Fuel Processing Technology 91 (2010) 559–565

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Fuel Processing Technology

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / f u p r o c

Densification characteristics of corn cobs

Nalladurai Kaliyan, R. Vance Morey ⁎
Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering, University of Minnesota, 1390 Eckles Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Corn cobs are potential feedstocks for producing heat, power, fuels, and chemicals. Densification of corn cobs
Received 31 December 2008 into briquettes/pellets would improve their bulk handling, transportation, and storage properties. In this
Received in revised form 29 December 2009 study, densification characteristics of corn cobs were studied using a uniaxial piston-cylinder densification
Accepted 1 January 2010
apparatus. With a maximum compression pressure of 150 MPa, effects of particle size (0.85 and 2.81 mm),
moisture content (10 and 20% w.b.), and preheating temperature (25 and 85 °C) on the density and
Keywords:
Biomass
durability of the corn cob briquettes (with diameter of about 19.0 mm) were studied. It was found that the
Briquettes durability (measured using ASABE tumbling can method) of corn cob briquettes made at 25 °C was 0%. At
Briquetting both particle sizes, preheating of corn cob grinds with about 10% (w.b.) moisture content to 85 °C produced
Corn cobs briquettes with a unit density of > 1100 kg m-3 and durability of about 90%.
Densification © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Pellets

1. Introduction
Corn cobs are one of the potential agricultural biomass feedstocks
for renewable energy industries in the U.S. to abate the current energy
and the greenhouse gas problems [1]. Corn cobs can be used for
producing heat, power, gas/liquid fuels, and a wide variety of chemical
products such as furfural, xylitol and activated carbon [1–8].
Crofcheck and Montross [9] found a greater yield of glucose (i.e.,
ethanol) from corn cobs than other corn residues such as stalks or
leaves plus husks.
Cobs represent about 8 to 9% of the aboveground dry matter (grain
plus residues) at grain physiological maturity [10,11]. The yield of
corn cobs may range from 1.42 to 1.53 dry t/ha [12]. Currently, after
combining the grain, corn residues are collected as baled corn stover,
which includes cobs, husks, leaves and stalks [13]. About 15 to 20% (d.
b.) of aboveground corn residues (non-grain) is corn cobs [11,13,14].
Corn cob moisture content may range from 20 to 55% (w.b.)
depending on the grain moisture content at the time of harvest
[3,15]. With the existing corn stover collection process, most of the
corn cobs are left on the field. Modifications to the existing corn
combining method have been suggested to collect corn cobs in a
single-pass when the grain is being combined [1,12,16]. In the U.S.
Mid-West, corn cobs are collected during a limited harvest time,
October–November. Therefore, there is a need to store corn cobs for
year-around supply to large corn cob processing plants. Large volumes
of corn cobs can be stored as piles outdoors or indoors [17,18].
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 1 6126258775; fax: + 1 6126243005.
E-mail address: rvmorey@umn.edu (R.V. Morey).
The higher heating value (HHV) of corn cobs ranges from 18.3 to
18.8 MJ/kg of dry matter [3,19]. Ebeling and Jenkins [19] reported that
the proximate analysis of corn cobs resulted in 80.10% volatiles, 1.36%
ash, and 18.54% fixed carbon on a dry mass basis. They also reported
that the ultimate analysis of corn cobs resulted in 46.58% carbon,
5.87% hydrogen, 45.46% oxygen, 0.47% nitrogen, 0.01% sulfur, 0.21%
chlorine, and 1.40% ash on a dry mass basis [19]. Thus, corn cobs are
suitable for heating applications especially due to their low ash
contents (<2% d.b.) compared to other agricultural residues [2,3,19].
The need for densification of corn cobs into briquettes/pellets
could be justified based on the end use. Corn cobs are a part of the corn
stover. Corn stover includes a mixture of individual pieces of cobs,
husks, stalks and leaves having different shapes and sizes. Baling of
corn stover can gather these individual pieces into a large cylindrical
compact with density of up to 150 kg m-3 (9 lb ft-3) [20]. Chopping or
grinding of corn stover could result in a relatively uniform product;
however, chopping/grinding may not increase the bulk density
significantly higher than the baled density. For example, fine grinding
of corn stover using a hammer mill to a particle size of 0.34 mm
resulted in a bulk density of 161 kg m-3 (10 lb ft-3) [21]. On the other
hand, corn cobs exist as individual pieces with similar shapes and
sizes. The bulk density of whole corn cobs would range from 160 to
210 kg m-3 (10 to 13 lb ft-3), which is higher than the density of corn
stover bales (i.e., 150 kg m-3) [17,20]. Either in baled form or
chopped/ground form, corn stover may be difficult to handle,
transport, store and use, whereas the whole corn cobs could be
handled, transported, stored and used relatively easily compared to
the baled or chopped/ground corn stover. It appears that briquetting/
pelleting of corn stover or corn cobs can produce uniform products
with bulk density of 500–600 kg m-3 (31-38 lb ft-3) [21]. Therefore,

