GEOG 1: “NATURE, SOCIETY & TECHNOLOGY”
CULTURE-NATURE (Sarah Whatmore)
• The assumption that everything we encounter in the
world already belongs either to ‘culture’ or to ‘nature’
has become entrenched in the division between
‘human’ and ‘physical’ geography and reinforced by
the faltering conversation between them
• Culture-nature binary
• The geographical tradition of exploration and
expedition played an important role in extending and
mapping these networks and has left us with a
thoroughly modern sense of nature as the world that
lies beyond their reach (livingstone, 1992)
• From European vantage point, nature comes to be
associated from where ‘we’ are – jungles and
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wilderness. But by the end of the 20 century, we
seem to be everywhere
Social Construction of Nature
• Marxist Tradition: concerned with the material
transformation of nature as it is put to a variety of
human uses under different conditions of production
• Cultural geography: focused on the idea of nature,
what it means to different societies and how they go
about representing it in words and images
Producing Nature
th
• Mid-19 century, karl marx, observed ways in which
plants and animals were physically being transformed
by farmers using careful selection and breeding
methods to commercially more valuable crops and
livestock
• Rise of industrial capitalism – the things we are
accustomed to think of as natural were increasingly
being refashioned as the products of human labor
• 3 importance of the production of nature (Noel
Castree, 1995)
o To acknowledge that nature is produced
undermines the familiar but misleading idea that it is
something fixed and unchanging. We are forced to
see how society has utilized it in different times and
places
o It captures the double-edged sense in which the
process of producing goods for human use and
exchange simultaneously transforms the physical
fabric of the physical world and people’s relationship SUMMARY
to it
o It alerts us to the way in which capitalist production
seems to stop at nothing in its quest for profitability,
turning landscapes, water bodies and molecular
structure into some marketable commodities
• Neil smith, Uneven Development
• Capitalism for the first time in history puts human
society in the driving seat, replacing God as the
creative force fashioning the natural world
• Social capacity to produce nature is the second
nature according to smith to distinguish it from its
‘god-given’ or ‘original state’ which is called the first
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nature. Post modern social forms accompanied by a
third nature of computer stimulated and televisual
landscapes and creatures
st nd rd
• Transition from 1 , 2 and 3 nature has significant
geographical dimensions (illustration of the
potatoes)
SUMMARY
• Nature is socially constructed in the sense that it is
transformed through the labor process and fashioned
by the technologies and values of human production
• From this perspective, nature-society relations are
seen to have changed progressively over time from
first (original) nature, to second nature (industrial) to
today’s third (virtual) nature.
Representing Nature
• The natural world is understood to be shaped as
powerfully by the human imagination as by any
physical manipulation. This is because ‘nature’ does
not come with handy labels naming its part or making
sense of itself – which is the attribute of culture
• Importance is that it focuses us to recognize that our
relationship with those aspects of the world we call
nature is unavoidably filtered through the categories,
technologies, and conventions of human
representation in particular times and places
• For cultural geographers, nature itself is first and
foremost a category of the human imagination and
therefore best treated as part of culture
• At whatever form, these ways of seeing the natural
world share 3 common principles:
o Representation of nature is not a neutral process
that simply produces a mirror image of a fixed
external reality – rather, it is instrumental in
constituting our sense of what the natural world is
like
nd
o 2 principle of landscape is not to take
representations of the natural world at face value,
however much they seem or claim to be true to life
rd
o 3 principle is that there are many incompatible
ways of seeing the same natural phenomenon,
event or environment
• Nature is socially constructed in the sense that it is
shaped as powerfully by the human imagination as by
any physical manipulation. Our relationships with
nature are unavoidably filtered through the categories
and conventions of human representation
• From this perspective, the landscapes of nature are
understood as “ways of seeing” the world in which the
real and the imagined are intricately woven
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 GEOG 1: “NATURE, SOCIETY & TECHNOLOGY”
ENLIVENING GEOGRAPHICAL LANDSCAPE
Three of the most important currents in the rethinking of
human in human geography:
1. Concerned with showing that the idea of nature as
pristine space outside society is an historical fallacy
nd
2. 2 current extends this historical repudiation of the
separation of human society and natural world by
paying close attention to the mixed-up mobile lives of
people, plants, and animals in our everyday life
rd
3. 3 current works against the grain of the nature-
culture binary is trying to come to terms with the ways
in which the seemingly hard and fast categories of
human, animal, and machine are being blurred.
NATURE – refers to the entire bio-physical environment
on earth. Also known as the environment, ecosystem,
ecology, mother nature.
Truth on Man’s Perception of Nature
• How man interacts with the environment is largely
based on his perception of nature.
• Perceptions of nature are based on stories, ideas &
images that society feeds him. These perceptions are
shared from one generation to another.
• Different societies have different perceptions of
nature, therefore different persons has different
perceptions of nature.
• Recognizing different perceptions can help to
