Biological molecules

>They are essential organic and inorganic molecules in living cells

>They are essential as they are:

1. Structural molecules:- used in the building of cell components ”e.g. cell membrane”
2. Functional molecules:-required in the cell’s metabolism or and functioning.

A) Organic molecules:

 DNA
 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Fates
 Enzymes

B) Inorganic molecules:

 Mineral salts “ions”.

1-DNA “Deoxyribonucleic acid”:

It is located in the nucleus of living cells

Structure:-

Is a thread-like chain of nucleotides carrying the

genetic instructions used in the growth,
development, functioning and reproduction of all
known living organisms and many viruses.

Most DNA molecules consist of two strands coiled

around each other to form a double helix.

Each strand is consists of four structural unites

called nucleotides or organic basis, these basis are

” A, G, T, C” these nucleotides are bonded to their

corresponding nucleotides on the other strand as
follows (A with T) , (C with G), this bonding is called base pairing .
Role:-

1. The sequence of nucleotides on the DNA strand codes for a specific sequence of amino
acids in a particular protein molecule.

2. Each genetic characteristic in a living cell is protein in nature and since the DNA
determines the type of protein so it controls somehow the genetic characteristics of
living organisms.

2-Carbohydrates “sugars”:

They are organic molecules composed of Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms (C, H, O), they
are energy yielding food.

Role of carbohydrates in living organisms:

1. They provide energy from respiration process by oxidation to produce energy and CO 2
and H2O.
The energy provided is 17 kJ/ gm.” Glucose is usually the sugar used in respiration in
plant and animal cells.
 For carbohydrates to give energy they should be oxidized “reducing agent”.

2. Act as energy storage materials such as e.g. Starch in plant cells and glycogen in animal
cells.

3. Some are structural materials such as cellulose in plant cell wall.

 Monosaccharides Disaccharides Polysaccharides
“simple sugar” “double sugar” “complex sugar”
Chemical formula >(C6H12O6) >(C12H22O11) > (C6H12O5)
>Each molecule > Each molecule >Each molecule
consists of single consists of two joined consists of more than
unite monosaccharaides three molecules of
monosaccharides,
forming a long chain.

Examples >Glucose >Lactose >Cellulose

>Galactose >Sucrose >Starch
>Fructose. >Maltose >Glycogen
Source of food >Fruits >Lactose in milk >Starch In potato
>bee-honey >Sucrose in table ,rice, bread
sugar >Cellulose in plants
>Glycogen in liver and
meat.
Properties > All Soluble in water > All soluble in water > All are insoluble in
> All have Sweet taste > All have sweet taste water “has no
> All are Reducing >All are reducing osmotic effect”
agent “can be agents except > All have no sweet
oxidized” “Sucrose” taste
> All aren’t reducing
agents “chemically
stable”

 Glucose: is translocated sugar in human although it is reducing agent sugar, why?

Because oxygen is not moving free in the human blood, but it is carried by hemoglobin
as oxyhemoglobin, so it will not be freely able to oxidize the glucose as if is in the blood
and this will only happen inside the cells where the oxygen is their totally free.

 Sucrose: is translocated sugar in plants, why?

Because it soluble in water so it will move easily through the plant to reach all parts and
organs in the plant “by diffusion”, and as it is not a reducing sugar “non-reducing sugar
so it will not be able to react with free oxygen in air spaces between plant tissue.
Note: Carbohydrates can be converted from one from to another by:

A) Condensation reaction>removing water molecule from simple compounds converting

them to complex ones.
- H2O -H2O
E.g. Monosaccharides------------- > di-saccharides------------- > polysaccharides
Simple Complex
B) Hydrolysis reaction> adding water molecule to split complex compounds to simple.
+H2O +H2O
E.g. Polysaccharides------------------ > Di-saccharides ----------------- > Monosaccharides.
Complex Simple

3-Lipids or fats:

They are organic compounds, composed of Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.

 The amount of oxygen in lipids is relatively lower

than carbohydrates content.
 Typical fat molecule is composed of two types of
subunits:-

A) Glycerol subunit
b) Three molecules of long chains fatty acids.

So when lipids are digested they give “fatty acids and glycerol”

Properties: they are insoluble in water, but they can be dissolved in alcohol

Food source: Animal fats (e.g. butter, fried food, eggs, dairy products)

Role of lipids in living organisms:

1- Fats are used in the cells to release energy (39 kJ/gm), but they are less available and
more difficult to break down than carbohydrates.
 But they will used as a source of energy only when all available carbohydrates have
been used totally.
2- Cell membrane is made of lipids and proteins.
3- In animals: excess fats are stored under the skin as a fatty layer is called “adipose tissue”
that acts as a thermal insulator to worm the body.
4- In plants: excess fats are stored as oil in their seeds to be used as a source of energy
during germination
4-Proteins:

They are organic compounds composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen and
sometimes phosphorus or Sulphur.

 Molecules of proteins consists of a long chain of

amino acids
 There are about 20 different amino acids :
>> 8 essential amino acids (cannot be made by the body “human body “
>>12 non-essential amino acids (that can be formed by the body).

Each amino acid has a specific 3-D shape so the sequence of the amino acids in
the polypeptide chain will determine the 3-D shape of the protein they form ,
either to have a compact shape or fibrous which will determine the function of
the protein

 Notes: polypeptide chain can be curled up into different shapes “this will also determine
together with the sequence of amino acids the final 3-D shape and form of the protein.

Shape of the protein will determine somehow the function of the protein:

 Enzymes and antibodies have a (compact shape) and soluble, so they have a specific binding
site.
 Each enzyme has a specific binding site to which a specific substrate can bind
 Each antibody has a specific binding site to which a specific antigen of specific virus or bacteria
binds
 Keratin protein molecule has a (fibrous) shape to make the hair.

Role of proteins in living organisms:

1- They build up body cells “for growth and repair “.

2- They build up enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions.
3- They build up hormones, hemoglobin and antibodies.