0378-3820/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuproc.2010.01.001
560 N. Kaliyan, R.V. Morey / Fuel Processing Technology 91 (2010) 559–565

changing the physical form of corn stover into briquettes/pellets is Table 2

essential to improve its transportation, handling, storage, and use. But, Compositions of corn cobs, corn stover, and switchgrass.

corn cobs can be used without briquetting/pelleting for majority of Component Corn cobs used in this Corn stover [21] Switchgrass [21]
applications such as industrial scale heating. For applications study (% of dry matter) (% of dry matter) (% of dry matter)
requiring high quality feedstock such as home heating, corn cobs (n = 1) (n = 1) (n = 1)

may need to be pelleted. Furthermore, although corn cobs are almost Cellulosea 40.0 49.4 43.8
cylindrical in shape, a mixture of whole and broken pieces of cobs may Hemicelluloseb 41.4 26.2 28.8
c
Lignin 5.8 8.8 9.2
result due to breakage of cobs during combining. Therefore, corn cobs
Crude protein 2.5 3.6 3.9
may lack free-flowing properties. We propose that densification of Starch 2.1 0.4 1.0
corn cobs into briquettes/pellets would result in consistent, high Crude fat 0.7 0.7 0.9
density products with uniform shapes and sizes, which can be Water soluble 1.1 7.9 2.2
efficiently handled, transported, stored, and used. carbohydrates
Moisture content 1.7 5.4 5.7
A literature review by Kaliyan and Morey [22] found that biomass
Ash 1.8 11.2 5.0
feedstock variables such as particle size, moisture content and steam a
Cellulose = acid detergent fiber – lignin.
conditioning/preheating temperature affected the density and durabil- b
Hemicellulose = neutral detergent fiber – acid detergent fiber. The hemicellulose
ity of densified products such as pellets and briquettes. They concluded content is higher than cellulose content because of the approximate estimation of
that particle sizes of geometric mean diameters of 0.5 to 1.0 mm, hemicellulose content by the difference between neutral detergent fiber and acid
moisture contents of 8 to 20% wet basis, and preheating temperatures of detergent fiber contents.
c
65 to 100 °C produced high quality (i.e., high density and durability) Lignin values measured for the biomass materials were acid insoluble lignin
contents (not total lignin contents, which would be much higher than the values
densified products for a variety of biomass feedstocks such as corn reported in Table 2 [21]).
stover, alfalfa, wheat straw, sawdust and animal feed materials.
The main objective of this research was to study the densification
characteristics of corn cobs. The specific objective was to investigate Moisture content of the corn cob grinds was determined using the
the effects of particle size, moisture content, and preheating procedure given in ASABE Standard S358.2 [23]. The moisture content
temperature on corn cob briquette density and durability at a values reported in this article are on a wet mass basis unless
compression pressure of 150 MPa. The briquetting study was mentioned otherwise. To increase the moisture content of the grinds
conducted at a compression pressure of 150 MPa because commercial to 10% or 20% (w.b.), a predetermined amount of distilled water was
roll press briquetting or pelleting machines operate at or around added to the grinds, thoroughly mixed and stored in zip-lock plastic
150 MPa pressure [22]. bags at 5 °C for 48 h for tempering. Bulk density of the corn cob grinds
was calculated from the mass of grind that occupied a 250-mL glass
container (Table 1). While measuring the bulk density of the grinds,
2. Materials and methods the glass container with the sample was tapped gently for about 4 to 6
times on a lab-bench to remove large voids inside the sample as well
2.1. Corn cob samples as to reduce the sample filling errors. Particle size and its distribution
of the corn cob grinds were determined based on ASABE Standard
The corn cob (from an unspecified variety of field corn) samples S319.3 [24] (Table 1). A corn cob grind sample was sent to a forage
used in this study were supplied by Agricultural Utilization Research analysis laboratory (Dairy One, Ithaca, NY; www.DairyOne.com) to
Institute (AURI), Waseca, MN as coarsely ground cobs. The whole corn determine the chemical composition of corn cobs based on the
cobs were collected during the fall (October) 2007 harvest season and analytical procedures given by AOAC International [25] (Table 2).
were stored at about 12–15% (w.b.) moisture content in cardboard
containers until used for this study in May 2008. At AURI, the whole 2.2. Briquetting procedure
corn cobs were ground using an 18.7 kW (25.0 hp) hammer mill
(Jacobson Quality Machinery, Minneapolis, MN) fitted with 6.4 mm Corn cob briquettes were made using a uniaxial, piston-cylinder
(1/4 in) screen. The coarsely ground corn cobs had a moisture content densification apparatus in the laboratory (Fig. 1). The details of the
of 7.5% (w.b.) due to the moisture loss from the corn cobs during the
hammer milling process (Table 1). This coarser corn cob grind served
as one of the two particle sizes tested in the study. The second particle
size tested was a finer corn cob grind. To obtain the finer corn cob
grind sample, the hammer milled corn cobs were further ground in a
0.25 kW (0.33 hp) Wiley mill (Thomas Scientific, Swedesboro, NJ)
fitted with 2.0 mm screen.

