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Handbook on identification and management of pests and diseases of cabbage

and other Brassicas in Uganda

Book · January 2008

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Introduction

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea, capitata group) is a member of the

crucifer crop group, which also includes cauliflower, broccoli,
collards, kale and Brussels sprouts. All crucifers belong to the
mustard family (Brassicaceae). Cabbage is one of the world’s
leading vegetables in terms of total production. In Uganda,
cabbage is grown in all districts and is steadily becoming an
economic enterprise, being particularly favoured for its high
yield potentials, high market demand and reliable ease of
storage and transport. The economic benefits aside, cabbage
is a good source of many minerals particularly calcium and
potassium, and is also relatively high in vitamins A and C.
Cabbage, like other brassicas contains mustard oils, compounds
that inhibit the growth of cancer. These substances boost the
body’s production of the enzymes that disable potential
carcinogens and then remove them from the system. In
addition cabbage also contains a number of antioxidants that
protect the body from cancer and heart disease.

Cabbage is normally grown all year round in major growing

districts, with production in dry seasons being limited to
swampy areas or under manual irrigation. The biggest constraint
to cabbage production in Uganda is damage due to insect pests
and diseases. Unfortunately, the occurrence, identity and
management of the pests and diseases of cabbage are not
well documented in Uganda. Therefore, the Department of
Crop Science, Makerere University, conducted a countrywide
biological survey of pests and diseases of cabbage with the
aim of documenting their occurrence and guiding growers on
possible options for their management. Sampling was done in
all agro-ecological zones of Uganda (see Table 1 in Appendices).

Farms that participated in the study were selected in liaison

with personnel from the respective district agriculture offices.
On the selected farms; quadrants were used to choose crops
for detailed assessment for pests and diseases. In addition,
farmers were requested to describe or point out pests and
diseases encountered in their fields. Samples were identified
at Makerere University.
-1-
The occurrence of pests and diseases of cabbage in the
different agro/ecological zones is shown in Table 2
(Appendices). This handbook therefore, is a report of the
findings of the countrywide study, and is meant to aid
researchers, extension agents, and farmers in Uganda in
identifying the insect pests and diseases of cabbage. We hope
that this handbook will be reviewed periodically to include new
advances in identification, biology and management of cabbage
pests and diseases in Uganda.

General Guidelines

In the handbook, each pest/disease included has a brief

description of its lifecycle, the damage it causes, and possible
management measures. Knowing how an insect pest develops
is a prerequisite to its effective management. In order to avoid
pest outbreaks, growers are advised to always:

„ Learn to identify the pests and other causal agents.

„ Learn to identify and encourage natural enemies
„ Select the proper variety that is well adapted to your local
conditions
„ Have a healthy soil
„ Practice crop rotation by planting crops of a different family
group in the subsequent cropping season
„ Practice mixed cropping to improve the field’s diversity and
to encourage natural enemies
„ Follow the recommended plant spacing
„ Prepare the soil thoroughly by appropriate tillage
„ Practice proper field sanitation by removing and pruning
infested plant parts, keeping the area free of weeds and
residues, and cleaning regularly all farm tools and
implements
„ Monitor plants regularly
„ When in doubt, seek assistance from local agricultural
advisors.
„ Chemical pesticides should be used as the last line of
defense when other options have failed to keep the pest
population below that which will cause economic damage.
Care should be taken when handling pesticides to avoid
-2-
 hazards to man and the environment. Always follow
instructions on the label. Table 3 (Appendices) gives a list
of pesticides that have been found to be effective against
particular pests and diseases.

INSECTS PESTS

Aphids
Cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae), Green peach aphid
(Myzus persicae), Turnip aphid (Lipaphis eryisimi)
Group: Insect (Homoptera: Aphididae)
Other host crops: broccoli, brussel sprouts, cauliflower,
collards, kale, mustard, rape

Cabbage aphids Green peach aphid

Cornicles
Drawing of an aphid

-3-
Description

Aphids are soft-bodied, pear-shaped insects with two

projections at the rear end (cornicles). Aphids have piercing-
sucking mouthparts. Nymphs are smaller but otherwise similar
in appearance to wingless adults. The cabbage aphid is a small
grayish-green aphid with a powdery waxy covering and short
cornicles often found in dense clusters on the underside of
leaves. The cabbage aphid is a specialist on crucifers and
prefers feeding on younger plant tissue. The green peach aphid
on the other hand is a yellowish-green sometimes reddish
aphid with long cornicles, does not have a waxy covering, and
is a generalist and feeds on a wide range of plants in several
families. In the tropics, aphids have simple lifecycles with adult
females giving birth to live offspring (nymphs) throughout the
year. Winged adults are produced when it is necessary to
migrate.

Damage

Aphids cluster on the leaves and suck sap causing infested

foliage to curl, wilt, or become distorted. Heavily infested plants
grow slowly, are stunted, and produce small unmarketable
heads. Aphids secrete a sweet substance called honeydew
which drips onto leaves and causes blackening as fungal
moulds grow on it. Aphids may also transmit plant viruses for
example, the turnip mosaic virus.

Management

„ Promote insects/organisms that feed on the aphids (natural

enemies). The most common natural enemies of aphids
include ladybird beetles, hover fly larvae, lacewings, spiders,
damsel bugs, ground beetles, rove beetles, wasps.
„ Use nitrogen fertilizers in moderation because heavy doses
of soluble nitrogen fertilizers encourage multiplication of
the aphids.
„ Interplanting cabbage with cover crops has been found to
reduce aphid infestations.

-4-
„ Mulching cabbage with brightly coloured straw or plastic
paper has been found to reduce aphid infestations.
„ Spraying with soapy water solutions can be effective
„ Apply granular systemic insecticides such as carbofuran at
planting.

Diamondback moth
Plutella xylostella
Group: insect, moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)
Other host crops: broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts,
radish, turnip, mustard, kale, collards

Diamondback
moth damage
Description

Eggs are minute round pale yellow. The larva is tapering slightly
at both ends with a forked posterior end. The larva is pale-
green covered with fine, scattered, erect hairs, and reaches a
length of 7 mm when mature. It wriggles rapidly when disturbed,
often dropping from the plant and hanging by a silk thread.
The pale yellow pupa is enclosed within a loosely spun,
gauzelike cocoon. The adult is a grayish-brown moth with
narrow forewings, conspicuously fringed hind wings with a
span of 12 -18 mm. The moth folds its wings over the abdomen
in a tent-like manner when at rest. When at rest, the wings of
the male come together to form a line of white or pale yellow
diamonds down the middle of the back.

