Fuel 79 (2000) 123–130

www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

Fluidized bed combustion of Australian bagasse

M.G. Rasul*, V. Rudolph
Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
Received 9 March 1999; received in revised form 8 June 1999; accepted 2 July 1999

Abstract
The application of fluidized bed combustion (FBC) technology to energy generation from sugar cane bagasse has been prevented, amongst
other reasons, by the difficulties associated with fluidizing this material. This difficulty arises because bagasse is often lightweight and of
unusual morphology, and manifests itself by either matting-up within the bed (if there is not enough inert diluent) or by segregating out,
usually floating to the surface (if the inert bed material is incorrectly chosen). So, the potential benefits of mixing inert solid and fuel,
desirable for efficient combustion, is lost. For FBC to be viable, proper mixing of inert fluidizing solids and fuels are necessary. A model is
presented in order to explain the mixing and segregation behaviour of binary particles in fluidized beds. The conditions corresponding to
equilibrium mixtures can be theoretically predicted from the physical properties of the system. Experimental observations in a gas fluidized
bed are shown to support the theory. Fluidized binary mixtures exhibit no tendency to segregate under a particular combination of solids and
fluid volume fractions. In these cases, the mixture remains stable, even in the absence of mixing forces. The application of the theory to
bagasse combustion in fluidized bed is discussed. q 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Bagasse; Fluidized bed combustion; Energy generation

1. Introduction per year, equivalent to an average energy output of more

Agricultural wastes represent an attractive potential feed-
stock for sustainable energy production, having the advan-
tage of low cost, easy access and greenhouse neutrality. The
motivation of this study was to develop an energy efficient
method of power generation from sugar cane bagasse using
fluidized bed combustion (FBC). Bagasse, the crushed
remnants of sugar cane stalks left after the extraction of
juice, is a by-product of sugar milling, and is the fuel
resource for that industry.
Bagasse is widely considered to be a major renewable
energy resource in Australia. Currently, in Australia,
about 40 million tonnes of sugar cane are crushed, out of
which about 11.4 million tonnes of wet bagasse (47–
52 wt.% water) are produced [1]. The specific energy of
bagasse is around 19.3 MJ/kg (daf), therefore, the total
heat energy from bagasse should be 1.1 × 10 11 MJ. The ther-
mal efficiency of a sugar mill boiler is around 62% [2]. If
fluidized bed combustion could be used for bagasse
combustion, it has been estimated that an efficiency
improvement of 20–25% may be expected [3]. By taking
advantage of this efficiency improvement, the sugar industry
in Australia can contribute 2.48 × 10 10 MJ more heat energy
* Corresponding author. Tel: 161-7-3365-9067, fax: 161-7-3365-4199.
E-mail address: rasul@cheque.uq.edu.au (M.G. Rasul)
0016-2361/00/$ - see front matter q 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0016-236 1(99)00144-1
than 780 MW. Bagasse is therefore an important potential
source of energy. Effective utilization of this energy
resources can help to provide quite a significant proportion
of the total energy requirement of the country, and at the
same time reduce environmental pollution. More specifi-
cally, this would help:
• to relieve the over dependence on fossil fuel as a main
source of energy;
• to solve the problem of waste bagasse disposal; and
• to reduce environmental pollution caused by these
wastes.
Both environmental and economic concerns provide
increasing pressure for improving efficiency in bagasse
combustion. On a local environmental level, combustion
products, in particular ash and odour, are a nuisance,
while globally the wasteful usage of any resource, and espe-
cially an energy resource is being increasingly condemned.
Furthermore, bagasse is currently a waste product with little
value, but other usages (e.g. paper manufacture) are being
developed, which increases its value.