understand why different people & different societies
interact with the environment in different ways.
Perceptions of Nature
• Everyone has his own image or stories about himself,
society or the environment. This make up one’s
worldview
• Perceptions shape the interpretation of information
when it enters a social system from an ecosystem &
perceptions shape the decision-making processes
that leads to affecting the ecosystem.
• Different people have different perceptions of how the
environment works due to culture.
Different perceptions of Nature:
a. Nature perceptions by different religions
b. Nature perceptions by different societies
c. Common Perceptions of nature
d. Environmental Philosophies & Political Views on nature
A. Religious Attitudes Toward Nature
Religion: offers moral codes- guidelines about right and
wrong and rules of behavior- that are particularly effective
because they are reinforced by emotionally compelling
beliefs, symbols and rituals.
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1. Spirit Religion (Animism) = Nature over Man
• Spirits are invisible forces who exert power over
weather, illness, & other natural phenomena
significant to man.
• Before the development of modern science, people
explained nature through the presence of spirits.
• They believe that spirits live in the bodies of plants,
animals, rocks, hills, mountains or lakes. Any place a
spirit dwells is sacred and worthy of great awe and
respect.
• Spirits are the Lords who have the power to help
people, but if displeased, they can also harm them.
For believers, it is to respect spirits & keep them
happy.
2. Eastern Religion = Nature is equal with Man
• Hinduism- The universe is a cosmic person with
consciousness; every part of the universe has
consciousness, everything is connected. Deities,
Karma, Dharma, Reincarnation.
• Buddhism – People and nature are one. Negative
thoughts lead to negative actions and negative
consequences. Implies that the use of natural
resources should be limited to satisfying basic needs
such as food and clothing. Animals should not be
killed and plants should be harvested only to meet
essential food needs. Views that nothing exists in and
of itself and everything is part of a natural complex
and dynamic totality of mutuality and
interdependence.
• Taoism – Nature is mysterious beyond
comprehension. People do best by changing nature
as little as possible, fitting with nature’s rhythms and
flows and tapping into nature’s energy instead of
trying to dominate or control it.
• Confucianism – emphasizes social relationship – the
need for people to develop and refine their mutual
responsibilities. Humans are children of nature, the
proper attitude for nature is filial piety (respect for
elders)
3. Western Religion = Man over Nature
• Judaism – God chose humans as representatives to
maintain God’s wisdom on earth while using and
managing the earth to meet their needs. The earth is
sacred but their idea of managing the earth for God
was not to leave everything completely natural.
• Christianity – Similar to Judaism. Monotheistic belief
that holds that only man has soul. Man is the steward
of nature.
• Islam – Heaven and earth were created to serve
human purposes – that humans are sovereign over
the rest of the creation but authority over nature is not
an absolute right but as a test of loyalty, obedience
and gratitude to Allah. People should not use more
than they need and they should not be wasteful of
what they use.
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 GEOG 1: “NATURE, SOCIETY & TECHNOLOGY”
B. Attitudes of Different Societies Toward Nature
1. Hunting & Gathering (Foraging)
• A technique in extracting livelihood from the
environment by almost exclusive reliance on muscular
energy (gathering food, hunting with bows & spears,
etc.)
• They are nomadic and usually live in small bands of
families.
• Requires wide knowledge on the environment, e.g.
seasonality, plant types, migration patterns of animals
etc.
2. Pastoralism (Grazing)
• Based on domestication of herds of animals, assures
society with steady food supply. Societies can grow
much larger because of surplus of livestock & food.
• Also nomadic because they must constantly take their
herds to new grazing grounds.
• They also believe in god or many gods who take an
active role in human affairs. Pastoral society’s are
said to be the roots of toady’s major religions.
3. Horticulture
• They tend, sow & harvest edible vegetation. They are
relatively settled because they still have to move their
gardens at a short distance.
• Their subsistence is based on the slash-and-burn
technology
• Although they are highly spiritual, some of the
grimmest human actions came form these societies
(warfare, cannibalism, sacrifice, theft)
• Bigger Population permits complex social structure &
culture.
4. Agriculture
• The invention of the plow paved the way for the
agricultural revolution. The plow greatly improved the
productivity of the land. The same land can be
cultivated continuously & fully permanent settlements
are possible.
• Population size are greater than pastoral &
horticulture societies. Cities appear for the 1st time.
• Culture, social organizations & political institutions
• become more elaborate. Agriculture societies are
• constantly at war engaging in a systematic empire
building, military organizations are therefore needed.
5. Industrialization
• Based on the application of scientific knowledge to
production, permitting machines to do the work
previously done by man and animals
• Very large population, highly urbanized, rapidly
changing economic, social & political systems.
• Kinship ties are weakened, family becomes less
important. Religion loses hold as the source of moral
authority.
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• Science emerges as the new & important institution.
• Lead to all-out extraction of other areas for natural
resources to keep up with the accelerating population
growth.
C. Common Perceptions of Nature:
1. Everything in nature is connected:
• many events are, directly or indirectly, a consequence
of human actions.
• people should therefore treat nature with respect to