-5-
Damage

Initial damage is small incomplete holes caused by young larvae

and larger complete holes caused by mature larvae. The holes
become larger as the leaf develops. The entire plant may
become riddled with holes under moderate to heavy
populations. Larvae also feed in the developing heads of
cabbage, causing deformed heads and encouraging soft rots.

Management

„ Plant strips or patches of more favored crops (trap crops)

in or around the cabbage field and destroy the pests in
the trap crops so that they do not transfer to the cabbage.
Crops more preferred by the diamondback moth include
Indian mustard, collards.
„ Encourage natural enemies in the field.
„ Destroy alternate hosts (wild), and residues on harvesting.
„ Interplanting cabbage with barrier crops such as tomato,
onions, and beans has been found to reduce diamondback
moth infestations.
„ Practice crop rotations excluding members of the crucifer
family such as cauliflower, broccoli, and collards.

Cabbage head caterpillar (CHC)

Crocidolomia pavonana (= binotalis)
Group: Insect, moth (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
Other host crops: broccoli, cauliflower, radish, mustard, cotton,
beans

CHC larvae CHC adult moth CHC damage symptoms

-6-
Description

The eggs are somewhat flat, greenish and are laid in masses
of up to 300 at a time. They are arranged in scale-like fashion,
with eggs overlapping each other. They hatch after about four
days. Larvae are initially grey, and become green with a yellow
dorsal stripe. They have a brown head. Over their larval period
of about three weeks, they grow to a length of about 2 cms.
The pupa is green turning brown with a length of about 1 cm.
It is formed in a loose cocoon in the loose soil at the base of
the host crop. The adult moths are brown with dark markings,
and two white spots on each forewing. The wingspan is about
3 cms.

Damage

Initially larvae feed only on the undersides of the leaves, leaving

the upper leaf membrane intact. Later they attack the central
shoot, feeding communally in a web. The larvae bore holes in
developing head. A damaged developing head contains frass
and fecal matter.

Management

„ Plant strips or patches of more favored crops (trap crops)

in or around the cabbage field and destroy the pests in the
trap crops so that they do not transfer to the cabbage.
Trap crops for the cabbage head caterpillar include Indian
mustard and Chinese cabbage.
„ Encourage natural enemies in the field.
„ Handpick eggs and larvae and destroy them.
„ Apply biorationals such as Neem (Azadirachtin).
„ Practice crop rotation with non-cruciferous crops.

Cabbage webworm
Hellula sp.
Group: Insect, moth (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
Other host crops: broccoli, cauliflower, radish, turnip, mustard,
kale, collards

-7-
 Cabbage webworm

Description

Eggs are oval and creamy-white in colour, laid in clusters. The

larvae have dark brown or black heads. The larvae are creamy-
white with pinkish-brown stripes. A larva is about 1.2 to 1.5
cm when fully grown. The pupa is contained in a loose cocoon.
It has a shining pale brown colour with a dark dorsal stripe.
The adult is grayish-brown, with forewings having a prominent
black spot and zig zagging light brown lines. Adult moth is
capable of flying long distances.

Damage

Mined and/or bored leaves and stems are typical feeding

damage made by the larvae. They feed first externally on the
leaves and continue feeding into the terminal bud. Infested
plants produce small heads and in severe cases, they do not
form heads at all. The larvae web and roll foliage and feed
beneath the protective webs. Webs are made from the silken
like threads formed by larvae. The silken webs are found on
the inner leaves’ surfaces and stalks.

Management

„ Early planting is recommended.

„ Strips of mustard planted with the cabbage have been
found to be an effective trap for the webworm.
„ Enable natural enemies to flourish in the field.
„ Remove weeds that may serve as alternate hosts in or
around the cabbage field.
„ Practice crop rotation with non-cruciferous crops.
„ Cut off webbed leaves and kill the caterpillars inside.

-8-
Noctuid caterpillars
(Cutworms, armyworms)
Group: Insect, moth (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Other host crops: broccoli, cauliflower, maize, radish, turnip,
mustard, kale, collards, spinach, potato, eggplant, pepper,
cotton, sorghum, tobacco

Cutworm Cutworm

Description

Cutworms and armyworms can be distinguished from other

Noctuid caterpillars by the five pairs of prolegs on the
abdomen, four on the main abdomen and a pair at the posterior
end (anal region). Noctuids are usually active at night. Cutworm
larvae vary in colour from brown to black depending on the
species. Cutworms hide in the soil or in plant debris on the
soil surface during the day and feed at night. Cutworms often
curl-up when disturbed. Armyworm larvae vary in colour from
light green to nearly black. Armyworms are not easily

A caterpillar showing prolegs

Armyworm
(Spodoptera sp)

-9-
differentiated from cutworms in appearance except for the
fact that they tend to aggregate.

Damage

Cutworms damage seedlings often by cutting them off at the

ground level. Young caterpillars eat the soft leaves of the plant.
The full grown caterpillars are capable of eating the whole
plant. Young larvae of the armyworm feed in groups and
skeletonize foliage. They also burrow into growing points and
the centre of the cabbage.

Management

„ Plough and harrow fields properly before planting. This will

destroy eggs and expose cutworm larvae and armyworm
pupae to natural enemies and desiccation by sunlight.
„ Practice proper field sanitation. Remove weeds/crop
residues to reduce breeding sites and shelter.
„ Use of baited traps before transplanting/planting for
cutworms. Containers are sunk in soil with the upper lip at
the soil surface. The container is baited with fresh plant
material or bran. Remove caught caterpillars and kill them.
„ Encourage natural enemies in the field.
„ Interplant cabbage with barrier crops such as onions, garlic,
and coriander to repel cutworms.
„ Handpick caterpillars and kill them by drowning them in
water.
„ Spray with neem products

White cabbage butterfly

(Pieris rapae)
Group: Insect, butterfly (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)
Other host crops: broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts,
radish, turnip, mustard, kale, collards

- 10 -
 Cabbage butterfly larva

Description

Newly hatched larvae are pale yellow with fine clear hairs; as
they mature, they turn velvety-green with short hairs. Larvae
are usually found resting along the main leaf vein, on the centre
of the plant, and on fresh green piles of frass. Pupae are
colored depending on habitat for camouflage. Pupa has an
anterior spine. The adult butterfly is white. The butterfly wings
are white with a black area near the tip of each forewing and
have a small black spot on the front edge. The adult is active
during day and is often seen flying on crucifers.

Damage

The larvae defoliate the crop, sometimes killing young plants.

Although they prefer leafy foliage, larvae may burrow into the
heads of cabbage, especially as they mature. Larvae are often
immobile and rest along the principal leaf vein, and are very
difficult to see because their body color closely matches the
background. Damage and fecal material is often the most visible
indication of infestation.