Table 1
Properties of corn cob grinds used for the study.

Grinding machine with Moisture content Particle size of Bulk density

the screen size used of the grind the grind (mm) of the grind
for grindinga (% w.b.) (n = 3) b
(n = 3) c
(kg m-3) (n = 3)b

Hammer mill with 7.5 ± 0.1 2.81 ± 0.31 229.0 ± 9.8

6.4 mm (1/4 in) screen
Wiley mill with 2.0 mm 7.4 ± 0.2 0.85 ± 0.25 316.3 ± 2.1
screen d
a
The screen size represents the diameter of the holes in the screen.
b
Mean ± standard deviation.
c
Geometric mean particle diameter (mm) ± geometric standard deviation.
d
Corn cobs hammer milled using 6.4 mm screen was re-ground in Wiley mill with
2.0 mm screen. Fig. 1. Schematic of piston-cylinder compression/densification apparatus.
 N. Kaliyan, R.V. Morey / Fuel Processing Technology 91 (2010) 559–565
uniaxial piston-cylinder compression (densification) apparatus and
the briquetting procedure involved are given in [26]. A brief
description of the briquetting procedure follows. An INSTRON
universal testing machine (Model 4206; Instron Corporation, Canton,
MA) was used to apply a mechanical pressure of 150 MPa for
briquetting the corn cob grind. The inner diameter and height of the
steel cylinder (i.e., die) were 18.8 mm and 300 mm, respectively. The
piston was made of brass and was 50 mm longer than the cylinder to
help eject briquettes from the cylinder. A separate apparatus was used
to allow ejection of briquettes from the cylinder after compression
(Fig. 2).
About 5.0 g of corn cob grind was added to the cylinder through a
funnel. Using a steel rod, the grind was stirred to help the flow of grind
from the funnel. For the cases with preheating to 85 °C, before
compression of corn cob grind, the grind along with the cylinder was
heated using heating tapes to achieve a preheating temperature of
85 °C (Fig. 3). During preheating, the top opening of the cylinder was
sealed with a specially designed vapor-tight cover. The outside of the
compression cylinder wall and bottom steel base of the cylinder were
covered with heating tapes (120 V, 2.58 A, 310 W, and single phase;
BH Thermal Corporation, Columbus, OH) to heat the grind along with
the cylinder. About 50 mm thick fiberglass insulation was used to
cover the heating tapes to avoid heat loss. Temperature of the grind
was measured inside of the cylinder at the center and about 35.0 mm
above the bottom of the cylinder (i.e., half the height of the grind
inside the cylinder). A hand-held thermocouple-temperature record-
er (DIGI-SENSE®, Model No. 91100-40; Cole-Parmer Instruments Co.,
Vernon Hills, IL) was used to monitor the temperature of the grind.
Immediately after reaching the grind temperature of 85 °C, the power
to the heating tapes was turned off, the cylinder was mounted/bolted
to the base of the INSTRON, and the vapor-tight cover on the top of the
cylinder was removed. Subsequently, the bottom of the piston was
inserted into the cylinder, and the top of the piston was connected to
the crosshead of the INSTRON by a pin connection. The piston
attached to the crosshead of the INSTRON was actuated to compress
the grind from zero pressure to a maximum pressure of 150 MPa at a
constant (downward) speed of 25.4 mm min-1 (1.0 in. min-1) to make
briquettes. After the completion of compression, the piston was taken
out of the cylinder at a constant crosshead (upward) speed of
25.4 mm min-1 (1.0 in. min-1).
Next, the cylinder was removed from the base of the INSTRON and