avoid adverse consequences
• human actions generate chains of effect that
reverberate through ecosystems & social systems
2. Nature is benign/perverse
• Benign – nature provides us with all that we need. For
as long as we do not radically change ecosystems
from their natural conditions, we will continuously
benefit from it.
• Perverse – if people change the environment to an
extent that they are unable to function properly (illegal
logging), we will suffer from nature’s fury (catastrophe,
natural disaster)
3. Nature is Fragile (delicate, frail, weak)
• nature has a delicate balance that will fall apart if
people change ecosystems from their natural
conditions. Departure from natural conditions can lead
to disastrous & irreversible consequences for man &
nature alike.
4. Nature is Durable (stable, permanent, enduring)
• as opposed to being fragile, this view holds that
people can use & reshape nature anyway they want.
No matter what people do to the ecosystem, there are
natural & social forces that will prevent the ecosystem
from being damaged severely & completely.
5. Nature is Capricious (unpredictable, fickle)
• Nature acts randomly & everything is determined by
fate.
• People can not control or maintain the ecosystem in
any particular way.
D. Environmental Philosophies & Political Views on
Nature
1. ROMANTICISM
• By Henry David Thoreau, an American Naturalist and
activist and a primary force behind romanticism which
was a movement that originated in Europe.
• It is a philosophy that emphasizes interdependence
and relatedness between humankind and nature.
• Romantics believe that all creatures were infused with
a divine presence that commanded respect and that
humans were not exceptional in this scheme
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 GEOG 1: “NATURE, SOCIETY & TECHNOLOGY”
2. TRANSCENDENTALISM
• By Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson
• Branch of American romanticism, it had an influence
over contemporary understandings of nature
• It is a philosophy in which a person attempts to rise
above nature and the limitations of the body to the
point where the spirit dominates the flesh, where a
mystical and spiritual life replaces a primitive and
savage one.
3. CONSERVATION
• A view that natural resources should be used wisely,
and that society’s effects on the natural world
represent stewardship and not exploitation.
• It further implies responsibility to future generations as
well as the natural world itself in the utilization of
resources.
4. PRESERVATION
• An approach to nature advocating that certain
habitats, species and resources should remain off-
limits to human use regardless of whether the use
maintains or depletes the resource in question
• More extreme position that conservation
New Approaches to understanding human
interactions:
1. Environmental Ethics
• a philosophical perspective on nature that prescribes
moral principle as guidance for our treatment of it.
• Society has a moral obligation to treat nature
according to the rules of moral behavior that exists for
our treatment of each other.
• CONTROVERSY: perspective that insects, animals,
trees, and other elements of nature have rights in the
same way that humans do. If the moral system of our
society insists that humans are to have the right to a
safe and happy life, then it is argued that the same
rights should be extended to nonhuman nature.
2. Ecofeminism
• The view that patriarchal ideology is at the center of
our present environmental problems. Because
patriarchy has equated women with nature, it has
enabled the subordination and exploitation of both
• The unifying objective is to dismantle the patriarchal
biases in western culture and replace them with a
perspective that values both cultural and biological
diversity.
3. Deep Ecology
• A belief that there is no absolute divide between
humanity and everything else, that a complex and
diverse set of relations constitute the universe. The
belief that all things are internally related would
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enable society to treat the nonhuman world with
respect and not simply as a source of raw materials
for human use.
Two Key Concepts:
1. Self Realization: view that humans must learn to
recognize that they are part of the nonhuman world.
2. Biospherical egalitarianism: insists that the earth or
the biosphere is the central focus of all life and that
all members of nature, human or nonhuman,
deserve the same respect and treatment.
THINK: Natural Disasters, although they are a powerful
natural force, their impacts are very much shaped by the
society in which they occur and the level and type of
technology that the society employs example, Cherry
Hills.
Risk = Vulnerability X Hazard
Hazard – component of risk, either natural or man-made.
It becomes a risk if population or property is exposed to
that particular hazard.
• Renewed interest in the society-nature relationship is
the result of the persistence and large number of
environmental crises.
• In the past, technology is seen as the apparent solution
to environmental problems, but, is technology the only
solution?
• These thoughts lead to a heightened awareness on
current issues, including climate change, hence we
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have Al Gore’s Inconvenient truth, 11 hour, 3R, etc.
Earth Summit:
• First held in Stockholm in 1972
• Second is in Rio de Janeiro in 1992
• Agreed on sustainable development
Sustainable Development: development that meets the
need of the present without compromising the ability of the
future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland
Commission).
Agenda 21: For Sustainable Development
Philippine Agenda 21: Adopted during the Ramos
Presidency
• Nature, Society and Technology constitute a complex
relationship: we see nature both as a physical realm
and a social construct.
• Because we regard nature as a social creation, it is
important to understand the many social ideas of nature
present in different societies. The Judeo-Christian
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 GEOG 1: “NATURE, SOCIETY & TECHNOLOGY”