Management

„ Practice crop rotation with non-cruciferous crops.

„ Encourage natural enemies in the field.
„ Ploughing is recommended to expose pupae to natural
enemies and sunlight.
„ Handpick and destroy larvae.

- 11 -
Cabbage Looper
Trichoplusia ni
Group: Insect, moth (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Other host crops: broccoli, cauliflower, radish, turnip, mustard,
kale, collards, pepper, tomato, bean

Drawing of a looper

Description

Eggs are small, bowl-shaped with a flat surface; yellowish to

greenish-white in colour, and found singly lying on the leaves.
The larvae are usually light green with two pairs of prolegs on
the main abdomen and a pair of anal prolegs. It moves by arching
its back to form a loop and then projecting the front section
of the body forward, hence the name looper. The pupa is
green or brown in colour, and is found enclosed in a flimsy
silken cocoon between webbed leaves. The adult is a grayish
brown moth. Front wings bear a small silvery spot that
resembles a figure 8. Adults are strong fliers and are nocturnal.

Damage

Larvae primarily feed on leaves causing irregular, rugged holes,

bore through heads, and contaminate heads and leaves with
their frass (excreta). Large larvae can burrow through 3-6 layers
of tightly wrapped head leaves. Larvae can consume three times
their weight in plant material daily. Plants can be severely
defoliated and stunted, producing no head or be unfit for
consumption.

- 12 -
Management

„ Remove and destroy all plant debris after harvest to kill

pupae.
„ Handpick and destroy larvae
„ Encourage natural enemies

Cabbage sawfly
Athalia sp.
Group: Insect (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
Other host crops: broccoli, cauliflower, radish, turnip, mustard,
kale, collards

Cabbage sawfly
Description

Adults are fly-like, about 1.5cm long with bright yellow

abdomens. They are slow-flying and lay individual eggs in
pockets cut into the plant leaf. Larvae look like oily black or
green coloured caterpillars with a hump or swelling behind the
head. They fall off the plant at the slightest disturbance. They
drop to the ground to pupate in mulch or in the soil. Pupae are
yellowish.

Damage

The caterpillars feed on leaves and typically eat all except the
veins of the leaf causing ´skeletonization’. They are a particular
threat to young plants.

Management

„ Destroy crop residues after harvest

- 13 -
„ Hand pick and kill the caterpillars
„ Spray with neem.

Cabbage root maggot

Delia radicum
Group: Insect, fly (Diptera: Anthomyiidae)
Other host crops: broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts,
radish, turnip, mustard, kale, collards

Root maggot damage

Description

Eggs are tiny, white, and ovate-shaped. They are laid on stems
or in the soil near the base of the plant. Maggots (larvae) are
soft and white and feed on roots. Pupae are brown, hard, and
ovate-shaped. They are found close to the roots or sometimes
within the roots. Adults are dark gray flies slightly smaller than
the common housefly.

Damage

The maggots eat the lateral roots, then tunnel into the taproot,
and sometimes bore into the base of the stem. Attacked plants
wilt, and the leaves turn bluish. The plants eventually die.

Management

„ Mulching with dried grasses reduces attack levels and

improves cabbage yields.
„ Plough the field to expose pupae to natural enemies and
desiccation

- 14 -
„ Destroy crop residues as maggots can survive in them for
some time.

Whitefly
Bemisia sp
Group: Insect (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)
Other host crops: sweet potato, cucumber, watermelon,
eggplant, pepper, lettuce

Whitefly colony on cabbage

Description

Eggs are tiny, white turning brown with time and stand vertically
on the leaf surface. Larvae are tiny, transparent, and move
around the plants looking for feeding sites. Pupae are dirty
white with visible red eyes. Adults are tiny with two pairs of
white wings and pale yellow bodies. They are often found
clustered in groups on the underside of the leaves.

Damage

Whiteflies, both the larvae and adults, pierce and suck the sap
of the leaves. This causes weakening of the plant resulting in
reduced plant growth. Whiteflies also produce honeydew on
the leaves which encourages growth of sooty moulds.
Whiteflies can transmit viral diseases.

Management

„ Encourage natural enemies such as ladybird beetles,

lacewings, spiders, Encarsia sp.

- 15 -
„ Growing African marigolds has been reported to discourage
whitefly infestations.
„ Eliminate weeds and crop residues.
„ Use yellow sticky traps to capture flying insects.
„ Neem seed extract controls young nymphs, inhibits growth
and development of older nymphs, and reduces egg laying
by adults.
„ Spraying with soapy water solutions can be effective.

Leafhoppers
Group: Insect (Homoptera: Cicadellidae)
Other host crops: most vegetables, tobacco, sunflower

Drawing of a leaf hopper

Description

Eggs are laid inside the soft plant tissue on underside of leaves.
Nymphs look similar to adults but are very small, pale yellow
green and wingless. Nymphs can walk very rapidly. Adults are
small, elongate, wedge-shaped insects. They hop fast, fly
quickly, and can run in all directions when disturbed.
Leafhoppers vary in colour depending on species.

Damage

Both nymphs and adults feed on plant sap. They suck out the
liquid content leaving behind empty and dead cells which appear
as white spots. Heavy feeding results in ‘hopperburns’ because
of the effect of toxic saliva. Leafhoppers may also transmit
viral diseases.
- 16 -
Management

„ Use bright coloured straw mulch

„ Destroy crop residues and weeds to prevent continuous
breeding
„ Use yellow sticky traps to capture flying insects.

Cabbage flea beetles

Phyllotreta cruciferae
Group: Insect (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)
Other host crops: broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts,
radish, turnip

Cabbage flea beetle

Description

Eggs are tiny and yellow in color. These are laid in the soil, on
leaves or on the stem of the plant. The larva is a small, slender
white worm that feeds primarily on roots and underground
stems of the plant. It pupates in the soil near the base of the
plant. The cabbage flea beetle is all black with no markings. It
is small, hard, oval-shaped, with elongated and enlarged hind
legs.

Damage

Flea beetles feed on seedlings. They usually feed on the

underside of leaves leaving numerous small round or irregular
shaped holes, although not generally all the way through the
leaf. Because the beetle is small and active, it usually does not

- 17 -
feed much in one spot. Larvae are root feeders. They trim the
root hairs and make circular pits in tap roots.

Management

„ Because seedlings are most at risk, use transplants or plant

seeds in a well-prepared seedbed to hasten growth and
allow plants to overcome injury.
„ Try a high seeding rate and thin plants once established.
„ Radish is highly favored by the flea beetles, so use in the
field as a trap crop.
„ Thick mulches may also help reduce the number of flea
beetles by interfering with activity of the root and soil
stages.