FBC technology is well established for power generation
from solid fuels, and significant development work has been
undertaken to introduce this technology for power genera-
tion from coal of both good and poor quality [4–8]. Direct
124 M.G. Rasul, V. Rudolph / Fuel 79 (2000) 123–130
Nomenclature
A Cross-sectional area of the fluidized bed (m)
d1, d2 Particle size of species 1 (small & heavy) & 2
(big & light), respectively (m)
L Length of the bed (m)
g Gravitational constant (m/s 2)
Re Reynolds number, …ˆ dU rf =mf †; (—)
Uf Superficial fluid velocity (m/s)
Umb1, Umb2 Minimum bubbling velocity of species 1
and 2, respectively (m/s)
Umf1, Umf2 Minimum fluidization velocity of species 1
and 2, respectively (m/s)
DP Pressure drop (kPa)
a 1, a 2 Volume fractions of solids species 1 and 2,
respectively (—)
e Voidage (fluid volume fraction) (—)
r 1, r 2 Particle density of solid species 1 and 2,
respectively (kg/m 3)
rf Fluid density (kg/m 3)
r bm Bulk density of mixed bed (kg/m 3)
mf Viscosity of fluid (kg/m/s)
application of FBC technology to bagasse is not possible,
because bagasse alone cannot be fluidized due to its fibrous
nature, low density and high moisture content. These prop-
erties make it an unsuitable material to fluidize under
normal circumstances. Therefore, for its fluidization and
combustion it must be mixed with some other inert fluidiz-
ing solids. Using an inert component is also desirable in
FBC for other reasons [9]. However, this often leads to
the bagasse segregating out, either forming a layer of flot-
sam or jetsam in the bed. The potential benefits of mixing,
which is essential for efficient combustion, is lost. For FBC
to be viable, proper mixing of inert fluidizing solids and
fuels is necessary and segregation avoided. Research has
been carried out to establish a theory [10], which explains
Fig. 1. Mixing and segregation behaviour of binary particles in fluidized bed (fluid velocity increasing from (a) to (e)).
the mixing and segregation behaviour of binary and multi-
component fluidized systems both in liquid and gas fluidized
beds. Based on the complete mixing conditions, a properly
designed fluidized bed combustor should provide better
combustion performance, i.e. an energy efficient method
of power generation compared to the traditional methods
such as boiler, grate, swirl burner of bagasse combustion.
In this paper, a model of mixing and segregation in flui-
dized beds of binary particles is presented. Experimental
observations in particulate gas fluidized bed are shown to
support the theory, and the application of the theory to
bagasse combustion in fluidized bed is discussed here.
2. Theory of mixing and segregation in fluidized beds
The degree of mixing in any system depends on the
competition between the mixing and segregation potentials.
For particulate fluidization, the mechanism of particle
mixing is similar to diffusion. Bubbles are not present in
the bed and hence the common mechanism of particle
mixing, due to bubble motion, is absent. An interesting
phenomenon, which is sometimes observed in smoothly
fluidized beds of size and density variant binary mixtures
is called layer inversion. This provides a convenient basis
for observing and understanding mixing and segregation in
binary fluidized beds. For these systems, at low fluid velo-
cities (but above Umf1), component 1 (small and heavy) is
primarily found in a discrete layer at the bottom of the bed,
while component 2 (big and light) is predominantly at the
top (Fig. 1(a)). As the fluid velocity is increased, the binary
particles form a mixed part at the bottom of the bed-corre-
sponding to a stable mixture-and a pure layer of component
2 floating on the top of the mixed part (Fig. 1(b)). With
further increase in fluid velocity, the pure layer diminishes
as particles from it are moved into the mixed part (which
grows correspondingly richer in this component) and at
some point a velocity, called the inversion velocity, is
 M.G. Rasul, V. Rudolph / Fuel 79 (2000) 123–130 125

Fig. 2. Bulk density evaluation for rutile–sand binary mixture.

reached when the whole system is entirely mixed (Fig. 1(c)). volume fraction of particle 2. The bulk density of the mixed
This represents an equilibrium condition for that mixture bed and local voidage are given by,
from which it will not segregate on its own accord. The
rbm ˆ erf 1 a1 r1 1 a2 r2 …4†
inversion velocity depends on the bulk bed composition.