placed on the briquette ejection apparatus, which was bolted to the
base of the INSTRON (Fig. 2). A constant crosshead speed of
Fig. 2. Schematic of briquette ejection apparatus in operation.
561
Fig. 3. Modifications to the densification cylinder (die) during preheating of corn cob
grind.
25.4 mm min-1 (1.0 in. min-1) was applied to the piston to eject the
briquette from the cylinder. In this study, the cylinder was not
lubricated during briquetting, but periodically cleaned using a
vacuum cleaner.
2.3. Briquetting experiments
Corn cob briquettes were made for the following factorial combina-
tion of conditions: (i) one compression pressure, 150 MPa; (ii) two
particle sizes, a coarser corn cob grind obtained from the hammer mill
fitted with a screen having 6.4 mm openings (i.e., geometric mean
particle diameter of 2.81 mm± 0.31) and a finer corn cob grind ob-
tained from the Wiley mill fitted with a screen having 2.0 mm openings
(i.e., geometric mean particle diameter of 0.85 mm± 0.25); (iii) two
nominal grind moisture contents, 10% and 20% (w.b.); and (iv) two
temperatures, 25 °C (i.e., room temperature) and 85 °C (i.e., preheating
temperature). At each briquetting condition, ten briquettes (i.e., ten
replications) were made. In this study, no binders (additives) were used
for briquetting.
A preheating temperature of 85 °C was chosen because Kaliyan
and Morey [26] reported that the glass transition temperature of corn
stover averaged 75 °C. To avoid moisture loss/migration and related
problems during densification in lab-scale apparatuses, preheating
temperature should be kept below 100 °C [26]. Furthermore, Kaliyan
et al. [21] reported that temperatures of around 85 °C can occur in
conventional ring-die pelleting machines due to frictional heating,
and thus, steam conditioning may be avoided.
2.4. Briquette properties
Immediately after ejection from the die, unit density of the
briquettes (i.e., density of individual briquettes) was measured. Then,
the briquettes were transferred to zip-lock plastic bags and stored for
one week at room temperature (about 25 °C). Unit density, durability,
percentage expansions in axial direction, radial direction and volume,
and moisture content of the briquettes were measured after one week
of storage.
The durability of briquettes is a measure of the ability of the
briquettes to withstand the destructive forces such as compression,
impact and shear during handling and transportation. The possible
amount of fines (dust) generated from the briquettes due to the
mechanical handling and transportation can be estimated by 100
minus the percent durability. Durability of briquettes was measured
according to ASABE Standard S269.4 [27]. Durability was calculated as
the percentage of the original mass of the briquettes retained on
16.0 mm screen after tumbling in a durability tester (Continental-
Agra Equipment, Inc., Newton, KS) at 50 rpm for 10 min. For each
replication of the durability test, five briquettes weighing about 25.0 g
562 N. Kaliyan, R.V. Morey / Fuel Processing Technology 91 (2010) 559–565

were used. Only two replications were done for the durability
measurement because of lack of samples. Unit density of briquettes
was calculated from the mass, diameter, and height of the briquettes
[27]. Axial, radial, and volume expansions of briquettes were
calculated as the percentage increase in height, diameter, and volume,
respectively. Moisture content of the briquettes was measured based
on ASABE Standard S358.2 [23].