Grasshoppers and crickets

Grasshopper, Zonocerus sp. (Orthoptera: Acrididae)
Field crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)
Other host crops: bean, carrot, lettuce, potato, pumpkin, maize,
cotton, wheat

A grasshopper A field cricket

Description

Eggs of the grasshopper are laid beneath the soil surface in

compact clusters covered with froth. Nymphs have wing pads
but cannot fly. When touched the adult emits drops of a
yellowish fluid with a foul odor. Crickets also deposit eggs in
the soil. Adult crickets are shiny black, can be short-winged or

- 18 -
long-winged. Nymphs of crickets resemble adults, and bear
long antennae but lack wings. Crickets are active at night.

Damage

Feeding damage includes leaf notching and stripping

Management

„ Plough the field to destroy eggs and expose them to natural

enemies.
„ Elimination of weeds within, and adjacent to the cabbage
field
„ Handpick and destroy

Snails and slugs

Snail (Stylommatophora: Helicidae)
Slugs (Stylommatophora: Arionidae/Limacidae)
Other host crops: carrot, cauliflower, celery, bean, onions,
peas, radish, tomato, turnip

Snail damage Field snail Slug

Description

Eggs of snails are white and spherical about 3mm in diameter

deposited in clusters in nests found deep below the soil
surface. The hatchlings are fragile and translucent. The adult
of the common field snail has a large and spherical thin shell
that is moderately glossy and sculpted with wrinkles. It is honey

- 19 -
colored. Unlike snails, a slug lacks the protective shell but
protects its body with sticky slime. Slugs vary in colour from
ash-gray, light brown, yellowish gray, brownish orange to black.
Snails and slugs are nocturnal and come out to feed at night
especially when conditions are wet.

Damage

Snails and slugs feed on seedlings and soft plant parts. Their
feeding damage is irregular large holes on leaves but they can
consume whole seedlings.

Management

„ Remove all plant debris and other possible sources of

food/shelter.
„ Plough area to expose them to sun and natural enemies.
„ Handpick and crush the snails/slugs.

Earwigs
Group: Insect (Dermaptera: Carcinophoridae)
Other host crops: bean, beet, celery, cucumber, lettuce, potato,
tomato

An earwig An earwig in cabbage

Description

The adult is usually dark/reddish brown possessing pincer-

like cerci (forceps) at the tip of the abdomen. The pronounced
cerci are the most distinctive feature of earwigs, in the male
the cerci are strongly curved, whereas in the female they curve
only slightly. Earwigs are nocturnal.

- 20 -
Damage

Earwigs are omnivorous, feeding on plant and animal matter.

Earwigs damage cabbage by leaf consumption. Tender foliage
may be completely devoured except for major veins. They are
also contaminants; people find their presence and odor
repulsive.

Management

„ Persistent trapping can reduce earwig abundance. Grooved

boards or moistened, rolled-up newspapers placed on the
soil are attractive to earwigs seeking shelter. Place them in
the field in the evening and remove them in the morning
and destroy the trapped insects.

Stink bug
Group: Insect (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)
Other host crops: most vegetables especially crucifers and
legumes, egg plant, pepper, tomato, okra

Description

The eggs are yellow and barrel-shaped. They are laid on the
lower surface of leaves in clusters in parallel rows. Nymphs
have heterogenous colors (green, tan, brown, grey). Nymphs
look like adults but are wingless. The adult is shield-shaped
and green, tan, brown or gray in colour. Stink bugs emit a foul
odor when disturbed.

- 21 -
Damage

Adults and nymphs suck plant sap from leaves. This weakens
the plants, and cause stunting.

Management

„ Remove and control weeds from the fields and adjacent

fields.
„ Encourage natural enemies by planting small flowering
plants to attract the wasps and flies.
„ Plow under plant debris to destroy possible breeding sites

Hairy caterpillar
Lepidoptera: Arctiidae

Description

Larvae (caterpillar) have a yellowish-brown body covered with

long black bristles.

Damage

Larvae were found defoliating cabbage.

Management

„ Collect caterpillars and destroy them

„ Encourage natural enemies.

- 22 -
DISEASES

Black rot
Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris
Causal agent: Bacteria
Other crops affected: brassicas

Symptoms and damage

Areas of yellow and light brown develop in leaves of affected

plants. Affected areas are usually V- or wedge-shaped. The
veins in infected leaves, stems, and roots sometimes become
black. Heads of infected plants are usually small and their quality
is reduced making it unfit for marketing.

Transmission

The bacteria may be carried on the seed (seed-borne) or on

infected seedlings. It may be present in the soil, in old infected
plant debris, or in nearby weeds which are related to brassicas.
Once it is in the field, it can be spread from plant to plant by
water splashes or people handling diseased plants then healthy
plants. The bacteria can get into the plant through the roots,
through leaf edges or through damage caused by chewing
pests.

Management

„ Make sure that seeds and transplants are disease free

„ Do not locate seedbeds or field plantings on land planted
to any crucifer during the preceding 12 months.
„ Use tolerant varieties
- 23 -
„ Destroy infected plants and properly dispose them.
„ Practice proper field sanitation
„ Hot water treatment of seed is suggested. Treat seed at
50oC for 25 minutes.
„ Mulching will reduce splashes which can spread the
infection
„ Avoid weeding during damp conditions
„ Spray with copper oxychloride

Bacterial soft rots

Erwinia sp. and Pseudomonas sp.
Causal agent: Bacteria
Other crops affected: most vegetables

Cabbage head affected by soft rot

Symptoms

Symptoms initially appear as water soaked areas on wounded

leaves. As the disease progresses, leaves become soft and
begin to liquefy with a characteristic bad smell.

Transmission

Because the bacteria which cause soft rot are present

everywhere, any damage or weakened tissue can be invaded.
Infection with black rot or damping off may provide such
opportunities for soft rot, and in warm wet weather the rot
can develop and spread rapidly, particularly if the bacterium is
spread in the field by water splashes or contact with tools
such as hoes or knives. If infected knives are used to harvest
cabbages, the stored crop may also rot quickly.
- 24 -
Management

„ Avoid wounding plants during cultivation and harvesting.

„ Control insects.
„ Bury crop residue and rotate with maize or small grain crops
to reduce bacterial populations.

Black leg
Phoma lingam
Causal agent: Fungus

Symptoms

Black leg causes elongated, sunken, brown lesions to form

on stems near the soil line. These lesions may girdle the stem,
preventing proper growth of the plants. In severe infection,
the stems weaken causing plants to fall over. Young seedlings
are often killed.