If the fluid velocity is then further increased, a new pure
layer of component 1 forms above the mixed part of the bed
e ˆ 1 2 a1 2 a2 …5†
(Fig. 1(d)). With further increase in fluid velocity, the bed For a binary mixture of fluidized particles, Eq. (2) becomes
may completely segregate again with component 2 at the  
DP
bottom (Fig. 1(e)), if fluid velocity is less than Ut1. Details of ˆ a1 …r1 2 rf †g 1 a2 …r2 2 rf †g …6†
this behaviour can be found elsewhere [10]. L
A variety of models for particulate liquid fluidized beds Combining Eqs. (1), (3) and (6),
have been proposed from quite different theoretical bases   
[11–15]. However, a comparative study [10] showed that 17:3 n
a1 …r1 2 rf †g 1 a2 …r2 2 rf †g ˆ 10:336n
only the model developed by Gibilaro et al. [15] satisfactorily Re
explained the above observations, as outlined below. For
rf Uf2
expanded fluidized beds operating in the intermediate flow  1=n …a 1 a2 †…1 2 a1 2 a2 †24:8 …7†
regime, the pressure drop over a wide range of both flow and davg 1
voidage conditions is given by Gibilaro et al. [15] as, For a given fluid velocity Uf, the volume fraction pair a 1
    1=n and a 2 which satisfy Eq. (7) may be obtained. These then
DP 17:3 n rf Uf2
ˆ 10:336 n
…1 2 e†e24:8 …1† provide a corresponding mixture density locus using Eq. (4),
L Re d
as shown in Fig. 2 for rutile (avg d1 ˆ 90:5 mm;
where n is the Richardson–Zaki [16] exponent given as, n ˆ r1 ˆ 4200 kg=m3 ) and sand (avg d2 ˆ 231 mm;
2:55 2 2:1‰tanh …20e 2 8†0:33 Š3 and Re is the Reynolds r2 ˆ 2450 kg=m3 ) system fluidized in water at ambient
number given by Re ˆ rf Uf d=mf . The pressure drop over temperature. It is then postulated [15] from elementary
the fluidized suspension is also given by the weight of the stability considerations that the composition of bottom
particles, zone corresponds to the point for which the bulk density
 
DP is maximum. In effect, this minimizes the potential energy
ˆ …1 2 e†…rs 2 rf †g ˆ a…rs 2 rf †g …2† of the mixed part of the system.
L
In applying Eq. (1) to binary-solid fluidized beds, the aver-
age value of the particle diameter may be taken as, 3. Model interpretation and criteria of binary particles
d d … a 1 a2 † to mix and invert
davg ˆ 1 2 1 …3†
a1 d 2 1 a2 d 1
The phenomena shown in Fig. 1 can be interpreted by the
where a 1 is the volume fraction of particle 1 and a 2 is the calculation of mixture bulk density and bulk density of each
126 M.G. Rasul, V. Rudolph / Fuel 79 (2000) 123–130
Fig. 3. Mixture and monocomponent bulk density as a function of superficial fluid velocity of rutile–sand system.
particle when fluidized separately. Fig. 3 shows the calcu-
lated bulk density of sand and rutile mixture (cf. Fig. 2) and
the bulk density of a monocomponent bed of sand and rutile
as a function of superficial fluid velocity. Fig. 3 can be
interpreted and analysed as follows:
• For this particular mixture when Uf is at A, the maximum
bulk density corresponds to a monocomponent bed of
component 1 (i.e. a2 ˆ 0). The interpretation of this is
that the most stable particle arrangement corresponds to
complete segregation, i.e., two superimposed monocom-
ponent zones with component 1 at the bottom (Fig. 1(a)).
• At fluid velocities in the range B (between A and C), the
maximum bulk density corresponds to a mixture of both
components. The densest mixture composition changes
with the fluid velocity, but can be calculated or measured.
In this flow range, the binary particles form a completely
mixed bed or a mixed part at the bottom of the bed and a
pure layer of excess component floating at the top of
mixed part depending on the flow conditions, as shown
in Fig. 1(b)–(d).
• When fluid velocity is in the range C, the bed segregates
completely again, this time with component 2 at the
bottom (Fig. 1(e)). At fluid velocity equal to or greater
than Ut of component 1, the bed is entirely filled with
monocomponent of particle 2, as all of particle 1 is
washed out of the bed at that velocity.
Experimental verification of this theory in particulate
liquid fluidized bed can be found elsewhere [10,17]. The
fluidized binary mixtures exhibit no tendency to segregate
under a particular combination of solids and fluid volume
fractions. The equilibrium conditions corresponding to
complete mixing (Fig. 1(b)) can be theoretically predicted
from the system physical properties. The criteria for binary
particles to mix completely and invert (with no external
mixing force) in a fluidized bed are as follows [10]:
• small particles are more dense (component 1);
• big particles are less dense (component 2);
• r b1 intersects r b2 in operating flow range;
• Ut1 , Ut2 ; Ut1 . Umf 2 ; and
• at least particle 1 is fluidized in operating flow range.
Therefore, for a given mixture, suitable operating conditions
can be chosen, in order to completely mix both the compo-
nents.