2.5. Statistical analyses

All statistical analyses were performed using PASW Statistics 17.0

software (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL) at 5% significance level. Paired-
samples t-tests were performed on densities of briquettes measured
immediately after ejection from the die and after one week of storage
at room temperature to determine if there were any significant
differences between the means of the briquette densities measured at
these two times. The unit density and durability of briquettes
measured after one week of storage at room temperature were used
for the rest of the statistical analyses. Tests on the analysis of variance
(ANOVA) using a univariate general linear model were performed on
the density and durability of briquettes to understand the main effects
rather than the interaction effects of the densification process
variables. Independent sample t-tests were conducted to investigate
if there were any significant differences between the means of
briquette densities and durabilities of any two experimental condi-
tions such as particle sizes of 0.85 mm versus 2.81 mm, or moisture
contents of 10% versus 20%, or preheating temperatures of 25 °C
versus 85 °C.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Characteristics of corn cobs

Fig. 4 shows the pictures of whole corn cobs (Fig. 4A), and corn cob
grinds (Figs. 4B, C) used for this study. In this study, the bulk density of
whole corn cobs obtained from a seed corn variety was measured at
163.9 ± 3.0 kg m-3 (10.2 ± 0.2 lb ft-3) at 10.4% (w.b.) moisture con-
tent. Dunning et al. [17] reported that the bulk density of whole corn
cobs was about 210 kg m-3 (13 lb ft-3). Foley [2] documented that
ground corn cobs had bulk densities of 248 to 272 kg m-3 (15.5 to
17.0 lb ft-3). Table 1 provides the particle size and bulk density of the
corn cob grinds used for making briquettes in this study. Corn cob
grinds had bulk densities of 229.0 and 316.3 kg m-3 (14.3 and
19.8 lb ft-3) for the geometric mean particle diameters of 2.81 mm
and 0.85 mm, respectively (Table 1).
Table 2 compares the chemical compositions of the corn cobs, corn
stover, and switchgrass. The constituents such as lignin, protein,
starch, fat, and water soluble carbohydrates are potential “natural
binders” in the biomass materials [22]. These natural binders can be Fig. 4. Pictures of whole corn cobs (A) and corn cob grinds (B and C).
activated (softened or melted locally) either by high moisture or heat
or steam to use their binding functionality. Lignin and hemicellulose
were found to be amorphous thermoplastic materials which would
undergo plastic deformation at low pressures for temperatures in the According to Foley [2], the physical structure of the corn cobs is
range of their glass transition temperatures (i.e., softening tempera- composed of inner pith to the outer fine chaffy ring with the following
tures) [28]. Plastic deformation of particles would help make the average contents: 1.9% pith, 60.3% woody ring, 33.7% coarse chaff, and
particle–particle bonding permanent. In addition, during briquetting 4.1% fine chaff (“as is” basis). The woody ring of the corn cobs could be
or pelleting at temperatures close to the glass transition range, the a difficult component to process while grinding and densifying. Foley
natural binding components can be squeezed out of the particles, [2] also reported that the compositions of corn cobs were 45.6%
which can then make solid bridges between particles. After cooling, cellulose, 39.8% hemicellulose, 6.8% lignin, 0.02% starch, 2.8% protein,
these solid bridges will be hardened (i.e., curing process). This would 0.6% fat, 3.5% pectin, and 1.7% ash on a dry mass basis. Thus, the
make the briquettes or pellets strong and durable [21,29–31]. The ash composition data measured for the corn cobs used in this study
contents (i.e., mineral contents) in the biomass materials show their (Table 2) are similar to the composition data reported by Foley [2].
relative abrasiveness to densification equipment when there is high The ash content of the corn cobs used in this study was 1.8% (d.b.),
friction/shear during densification such as in pelleting. The higher the which is in the range of values given by Foley [2] and Morey and
mineral content, the higher the abrasion [22]. Thimsen [3].
 N. Kaliyan, R.V. Morey / Fuel Processing Technology 91 (2010) 559–565 563

Table 3
Properties of corn cob briquettes.