Transmission

This fungus is usually introduced into field plantings through

infected seed and the disease is enhanced under cool, moist
conditions.

Management

„ Use disease-free seed and transplants.

„ Bury (destroy) crop residue and rotate with a non-crucifer
crop for at least 2 years.
„ Avoid wounding plants
„ Control weeds
„ Apply fungicides when needed.
- 25 -
Downy mildew of cabbage
Peronospora parasitica
Causal Agent: Fungus
Other crops affected: brassicas

Symptoms and damage

A grayish mold forms in spots and on the undersurface of the

leaf. Later, a slight yellowing shows on the upper surface.
Infected spots enlarge as they turn tan in color and papery in
texture. When the disease is severe, the entire leaf dies.
Occasionally, affected leaves will show hundreds of very small,
darkened specks.

Transmission

The fungus can be transferred from the transplant bed;

however, it also can be introduced to new field plantings by
windblown spores. Plants can be infected at any time during
their growing period. Moisture and temperature are very
important to the reproduction of this disease. Drizzling rains
and cool weather are very favorable for disease development.

Management

„ Use disease-free seed and transplants.

„ Bury (destroy) crop residue and rotate with a non-crucifer
crop for at least 2 years.
„ Avoid wounding plants
„ Control weeds
„ Apply fungicides when needed.

- 26 -
SOME NATURAL ENEMIES - FARMERS’ FRIENDS

Ladybird beetles
Group: Insect (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Ladybird beetle adult and larva

Insect pests controlled:

Both adults and larvae are predators on aphids, mealybugs,
scale insects, spider mites, whiteflies

Description

Eggs are yellow to orange in color, football-shaped and are

laid in circular clusters on the underside of leaves or near the
aphid colony. Newly hatched larvae are gray or black. They
emerge as dark alligator-like flightless creatures with orange
spots. Adult larvae can be gray, black, or blue with bright yellow
or orange markings on the body. The pupae are usually brightly
patterned and can be found attached to the leaves and stems
of plants where larvae have fed and developed. Adults are
oval to hemispherical and strongly convex with short legs and
antennae. Most species are brightly colored.

Conservation

Lady bird beetles are found in most agricultural and garden

habitats. Their presence indicates that natural biological control
is occurring. It is important to maintain habitats planted with
several flowering crops. These give the ladybird beetles varied
food sources. When food is not available, they tend to eat
each other. Their beneficial predatory behavior and activities

- 27 -
are continuous when there is no indiscriminate use of synthetic
pesticides.

Hover fly (flower fly)

Group: Insect (Diptera: Syrphidae)

Hover fly adult and larva

Insects controlled:
Aphids, thrips, psyllids, scale insects, and small caterpillars

Description

The larvae, known as syrphids, are legless slug like maggots.

They usually have a mottled gray, beige, or light green color.
They lift their pointed heads to look for preys. Larvae are
frequently found feeding on aphids in the sheltered and curled
portion of leaves. They blend well with their habitat and
therefore they must be looked for closely to locate them.

Pupae are teardrops shaped and are found in the soil surface
or in the plant’s foliage. Adult hoverflies are large and beautiful
insects. They have a dark head, a dark thorax, and a banded
yellow and black abdomen. They closely resemble bees or
wasps rather than flies. Their habit of hovering like humming
birds gave them the names hoverflies or flower flies. They
feed on pollen, nectar, and honeydew. They are also good
pollinators.

Conservation

Hoverflies are attracted to all flowering plants but even more

so to small-flowered herbs like wild mustard, coriander, dill,
- 28 -
lupines, sunflower, and fennel. It is advisable to have multiple
crops as adults basically feed on pollen and nectar

Wasps
Group: Insect, parasitoid (Hymenoptera)

Wasp laying eggs Parasitized/mu

in aphids mmified aphids

Insects controlled:
Ants, aphids, armyworms, beetle’s larvae, cabbageworms,
caterpillars, cutworms, imported tent caterpillars, leafhoppers,
maggots, plant bugs.

Description

The larvae are tiny, cream-colored grubs that feed in or on

other insects. Pupae of some species live and pupate within
the host until they mature; others pupate in silken cocoons
on the outside of the body of the host, while others spin
silken cocoons away from the host. Adult wasps are tiny,
slender black or brown with threadlike waists. Female wasps
lay eggs into the eggs of hosts’ pests but prefer caterpillars’
bodies. In cases where aphids are the host pests, fully-grown
larvae cement the dead aphids to the leaf surface making
aphids’ shells brownish and mummified. Adult wasps cut round
holes in the mummies and emerge.

The empty mummies remain on the leaf. The presence of

mummies in a colony of aphids is a sign that wasps are present.

- 29 -
Conservation

Adult wasps feed on nectar, honeydew, or pollen before laying

eggs. Dill, parsley, yarrow, zinnia, clover, alfalfa, parsley, cosmos,
sunflower, and marigold are flowering crops that attract the
native wasp populations and provide good habitats for them

Spiders
Group: Arachnids

Insects controlled:
Moths and caterpillars

Description

Spiders are not insects. They have 8 legs while insects have 6.
They do not have wings whereas insects do. They have two
body sections; a united head and thorax and abdomen, while
insects have three; head, thorax, and abdomen. All spiders are
poisonous to insects.

Conservation

Mulching along some sections in field corners or a portion of

the fields can increase the number of spiders. They can hide
in the layer of mulch that serves as their alternate habitat.
They can also prey on other small insects inside the mulch.
Remember, that the more food the spiders can eat, the faster
their population build-up will become.

- 30 -
Appendices

Page

Table 1: Farming systems/agro-ecological zones of 32

Uganda

Table 2a: Distribution and occurrence of pests of 34

cabbage in Uganda

Table 2b: Distribution and occurrence of pests of 35

cabbage in Uganda

Table 2c: Distribution and occurrence of pests of 36

cabbage in Uganda

Table 2d: Distribution and occurrence of disease of 37

of cabbage in Uganda

Table 3a: Pesticides for pest control on cabbage 38

Table 3b: Pesticides for pest control on cabbage 39

Table 3c: Pesticides for pest control on cabbage 40

Table 3d: Pesticides for pest control on cabbage 41

Glossary 42

Sources of Information 49

Photo credits 50

- 31 -
Table 1: Agro-ecological zones/farming systems of
Uganda.