4. Experimental observations in gas fluidized systems
Mixing forces induced by bubbles bursting within a gas
fluidized bed must be minimised in order to observe the
mixing/segregation behaviour under discussion. This can
be done by making the observation within the gas flow
range between minimum fluidization velocity (Umf) and
minimum bubbling velocity (Umb). The minimum bubbling
velocity, Umb, is defined as the point at which the maximum
dense phase voidage, e mb is attained. For fine particles
(dp p 150 mm) this condition can be easily observed. For
coarse particles (about dp . 150 mm) the maximum dense
phase voidage occurs at Umf and an increase in superficial
velocity beyond this point produces bubbles [18]. The ratio
Umb =Umf gives a measure of the degree to which the bed can
be expanded. This ratio is relatively high for fine low
density solids and gas of high density and a value of 2.8 is
reported in the literature as a reasonably wide expansion of
the bed [19–21].
Since, particulate expansion of the bed material in gas
system occurs up to Umb, it is necessary to know Umb of
the particles. Experimentally [19–21], it has been found
 M.G. Rasul, V. Rudolph / Fuel 79 (2000) 123–130
Table 1
Experimental results of FCC and pumice
Particles Size range (mm) Average size (mm)
FCC 53–75 64
Pumice 90–106 98
that for fluid cracking catalyst (FCC) of size about 60 mm
and particle density range 950–1500 kg/m 3, the dense phase
voidage (e e) reaches its maximum …ee ˆ emb † and then
decreases to a constant value as the gas velocity is increased,
with a maximum Umb of 2.8Umf. Measured particle proper-
ties for FCC and pumice, given in Table 1, satisfy the
criteria for binary particles to mix and invert in the flow
range of Umf to Umb. The experimental verification was
carried out for these materials.
Fig. 4 shows the loci of the bed bulk densities for the
above mixture as a function of the pumice volume fraction,
a 2, evaluated from the Eqs. (3), (4) and (7). The figure
shows that at a superficial air velocity of less than 4 mm/s,
the maximum bulk density corresponds to a monocompo-
nent bed of FCC particles (i.e. a2 ˆ 0), predicting complete
segregation, i.e. two superimposed monocomponent zones,
where FCC settles into the bottom layer. On the other
hand, at a superficial velocity of more than 5 mm/s, the
maximum bulk density corresponds to a monocomponent
bed of pumice particles (i.e. a1 ˆ 0). At higher velocities
the pumice settles at the bottom of the bed with FCC at the
top. In the air velocity range between 4 and 5 cm/s the bed
bulk density apparently remains about constant for all
mixtures which indicates that the selected binary particles
will mix at all concentrations under this condition.
Experimental observations were carried out in a fluidized
bed (i.d. 5 cm, height 1.8 m) made of perspex. A porous
sintered plate distributor was fitted at the bottom of the
Fig. 4. Bulk density evaluation for FCC–pumice binary mixture.
127
Umf (mm/s) e mf (mm/s) Umb (mm/s) Umb/Umf (–)
3.17 0.37 8.96 2.82
6.13 0.35 15 2.45
bed. Air was used to fluidize the bed and its flow rate was
measured by calibrated rotameters.
A binary mixture of 150 g FCC and 50 g pumice was
fluidized and their mixing and segregation behaviour were
observed at different superficial air velocity. At Uf ˆ 4:75
mm/s, the bed was observed to be completely mixed. The
flow was then reduced slowly to Uf ˆ 3:17 mm/s, where it
was kept for 2 h to reach the steady state. At steady-state,
the bed was observed to have an upper part dominated by
pumice particles, which was expected at that flow. On the
other hand, at Uf ˆ 6:13 mm/s, the bed was observed to
have small discrete layer of floating FCC particles. These
qualitative observations coincided with the predicted states,
confirming that the prediction method is sound.
5. Application of the theory to bagasse fluidization and
combustion
The properties of the inert solid are the key to achieving
satisfactory fluidization, and the size, density and shape are
the critical variables to consider. Based on the criteria
proposed in Section 3, the inert fluidizing solids must be
denser than bagasse and with a terminal free-fall velocity
smaller than that of bagasse. Possible inert materials include
pumice, porous alumina, cenolyte and expanded clays.
Bagasse properties such as particle size and shape, and
the moisture content of the feed bagasse are also important.
128 M.G. Rasul, V. Rudolph / Fuel 79 (2000) 123–130
Fig. 5. Bulk density evaluation for cenolyte–bagasse binary mixture.