Briquetting conditions Properties of briquettes

Maximum pressure Preheating Grind moisture content Immediately after ejection from the die After one week of storage at room temperature
(MPa) temperature (°C) (% w.b.) (n = 3)a,b
Unit briquette density (kg m-3) (n = 5)a Unit briquette density (kg m-3) (n = 5)a Durability (%) (n = 2)a

Corn cob grind from hammer mill with screen size of 6.4 mm (particle size = 2.81 mm ± 0.31c)
150 25 9.4 ± 0.1 1030.7 ± 8.2 939.3 ± 8.9 0.0 ± 0.0
150 85 9.4 ± 0.1 1096.3 ± 15.0 1100.1 ± 16.2 92.3 ± 0.3
150 25 18.5 ± 0.1 744.8 ± 11.6 603.8 ± 19.1 0.0 ± 0.0
150 85 18.5 ± 0.1 817.8 ± 12.9 791.7 ± 37.5 0.0 ± 0.0d

Corn cob grind from Wiley mill with screen size of 2.0 mm (particle size = 0.85 mm ± 0.25c)
150 25 9.6 ± 0.2 1060.2 ± 7.4 971.2 ± 5.2 0.0 ± 0.0
150 85 9.6 ± 0.2 1112.1 ± 3.4 1120.3 ± 6.1 88.2 ± 0.9
150 25 19.1 ± 0.1 747.2 ± 15.9 651.0 ± 19.6 0.0 ± 0.0
150 85 19.1 ± 0.1 797.8 ± 9.5 776.7 ± 12.2 0.0 ± 0.0d
a
Mean ± standard deviation.
b
Moisture content of the grind before densification and preheating (if applicable).
c
Geometric mean particle diameter ± geometric standard deviation (n = 3).
d
Preheating of corn cob grinds to 85 °C at the nominal grind moisture content of 20% (w.b.) appeared to help bond the corn cob particles; however, some of the bonding sites were
not strong enough in the briquette to avoid disintegration of briquettes during the durability test. This was observed from the broken pieces of briquettes during the durability test.
The broken pieces of briquettes obtained from the durability test had larger particle sizes than the original grind sizes used for making the briquettes due to the stronger (localized)
bonding between one or more adjacent particles. High compression pressure and high temperature may bring moisture from the inside of the particles to the surface of the particles
causing free moisture between particles, which, after evaporation of moisture, may have resulted in weaker bonding forces between particles.

3.2. Densification characteristics
The results of the paired-sample t-tests showed that the unit
densities of briquettes measured immediately after ejection from the
die were significantly higher (by 56.6 kg m-3) than the values
measured after one week of storage at room temperature (P < 0.05)
(Table 3). This may be due to the change in the briquette mass and/or
volume (possibly due to drying and elastic-spring-back/expansion of
briquettes) during the one-week storage (Table 4).
The ANOVA analyses were performed to understand the main
effects of the densification process variables on the density and
durability of corn cob briquettes. The ANOVA analyses revealed that
both the density and durability of briquettes were significantly
affected by particle size, moisture content, and preheating tempera-
ture (P < 0.05).
3.2.1. Densification without preheating
For densification of corn cobs at 25 °C, the diameter of the
briquettes produced ranged from 19.5 to 20.2 mm, and the length of
the briquettes ranged from 17.2 to 24.9 mm. The nominal grind
moisture content of 20% (w.b.) resulted in longer briquettes due to
higher expansion of briquettes after ejection from the die. The relaxed
density of briquettes made at 25 °C ranged from 603.8 to 971.2 kg m-3
(Table 3). The higher moisture content (for both particle sizes) or the
larger particle size (for both moisture contents) resulted in signifi-
cantly lower briquette density (P < 0.05) (Table 3). The finer particle
size (0.85 mm) resulted in lower expansion in briquette volume than
the coarser particle size (2.81 mm) at both the nominal grind
moisture contents of 10% and 20% (w.b.) (Table 4).
For both the nominal grind moisture contents of 10% and 20% (w.
b.), durability of corn cob briquettes made at 25 °C was 0% (Table 3).
Kaliyan [31] reported that at nominal grind moisture contents of 10%
and 20% (w.b.), the briquette durabilities for corn stover were about
75 and 96%, respectively. For switchgrass, the briquette durability was
0% at both 10% and 20% (w.b.) grind moisture contents [31]. The water
soluble carbohydrates in the biomass may act as a binder in the
presence of enough moisture. Corn cobs and switchgrass have
relatively low levels of water soluble carbohydrates (1.1% d.b. for