Agro-ecological zone/ Districts

Farming system

Intensive Banana/ Masaka, Mpigi, Wakiso, Kampala,

Coffee lake shore system Mukono, Jinja, Kalangala, Entebbe

Western banana/coffee/ Kyenjojo, parts of Hoima,

cattle system Kabarole, Ntungamo, Mbarara,
Bushenyi, Mubende

Medium altitude intensive Bundibugyo, Mbale

banana/coffee system

Banana/millet/cotton Kamuli, Pallisa, Tororo, parts of

system Masindi, Kiboga and Luweero

Montane system Kabale, Kisoro, parts of Rukungiri,

Kasese, Kabarole, Mbale and
Kapchorwa

Annual cropping/cattle Soroti, Kumi, Kaberamaido

Teso systems

Northern System Gulu, Lira, Apac, Kitgum

Pastoral /annual cropping Kotido, Moroto, parts of Mbarara,

system Ntungamo, Masaka, Ntungamo,
Masaka and Rakai

Annual cropping/cattle Moyo, Arua and Nebbi

West Nile system

Source: Basic facts on agricultural activities in Uganda, MAAIF,

1995.

- 32 -
- 33 -
Table 2a: Distribution and occurrence of insect pests of
cabbage in Uganda (R found in the survey).

Farming system/ Banana Medium Montane

agro-ecological millet altitude System
zone cotton intensive
system banana/
coffee
system
Pest

Aphids R R R
Diamondback moth R R R
Cabbage head caterpillar R
Cabbage webworm R
Cutworms R R
Armyworm R R
Cabbage butterfly R
Cabbage looper
Cabbage sawfly R R
Cabbage maggot R
White flies R
Leaf hopper R
Grasshoppers R R
Crickets R R
Snails
Slugs
Earwig R
Stink bug R
Hairy caterpillar
Flea beetles

- 34 -
Table 2b: Distribution and occurrence of insect pests of
cabbage in Uganda (R found in the survey).

Farming system/ Western Intensive Annual

agro-ecological banana/ banana/ cropping/
zone coffee/ coffee cattle
cattle lake shore Teso
system system system

Aphids R R R
Diamondback moth R R R
Cabbage head caterpillar R
Cabbage webworm R
Cutworms R R R
Armyworm R R
Cabbage butterfly R
Cabbage looper R
Cabbage sawfly
Cabbage maggot
White flies
Leaf hopper
Grasshoppers
Crickets
Snails R
Slugs R
Earwig R
Stink bug
Hairy caterpillar R
Flea beetles

- 35 -
Table 2c: Distribution and occurrence of insect pests of
cabbage in Uganda (R found in the survey).

Farming system/ Northern Annual Found

agro-ecological system cropping in
zone and cattle previous
West Nile surveys*
system

Aphids R R +
Diamondback moth R R +
Cabbage head caterpillar +
Cabbage webworm
Cutworms R +
Armyworm R +
Cabbage butterfly
Cabbage looper R +
Cabbage sawfly +
Cabbage maggot
White flies
Leaf hopper
Grasshoppers
Crickets
Snails
Slugs R
Earwig
Stink bug
Hairy caterpillar
Flea beetles +

* Listed in a consultancy report to FAO (Uganda) on

strengthening phytosanitary capabilities, Project No. TCP/U9A/
2907A. 2004.

- 36 -
Table 2d: Distribution and occurrence of diseases of
cabbage in Uganda (R found in the survey).

Farming Disease
system/agro-
ecological Black Bacterial Bacterial Downy
zone leg black rot soft rot mildew

Banana millet R R R
cotton system

Medium altitude R
intensive banana/
coffee system

Montane system R R R

Western banana/ R
coffee/ cattle
system

Intensive Banana/ R R R
Coffee lake shore
system

Annual cropping/
cattle Teso
systems

Northern system

Annual cropping
and cattle West
Nile system

- 37 -
 Table 3a: Pesticides for insect pests and disease control on cabbage.

Pesticide Mode of action Signal word Typical target pests

Organophosphates

Diazinon Caution aphids, beetles,

caterpillars, soil pests,
thrips

Dimethoate systemic Warning aphids, leafhoppers,

mites

- 38 -
Di-Syston (disulfoton) systemic Danger-Poison aphids
Imidan (phosmet) Warning caterpillars
Lorsban (chlorpyrifos) long residual Caution caterpillars, soil pests
Malathion short residual Warning broad spectrum
Mocap (ethoprop) contact Warning aphids, caterpillars
Orthene (acephate) contact & systemic Caution aphids, caterpillars
Penncap-M (methyl parathion) contact & fumigant Warning caterpillars, thrips
Thimet (phorate) systemic Danger-Poison soil pests

Note: Choose a product with the signal ‘caution’ where possible because this has a lower toxicity
to people and livestock. Adapted from: Vegetable production Guide, Ohio State University, 2002.
 Table 3b: Pesticides for insect pests and disease control on cabbage.

Pesticide Mode of action Signal word Typical target pests

Carbamates
Lannate (methomyl) very short residual Danger-Poison caterpillars,
leafhoppers
Larvin (thiodicarb) Kills larvae and eggs Warning caterpillars
Sevin (carbaryl) Caution beetles, leafhoppers,
caterpillars,
grasshoppers and
crickets
Temik (aldicarb) systemic Danger-Poison aphids, mites, some

- 39 -
beetles
Vydate (oxamyl) contact, systemic if Danger-Poison aphids, thrips, some
applied to soil beetles
Organochlorines
Endosulfan fairly long residual Danger-Poison aphids, beetles,
caterpillars, whiteflies
Kelthane (dicofol) Caution spider mites, broad
mites

Note: Choose a product with the signal ‘caution’ where possible because this has a lower toxicity
to people and livestock. Adapted from: Vegetable production Guide, Ohio State University, 2002.
 Table 3c: Pesticides for insect pests and disease control on cabbage.

Pesticide Mode of action Signal Typical target pests

word
Pyrethroids

Ambush (Pounce) (permethrin) contact Warning beetles, caterpillars,

leafhoppers
Ammo (cypermethrin) contact Caution beetles, caterpillars,
leafhoppers
Asana (esfenvalerate) contact Warning beetles, caterpillars,
leafhoppers
Capture, Brigade (bifenthrin) contact Warning beetles, caterpillars,

- 40 -
leafhoppers, whiteflies
Mustang Max (zeta-cypermethrin) contact Warning beetles, caterpillars,
leafhoppers
Pyronyl (Pyrethrins) contact, stomach Caution broad spectrum
Warrior (lambda-cyhalothrin) Warning beetles, caterpillars,
leafhoppers

Note: Choose a product with the signal ‘caution’ where possible because this has a lower toxicity
to people and livestock. Adapted from: Vegetable production Guide, Ohio State University, 2002.
 Table 3d: Pesticides for insect pests and disease control on cabbage.