If bagasse physical properties are determined first, then, this
theory can be used to select the second solid. The bagasse
used in this study was collected from Rocky Point mill,
Queensland, Australia and was washed and dried before
use in the experiments. The physical properties including
particle density, hydrodynamic equivalent diameter and
drag co-efficient were determined [22]. The particle density
of the bagasse used in this study was found to be 492 kg/m 3
and a correlation to determine hydrodynamic equivalent
diameter of the bagasse from the measurement of terminal
free-fall velocity using simple fluidization technique was
proposed previously [22]. The hydrodynamic equivalent
diameter of irregular shape bagasse was used as the particle
size in the calculation of mixing and segregation behaviour
using this model.
Based on the model presented here and theoretical bulk
density evaluation, as illustrated in Fig. 5, a given mixture of
cenolyte (64 mm, 690 kg/m 3) and bagasse (200 mm, 492 kg/
m 3) satisfy the above criteria within Umb of cenolyte. There-
fore these two materials should mix completely under the
correct gas flow conditions. In the air velocity range
between 4 and 6 mm/s the bed bulk density apparently
remains almost constant for all mixtures indicating that
these binary particles will mix at all concentrations under
these conditions. The experimental observations show good
Table 2
Physical properties of particles
Mixture Component 1
Material Size (mm) r b (kg/m )
3
1 FCC 64 1420
2 PVC 64 950
3 Polystyrene 2000 200
agreement with the prediction, confirming that the predic-
tion method can be successfully used for selecting inert
fluidizing solids to facilitate fluidization of bagasse includ-
ing other biomass. These conditions can be used for design-
ing a fluidized bed combustor for bagasse.
A number of other binary systems, Table 2, were inves-
tigated to illustrate segregation if an incorrect choice of inert
solids was made. The theory predicts that for these systems,
mixtures 1, 2 and 3, respectively (Table 2) will always
segregate below Umb. The experiments were carried out
with 200 g of FCC and 20 g bagasse. The bagasse was
loaded first, then FCC was poured from the top. Initially,
FCC flows down through the interstices of the bagasse parti-
cles. With little increase in the superficial velocity, the FCC
particles moved down. At steady state condition, the FCC
particles were observed at the bottom of the bed. The same
segregation behaviour was obtained irrespective of how the
particles were loaded in to the bed (either FCC at the top or
bagasse at the top initially). This experiment clearly shows
that for particles of these physical properties, the binary
system does not mix, but always segregates with the bagasse
layer at the top. The bulk density of FCC for all superficial
velocities within the range Umf to Umb remains greater than
that of bagasse. Similar segregation behaviour was also
observed for the binary mixture of PVC plastic
Component 2
Material Size (mm) r b (kg/m 3)
Bagasse 200 492
Bagasse 200 492
Bagasse 200 492
 M.G. Rasul, V. Rudolph / Fuel 79 (2000) 123–130
Fig. 6. Mixing/segregation regime map in gas fluidized bed.
(d ˆ 64 mm) and bagasse (d ˆ 200 mm) where the bagasse
again segregates out at the top of the bed. Other experiments
were carried out with 5 g polystyrene (d ˆ 2 mm) and 50 g
bagasse (d ˆ 200 mm). In these experiments, bagasse stra-
tified at the bottom of the bed. The experiments did not
show any mixing.
The theory allows a map to be drawn of the mixture
conditions under which proper fluidization and mixing
occurs, particularly as it depends on the density and size
of the particles. This allows suitable operating conditions
to be calculated.
For an ambient gas fluidized bed, the numerically calcu-
lated boundary line in terms of density ratio …r1 =r2 † and size
ratios …d1 =d2 † for which mixing/segregation will occur is
shown in Fig. 6. In this calculation, for particle 1 the size
range of 35–80 mm was considered to get wide expansion
between Umf and Umb. For regular shape particles, the
volume equivalent size or average size of closely cut sieve
fractions and for irregular shape particles, the hydrodynamic
equivalent diameters represent d1 and d2. Particles of any
combination having density ratios and size ratios within the
area bounded by this line will mix, whereas outside the line
binary particles will always segregate within the range Umf
to Umb (i.e. in the absence of external mixing forces). Fig. 6
also shows some experimentally demonstrated points
supporting the predictive method. Therefore, knowing the
aerodynamic properties of bagasse, suitable inert fluidizing
solids can be selected to avoid segregation of bagasse from
the inert particles.