Table 4
Moisture content and expansion of corn cob briquettes measured after one week of storage at room temperature.

Briquetting conditions Briquette moisture Mean expansion of briquettes (%) (n = 5)

content (% w.b.) (n = 3)a
Maximum pressure Preheating Grind moisture content Axial directionc Radial directiond Briquette volume
(MPa) temperature (°C) (% w.b.) (n = 3)a, b

Corn cob grind from hammer mill with screen size of 6.4 mm (particle size = 2.81 mm ± 0.31e)
150 25 9.4 ± 0.1 8.6 ± 0.1 6.4 1.1 8.6
150 85 9.4 ± 0.1 8.3 ± 0.1 -1.0 0.1 -0.8
150 25 18.5 ± 0.1 15.7 ± 0.4 14.4 2.3 19.6
150 85 18.5 ± 0.1 14.2 ± 0.2 0.01 -0.2 -0.3

Corn cob grind from hammer mill with screen size of 2.0 mm (particle size = 0.85 mm ± 0.25e)
150 25 9.6 ± 0.2 9.0 ± 0.2 6.0 1.1 8.3
150 85 9.6 ± 0.2 8.5 ± 0.2 -0.7 -0.3 -1.2
150 25 19.1 ± 0.1 15.5 ± 0.3 9.1 0.6 10.4
150 85 19.1 ± 0.1 14.2 ± 0.3 -1.2 -0.2 -1.5
a
Mean ± standard deviation.
b
Moisture content of the grind before densification and preheating (if applicable).
c
Negative values indicate the decrease in briquette length. This may have been due to the shrinkage of briquettes due to the moisture loss during storage for the nominal grind
moisture content of 10% (w.b.), and due to the loss of particles from the bottom of the briquettes due to the inadequate bonding of bottom layers of particles for the nominal grind
moisture content of 20% (w.b.).
d
Negative values indicate the decrease in briquette diameter. This may have been due to the shrinkage of briquettes due to moisture loss during storage.
e
Geometric mean particle diameter ± geometric standard deviation (n = 3).
564 N. Kaliyan, R.V. Morey / Fuel Processing Technology 91 (2010) 559–565
Fig. 5. Corn cob briquettes made using coarser corn cob particles with geometric mean particle diameter of 2.81 mm ± 0.31 (pressure = 150 MPa, grind moisture content = 9.4% (w.b.),
and preheating temperature = 85 °C).
corn cobs and 2.2% d.b. for switchgrass) which may be insufficient to
make durable briquettes [21,31]. This may explain the zero percent
briquette durability for corn cobs and switchgrass under conditions
without preheating. But, corn stover has a higher level of water
soluble carbohydrates (7.9% d.b.) which may have helped produce
durable briquettes under conditions without preheating [21,31].
3.2.2. Densification with preheating
Figs. 5 and 6 present pictures of corn cob briquettes made using
preheating to 85 °C. For densification of corn cobs at 85 °C, the
diameter of the briquettes ranged from 19.0 to 19.1 mm, and the
length of the briquettes ranged from 15.6 to 20.8 mm. Compared to
the briquette densities at 25 °C, preheating to 85 °C resulted in
significantly higher briquette densities at both 10% and 20% (w.b.)
nominal grind moisture contents for both the particle sizes tested
(P < 0.05) (Table 3). The briquette densities of the preheated samples
were greater than 1100 kg m-3 at the nominal grind moisture content
of 10% (w.b.) (Table 3). Preheating of corn cobs caused the briquette
volume to shrink by 0.3 to 1.5%, possibly due to the loss of moisture
from the briquettes (Table 4).
At the nominal grind moisture content of 10% (w.b.), preheating to
85 °C produced corn cob briquettes with about 90% durability. It is
suggested that the improved binding of corn cob particles due to
preheating to 85 °C may have been due to the activation (softening) of
natural binders (i.e., lignin, protein, starch, and fat) that require heat
for activation [31]. The activation/preheating temperature should be
at or above the glass transition temperature of the biomass materials
in order to cause plastic deformation of particles and to fully activate