Pesticide Mode of action Signal Typical target pests

word

Others

Neem(azadirachtin) Growth regulator, Caution broad spectrum

repellent
Admire (imidacloprid) systemic, long residual Caution aphids, leafhoppers, some
beetles, whiteflies
Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) stomach Caution caterpillars or beetles
Oil (Fine Spray Oil) contact Caution aphids, mites, whiteflies

- 41 -
Soap contact Warning aphids and other soft-
bodied arthropods

Pesticides to control diseases of cabbage

Mancozeb(Dithane M45) Caution Black leg, Downy mildew

Copper oxychloride Caution Black rot, soft rots
Metalaxyl Caution Black leg, Downy mildew

Note: Choose a product with the signal ‘caution’ where possible because this has a lower toxicity
to people and livestock. Adapted from: Vegetable production Guide, Ohio State University, 2002.
Glossary

Active ingredient (a.i.): The part or ingredient (often poisonous)

of a pesticide which controls the pest.
Adult: Final stage of development of a pest. They often have
wings, for example, moths.
Alternate host: Different type of plant which a pest or a
disease can survive on, for example, some weeds can
support whiteflies.
Aphid mummies: Aphids, in which a young wasp has developed,
killing the aphid. These parasitized aphids look brown and
smooth.
Appearance: How the pest looks.
Augmentation: Increasing the numbers of naturally occurring
beneficial insects which can help to control pests.
Bactericide: Pesticide which kills bacteria.
Bacteria: Extremely small single-celled micro-organisms that are
found everywhere. Some types are useful while others
cause diseases.
Beneficial insects: Insects which are helpful to farmers by killing
pests or pollinating plants.
Biological control (or biocontrol): Use of living organisms to
control pests and diseases.
Biopesticide: a pesticide whose active ingredient is a living
organism, for example, a fungus or a virus which kills pests.
Botanical/biorational: A product made from plant extracts.
Brassicas: Common name for crops such as cabbage, rape,
kale, covo, viscose and mustard due to them being in the
Brassicacae family. This family is also known as the
Cruciferae so some people call these crops crucifers.
Broad spectrum: A phrase used to describe pesticides which
kill many different types of pests such as caterpillars and
aphids. They are likely to kill beneficial insects too.
Canker: A dead or discoloured area (lesion) on a plant caused
by disease.
Caterpillar: The wingless larval stage of a moth or butterfly.
This is usually the stage which is a pest due to its feeding
on leaves and other plant parts.
Colonies: Groups of pests such as aphids living together on
leaves.
- 42 -
Complete metamorphosis: The type of arthropod life cycle
where the adult looks very different from the immature
stages (nymphs or larvae) for example, butterflies look very
different from caterpillars.
Compost: Plant material which has been piled up and left to
rot to break down, release nutrients and kill the pests and
pathogens which may be present. This compost is then
added to the soil to improve soil structure and fertility.
Control: Successfully killing or reducing pests and pathogens
to economically acceptable levels.
Crop cultivar: The particular type or variety of crop being grown,
with its own characteristics such as yield potential, disease
resistance and time to maturity.
Crop debris: Unwanted vegetation (stems, leaves or roots)
from previous crops.
Crop hygiene: Taking care not to spread pests and diseases
on to new crops, for example, removing debris from
previous diseased crops.
Crop residues: See crop debris.
Crop variety: See crop cultivar.
Crucifers: Plants from the Cruciferae family, which is an
alternative name for the
Brassicaceae family (see Brassicas). The name Cruciferae
derives from the cross-shaped arrangement of leaves.
Cultivation: The process of growing crops. It can also mean
hoeing or ploughing the soil.
Cultural control: Controlling pests and diseases by changing
the way the crop is grown, or its habitat. Examples are crop
rotation, field hygiene.
Defoliation: Causing leaves to drop off.
Disease: Plant sickness caused by a pathogen or physical and
chemical factors such as low temperatures or shortage of
particular nutrients.
Distortion: Abnormal change of plant shape or appearance
often caused by pests or diseases.
Dose: Quantity of pesticide active ingredient applied to a given
area of crop – often expressed as grams of active ingredient
per hectare, but may be in millilitres per hectare.
Egg: Stage of life cycle which is produced by female adults
after mating with males.
- 43 -
Farmers’ friends (natural enemies): Organisms which feed on
and kill pests. Examples are ladybird beetles which feed on
aphids and parasitoid wasps which lay their eggs in moth
larvae. See also Natural Enemy.
Field hygiene: Taking care not to spread pests and diseases
on to new crops. For example, removing crop debris from
previous diseased crops.
Frass: Insect droppings, feaces or excreta - often a sign of
presence of a hidden pest for example, cabbage webworm.
Fungicide: A pesticide designed to control fungal diseases such
as tomato late blight or powdery mildew.
Fungus (plural fungi): Organisms which are similar to plants but
have no chlorophyll for trapping sunlight. Many are useful
in nature, but some cause diseases such as early blight and
damping off.
Hand-picking: Method of controlling pests by picking them off
or crushing them.
Honeydew: Sticky sugary substance excreted by pests which
suck plant sap such as whitefly and aphids. This can coat
lower leaves or fruits on the plant and encourage the
growth of sooty moulds.
Host: Organisms on which a pest, disease or natural enemy
feeds.
Immature: Stage of arthropod life cycle before they become
adults for example, nymphs, larvae and pupae.
Incomplete metamorphosis: Type of arthropod life cycle where
the immature stages look a little like the adults, for example
stink bugs.
Insect: Arthropods which have six segmented legs, a head,
thorax, and abdomen, and typically one or two pairs of wings
in their adult stage.
Insecticide: Type of pesticide designed to kill insects.
Instar: The stages between moults of larvae and nymphs. These
usually pass through several instars, getting progressively
bigger as they shed their skin at the end of each stage.
Integrated pest management (IPM): An ecologically based pest
control strategy that relies heavily on resistant crops,
hygiene and natural predators and parasitoids, and tries to
disrupt these factors as little as possible by only using
appropriate chemical pesticides when necessary.
- 44 -
Intercropping: Planting more than one type of crop plant
together in order to confuse pests or increase productivity.
Larva (plural larvae): One of the stages in life cycles which
exhibit complete metamorphosis. Examples are caterpillars
(larvae of butterflies and moths) and maggots (larvae of
flies). Larvae usually look very different from the adults
and do not have wings.
LD50: The amount or dose of a pesticide which will kill 50 %
of a test population of mammals (usually rats or rabbits).
The letters stand for lethal dose.
Lesion: Damaged area of a plant, often hollowed slightly,
resulting from pest or disease attack or by physical injury.
Life cycle: A description of the changes which take place
through the life a living organism from adult through to adult
again.
Maggot: The larval stage of a fly.
Mature: Stage of arthropod life cycle when they become adults.
Micro-organism: Tiny living plant or animal too small to see
without a microscope, for example, bacteria or viruses. [Also
spelt microorganism]
Mixed cropping: The practice of planting more than one type
of crop in a field (the opposite of monocropping). This may
take the form of intercropping (see definition above) or
could be patches of different crops near each other.
Monoculture (monocropping): The practice of growing large
areas of only one crop.
Mottling: Patchy discoloration of leaves or fruit.
Mulching: Covering the surface of the soil with material such
as crop residues, compost or plastic sheeting to reduce
water loss, reduce splashing and break some pest life cycles.
Natural enemy (Farmers’ Friend): Organisms which feed on and
kill crop pests. Examples are ladybird beetles which feed
on aphids, and wasps which lay their eggs in moth larvae.
See also Farmers’ Friend.
Nutrients: Chemicals in the soil which plants use for growth.
Either made available naturally from breakdown of organic
matter or added by farmers as artificial fertilizer.
Nymph: One of the stages in life cycles which exhibit
incomplete metamorphosis. Nymphs usually look very similar
to the adults but do not have wings.
- 45 -
Organic matter: Material in the soil deriving from plants or
animals. Organic matter gives soil good structure, helps it
hold water, and breaks down to release nutrients.
Parasitoid: Arthropod which lays its eggs in or on other
arthropods (either, their eggs, larvae or nymphs) and which
usually kills its host. A common example is a parasitoid wasp
which lays its eggs in aphids.
Pathogen: Infectious micro-organism which can cause disease,
for example, fungi which cause late blight.
Pest: Living organism which feeds on or otherwise damages
crop plants. Usually used to describe animal pests such as
insects, mites and rats, but sometimes also used to include
diseases.
Pesticide: Product designed to kill pests (including diseases).
Pesticides may be synthetic (man-made), biological
(containing a living organism) or botanical (made from plant
extracts).
Pollinator: Type of insect which carries pollen from male parts
of a plant to the female parts, for example, bees.
Predator: Animal which catches and eats other animals, such
as a lion. An example in pest management is hover fly larvae
which catch and eat aphids.
Preventive control: taking action to prevent pests and diseases
before they appear or
become serious.
Pupa (plural is pupae): One of the stages in the life cycle of
arthropods which undergo complete metamorphosis, for
example, moths and flies whose younger stages are very
different from adults. Pupae usually have a hard skin and
do not move or feed.
Pupate: The process of forming a pupa (see above).
Repellent: Describes something which is able to make
organisms stay away (be repelled) - for example, the smell
of onion plants repels some pests.
Resistant (resistance): Able to withstand something. For
example, a plant may be resistant to a disease or pest,
meaning it cannot be affected by it, or an insect may be
resistant to a pesticide, and not be killed by it.