tradition dominates the present-day perception of nature human life & brought about far-reaching ecological
in which man has the right to dominate changes.
• 2 Central Issues: energy-use & land-use change

Nature and Society is mediated by technology.

Technology can be:
a. physical objects or artifacts (plow)
b. activities or processes (steel-making)
c. knowledge or know-how (engineering)
This is often measured in terms of the level of
industrialization achieved & energy per capita
consumption.
• A recent attempt to conceptualize the relationship
between social and environmental changes has
emerged from concern with global environment change.
• A formula to distinguish the sources of social impacts on • Important to realize that in every stage of energy
the environment has been advanced. This relates
human population pressures on environmental
resources to the level of affluence and access to
technology in a given society.
I = PAT
Where:
I – impact on Earth’s resources
P – population
A – Affluence, as measured by per capita income
T – Technology factor
Impact on Energy needs on the environment:
• Resource as a curse/blessing
• A steady increase in power production and demand
since the beginning of Industrial Revolution has been
paralleled by an increase in resource extraction and
conversion.
• Renewable (solar, hydro-electric, wind, geothermal)
vs Non-Renewable (fossil fuel, natural gas)
• The production and consumption of these available
rd st
resources is geographically uneven (3 vs 1 WC)
conversion process (from discovery to extraction,
processing, & utilization) has an impact on the
physical landscape (mining,dams,oil spills, nuclear)

Ecological Footprint: A measure of human demand on

the earth’s ecosystems, basically comparing impact of
human actions on the environment with the planet’s
ecological capacity to regenerate. (visit
www.myfootprint.org/)

Carrying Capacity: the number of individuals who can be

supported in a given area within natural resource limits,
and without degrading the natural social, cultural and
economic environment for present and future generations.

EARLY HUMAN IMPACTS

Paleolithic
• Early stone age
• Chipped stone, fire, clovis point
• Natural landscape to kill animals – mega faunal
extinction
Neolithic
• late stone age
• agriculture, irrigation, surplus
European Exploration
• colonization
• columbian exchange
• ecological imperialism

Human Action & Recent Environmental Change

• Industrialization has great impact on the natural world.
This, coupled with urbanization has revolutionized
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