be used in conjunction with
other technique such as feeler gauges.
• Correction is a multi-stage process,
eliminating parallelism error first and then
concentricity. As there is a vertical and
horizontal component for each component
there are actually four steps, all of which
may have to be repeated as required.
• To see the effect of any movement, re-
measuring is necessary.
• Axial movement of the shaft directly
effects the result.
However, in tight spaces this may be the only
way to do the job. The same equipment and
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved
Shaft Alignment: Introduction
method will probably have to be used to check
for run-out of flanges and radial run-out of
shaft in bearings.
Many turbine manufacturers specify the
coupling gap or swash in defining alignment
tolerance and this may be the only way to
obtain a reading, in e.g. a marine gent set due
to space restrictions.
One important point to note in comparing
readings obtained with any clock gauge
system and a laser based system is that in
virtually every case a laser system will show
that the shafts are lower than they are thought
to be.
The need for the separate alignment stages and
correction for angular misalignment and
offset, both vertically and horizontally, using
rim measurements can slow the whole
procedure down. During any move you may
well alter the offset or the angle which
involves more re-measuring and re-
positioning. It may be possible to rig up two
clocks on the same stem but this is not
common practice. The practical limitations to
being able to measure at the face is one of the
reasons why the angularity element is often
neglected, due to the accuracy of the coupling.
If it is offset or skew you can be falsely led
into believing you have a perfect line.
Reverse-Rim Method
Reverse indicator, Reverse peripheral,
Reverse rim, Reverse dial, and Double reverse
are all terms for the same method of alignment
using two clock gauges. When using a reverse
rim method, two measurements are taken on
the rims of the couplings to determine shaft
offset at two points. The two shafts are rotated
simultaneously, or in some cases, the
measurement is done in two stages with
measurements taken from one clock but
switching positions. Shaft angularity is the
slope between the two offset measurement
points.
11

The method has been adopted by amongst
others the American Petroleum Institute (API)
as their recommended technique. There is a
growing trend towards standardization in this
technique in a wide variety of industries.
Figure 18 Reversed-rim method
The main advantages are that it gives both
offset and angle at the same time and provides
for easy calculation and plotting of alignment
and corrections. Increasing the distance
between the measuring points (A) can increase
the resolution of the angle. However, with
clock gauges this may not be practical as the
sag of the bar requires compensation.
If used over a short distance the method may
not be as accurate as face measurements for
angle if the distance A is shorter than the
coupling diameter.
As with all clock readings, the calculation of
alignment and correction requires manual
plotting. Take care in reading inverted
readings plus and negative values. It is easy
to exchange the signs or to miss a complete
revolution of the clock.
As with the rim and face method, the
movement of the machine is largely a matter
of trial and re-measure. The advantage of
© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved
Shaft Alignment: Introduction
reverse alignment is that corrections for both
offset and angle can be calculated and applied
at the same time, which shortens the time.
Laser Systems
Several laser systems are available for shaft
alignment. Instead of steel bars with dial
indicators, these systems use laser beams and
electronic detectors. One main advantage of
laser beams is that there is no loss in
measurement accuracy due to bar sag. All
laser systems include a laser transmitter, a
detector, and a computer that performs
alignment calculations.
There are two common types of laser systems
in use today, based on different techniques.
• The single laser, with a single target.
• The twin laser, using the reverse indicator
technique.
Single Laser (With single or double
target)
This type of system uses auto collimation to
measure offset and angle with a reflecting
prism or a five-axis target. The target
measures both vertical and horizontal
components together with the angle
simultaneously. While this method is accurate
in angular measurement over short distances,
it is less easy to use for rough alignment.
Unless some mathematical compensation is
available, it can also be susceptible to
backlash when moving uncoupled machines.
Re-measuring is required after each move as
the reference is lost.
It cannot distinguish a side to side movement
by itself or the independent rotation of each
shaft. To overcome this limitation you may
need to couple the shafts in some way to
enable the shafts to rotate in unison.
12
 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

Figure 19 Single laser with a single or double target

Twin laser using the reverse indicator

technique
This type of system shares the major benefits
of the reverse indicator method. Two
measurement systems are used with a laser
and a detector in each unit. The technique is Figure 20 Twin lasers using the reversed indicator
used to display real time alignment and technique.
continually updated corrections as the
machine is moved. Further Reading
The latest generation equipment has a Consult www.aptitudexchange.com for
resolution of 0.001 with filtering to detailed articles, covering topics such as:
compensate for air noise and machine
vibration. • "Couplings"
The flexibility of the system comes in handy, • “Benefits to Shaft Alignment”
especially in rough alignment and coning,
when aligning over long distance cardan • “Horizontal Shaft Alignment – Method of
shafts or cooling tower fan drives. Calculation”
Conclusion • “Pre-Alignment”
As can be observed, there is a great deal more
to shaft alignment the just a straight edge and • “Rough Alignment”
a sharp eye. The objective is to decrease all
possible loads that may interfere with smooth • “Horizontal Shaft Alignment”
operation of the equipment, thus ensuring
extended and trouble free operation. • “Vertical Shaft Alignment”

• “Alignment of Offset Drives”

• “Machine Train Alignment”

• “Straightness”

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 13

 Shaft Alignment: Introduction

John Piotrowski, Shaft Alignment Handbook, Internet: http://mapro.skf.com/

Marcel Dekker, (April 1986).
Acknowledgments
Additional Resources
Special thanks is given to Frans Akkermans,
Fixturlaser AB -Fixturlaser AB develops, Machine Support, in the editing and
manufactures and markets laser based contributions to this article.
alignment systems globally in a 70+ countries.
Fixturlaser was founded in 1980 and the first
laser alignment system developed in 1984.
Since then the technology has been accepted
in mostly every industry. Their mission is to
become the leading provider of easy solutions,
including equipment and application
knowledge for measurement and alignment of
machinery in any industry.

Fixturlaser AB
Östergårdsgatan 9
SE-431 21 Mölndal, Sweden

Internet: http://www.fixturlaser.se

Machine Support BV - The comprehensive

capabilities of Machine Support include the
highest proficiency in the installation support
of diesel engines, turbines and the alignment
to generators, pumps, compressors and shaft
lines. Machine Support also specializes in
geometric alignments such as measuring the
line bore of diesel engines and measuring the
straightness of stern tubes onboard marine
vessels.

Machine Support BV
Kaartenmakerstraat 7
NL-2984 CB Ridderkerk, The Netherlands

Internet: http://www.machinesupport.com

SKF Maintenance Products - Delivers

various tools for shaft and belt alignment.

SKF Maintenance Products

Kelvinbaan 16
NL-3439 MT Nieuwegein, The Netherlands

© 2004 SKF Reliability Systems All Rights Reserved 14