- 46 -
Roguing or roguing out: This is removing/destroying plants
which are affected by pests or diseases in order to prevent
infestation/infection spreading to other plants in the field.
Rotation: The practice of changing the crop type in a field at
each new planting to prevent the build up of pests and
diseases. After 3 or more years, the first crop type can
often be planted again, so the rotation starts again.
Sap: Plant juices containing water and nutrients.
Scouting (also monitoring): Examining crop plants in a
systematic way to assess pest, disease and natural enemy
situation in order to decide whether any crop protection
intervention is necessary.
Seed-borne: A disease carried in or on the seed.
Seed dressing: A treatment which coats the seed with pesticide
to prevent early season attack by diseases (and some
pests).
Shot hole: Damage caused by flea beetles and other pests
whose feeding produces small holes which look as though
they have been caused by the pellets from a shotgun.
Skeletonized: used to describe leaves which have had most
of their softer tissue eaten by a pest, leaving only the
thicker veins intact.
Soil-borne: Pests and diseases which can survive and infect
crops from soil in the field.
Sterilize: To treat with heat or a chemical so that diseases and
pests are killed.
Stunted: Plants which are small and poorly developed.
Succulent: Very soft sappy or juicy plants which are quick
growing. Over-use of nitrogen-containing fertilizer can
produce succulent growth which may be especially liable
to aphid damage.
Symptom: A visible sign of damage by pest or disease.
Tolerant: Capacity to withstand particular diseases without
major damage or yield loss.
Transmission: The way in which a disease is spread to other
plants.
Trap crop: Crop which is planted to attract a pest and is then
destroyed together with the pest.
Vector: Organisms which spread a disease.

- 47 -
Virus (plural viruses): Some of the smallest of living organisms.
Cause diseases which discolour and deform the plant and
may reduce vigour and yield.
Weed: Wild plant which competes with the crop for water,
nutrients and/or light.
Windowing: Caused by pests eating only the upper or lower
surface of the leaf, leaving the other surface intact, looking
like a translucent window.

- 48 -
Sources of Information

Handbook of vegetable pests. Capinera, J.L. 2001. Academic

Press ISBN 0-12-1588610.

Integrated Vegetable Pest Management: safe and

sustainable protection of small-scale brassicas and
tomatoes. A handbook for extension staff and trainers in
Zimbabwe Natural Resources Institute, University of
Greenwich, UK, 2002. ISBN 0-85954-536-9.

Non-chemical pest management. Pesticide action network

(PAN) Germany www.oisat.org

Knowing and managing crucifer pests. North Carolina

Cooperative Extension Service, North Carolina State
University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7603 www.ces.ncsu.edu

A key to common caterpillar pests of vegetables. Sparks,

A.N. Jr. and Liu, T.X. Texas agricultural extension service,
The Texas A&M University System http://texasserc.tamu.edu

California Vegetable Chemical Use - 1996. National

Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). 1997. http://
www.usda.gov.nass

Commercial Production and Management of Cabbage and

Leafy greens. Cooperative Extension Service. The Uni-
versity of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environme-
ntal Sciences.

University of Massachusetts Amherst Extension: Veg-

etable Program. www.umassvegetable.org

- 49 -
 Photo credits

Swedish Board of Agriculture/Plant Protection Center/

Picture archive: Cabbage butterfly larva.

Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, UK

(Dr. Hans Dobson): Cabbage flea beetle, Ladybird beetle
larvae, hover fly adult and larva, wasp and aphid mummies.

University of Massachusetts Amherst Extension (Dr.

Andrew Cavanagh): Blackleg of cabbage.

- 50 -

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