In practice, the gas velocities used in the fluidized bed
combustion are greater than Umb. This tends to produce
bubbles, causing a mix-up of the bed materials, i.e. in
virtually all practical gas-fluidized systems, mixing forces
due to, e.g. bubbling or streaming exist, so that the range of
conditions allowing stable mixtures to occur, is extended.
129
Nevertheless, if mixing is desirable in the bed, then it would
clearly be advantageous to understand the conditions where
segregation will not occur, even by not relying on mixing
forces.
6. Conclusions
This study concentrated on the issue of bagasse fluidiza-
tion and combustion, and led to a significant improvement in
our understanding of segregation problem, which is
observed practically during combustion in fluidized beds
containing mixtures of bagasse and inert particles. A
model was presented to explain mixing and segregation
behaviour in fluidized beds. The conditions corresponding
to equilibrium mixtures can be theoretically predicted from
the physical properties of the system. Experimental obser-
vations in a gas fluidized bed supported the theory. Flui-
dized binary mixtures exhibit no tendency to segregate
under a particular combination of solids and fluid volume
fractions. Therefore, if the properties of one the particle is
given, then the other particle can be selected to avoid segre-
gation. More specifically, knowing the aerodynamic proper-
ties of bagasse, suitable inert fluidizing solids can be
selected from Fig. 6 to achieve successful fluidization and
proper mixing of bagasse, essential for efficient combustion
in a fluidized bed. Then, the operating conditions under
which both the particles completely mix can be calculated
using the model presented here. These conditions can be
used for designing a fluidized bed combustor for bagasse.
Potentially economic alternatives for bagasse combustion,
using a fluidized bed [23] seems to be possible. Effective
utilization of the bagasse available in Australia can help to
supply quite a significant proportion of the total energy
requirement of the country. More specifically, if the bagasse
130 M.G. Rasul, V. Rudolph / Fuel 79 (2000) 123–130
combustion can be carried out in a fluidized bed, the Austra-
lian sugar industry can contribute an equivalent (maximum)
energy output of more than 780 MW per annum.
References
[1] Dixon TF. Commercial opportunities using sugar industries residues.
Biomass Symposium, Canberra, Australia, 1997.
[2] Luo MC. PhD thesis, The University of Queensland, Australia, 1993.
[3] Das A, Bhattacharya SC. Appl Energy 1990;37:227.
[4] EPRI, Achieving the promise of FBC. EPRI J 1985;January/
February:6–15.
[5] Schwieger B. Power 1985;129(2):S1.
[6] La Nauze RD. Chem Engng Res Des 1985;63:3.
[7] La Nauze RD. J Inst Energy 1987;60(443):66.
[8] Dry RJ. Aust Fluidized bed combustion: technology update. Paper
from CSIRO presented at Aust. Inst. Energy Conf., Brisbane,
Australia, 1991.
[9] Davidson JF. J Inst Energy 1989:178.
[10] Rasul MG. PhD thesis, University of Queensland, Australia, 1996.
[11] Moritomi H, Chiba T. In: Cheremisinoff NP, editor. Encyclopedia of
fluid mechanics, 3. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing, 1986. p. 477.
[12] Van Duijn G, Rietema K. Chem Engng Sci 1982;37(5):727.
[13] Jean RH, Fan LS. Chem Engng Sci 1986;4(11):2811.
[14] Rietema K. The dynamics of fine powders, Oxford: Elsevier, 1991.
[15] Gibilaro LG, di Felice R, Waldram SP, Foscolo UP. Chem Engng Sci
1986;41(2):379.
[16] Richardson JF, Zaki WN. Trans Inst Chem Engrs 1954;32:35.
[17] Moritomi H, Iwase T, Chiba T. Chem Engng Sci 1982;37(12):1751.
[18] Gogolek PEG, Becker HA. Powder Technol 1992;71:107.
[19] Gibilaro LG, di Felice R, Foscolo PU. Powder Technol 1988;56:21.
[20] Kono HO, Ells TS, Chiba S, Suzuki M, Morimoto E. Powder Technol
1987;52:69.
[21] Xie HY, Geldart G. Powder Technol 1995;82:269.
[22] Rasul MG, Rudolph V, Carsky M. Fuel 1999;78(8):905.
[23] Sheridan NR. Proc Aust Soc Sugar Cane Technol 1985:307–14.