the natural binders [31]. The natural binder contents of corn cobs that
require heat for activation are similar to those of the switchgrass
(Table 2). Kaliyan and Morey [26] reported that at a nominal grind
moisture content of 10% (w.b.), switchgrass required preheating to at
least 75 °C to produce durable briquettes (briquette durability of
about 63%). Kaliyan and Morey [26] also found that at a nominal grind
moisture content of 10% (w.b.), preheating to 75 °C produced highly
durable corn stover briquettes (briquette durability of about 97%),
which may be due to the presence of high amounts of natural binders
that require heat for activation (Table 2).
Fig. 6. Corn cob briquettes made using finer corn cob particles with geometric mean particle diameter of 0.85 mm ± 0.25 (pressure = 150 MPa, grind moisture content = 9.6% (w.b.),
and preheating temperature = 85 °C).
With preheating to 85 °C, the higher nominal grind moisture
content of 20% (w.b.) did not produce durable corn cob briquettes
(Table 3). With preheating to 85 °C, at the nominal grind moisture
content of 10% (w.b.), durability of corn cob briquettes was
significantly higher for the coarser particle size (i.e., durability of
92.3%) than for the finer particle size (i.e., durability of 88.2%)
(P < 0.05). This result suggests that the coarser particle size (geomet-
ric mean particle diameter of 2.81 mm) may be preferable for
commercial production of corn cob briquettes/pellets. Using the
coarser particle size could result in a lower cost for densification. The
results also suggest that future work may be required to optimize the
particle size, moisture content, and preheating temperature. Further-
more, the energy consumed for the lab-scale densification process is
not likely to be an accurate estimate of a commercial scale operation.
Thus, future work is required to estimate the energy required for
size reduction (hammer milling), preheating, and compressing in
briquetting/pelleting machines at a pilot- or commercial-scale densi-
fication of corn cobs.
4. Conclusions
The following conclusions were drawn from this study.
• For briquetting at room temperature (about 25 °C), corn cob
briquettes (diameter of about 20.0 mm) with relaxed densities of
604 to 971 kg m-3 can be produced at a compression pressure of
150 MPa, geometric mean particle diameters of 0.85 to 2.81 mm,
and grind moisture contents of 10% to 20% (w.b.). However, the
durability of corn cob briquettes made at room temperature was
zero percent.
• For briquetting with preheating to 85 °C, corn cob briquettes
(diameter of about 19.0 mm) with relaxed densities of 1100 to
1120 kg m-3 and durabilities of 88.2 to 92.3% can be produced at a
compression pressure of 150 MPa, geometric mean particle diam-
eters of 0.85 to 2.81 mm, and grind moisture content of 10% (w.b.).
Preheating to 85 °C is necessary to activate the natural binders in the
corn cobs such as lignin, starch, and protein to produce durable
 N. Kaliyan, R.V. Morey / Fuel Processing Technology 91 (2010) 559–565
briquettes/pellets. The results are useful for making corn cob pellets
intended for commercial applications such as home heating.
Acknowledgements
This article was presented at the 2008 American Society of
Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE) Annual International
Meeting in Providence, Rhode Island during June 29-July 2, 2008 as
ASABE Paper No. 084267. The authors thank the University of
Minnesota's Initiative for Renewable Energy and the Environment
(IREE) for providing support for this study, and Agricultural
Utilization Research Institute (AURI), Waseca, MN for generously
supplying hammer milled corn cob samples.
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