Indian meal moth (Hubner)

Introduction
The world food production is adversely affected by insect pests
during crop growth, post-harvest and storage. Insects associated
with raw grain and processed food cause quantitative and
qualitative losses which are estimated at 5–10% in the temperate
zone and 20–30% or more in the tropical and subtropical regions
(Phillips and Throne, 2010). Losses caused by insects include the
direct consumption of kernels and the accumulation of remains
such as chemical excretions or silk, exuviae, body fragments and
dead insects (Shankar and Abrol, 2012). Indian meal moth, Plodia
inter punctella (Hübner) from family Pyralidae subfamily
Phycitinаe is a major pest of stored food products (CUPERUS et
al.,1990) It is possible that Indian meal moth is the most important
pest of stored, a popular insect pest of stored milled and
processed cereals and it products, oilseeds, dried fruits, dried
vegetables, nuts, garlic seed sand manufactured products(Cox
and Bell, 1991) as well as processed human or animal food in
the world. This moth species has very strong economic impact,
because it uses a wide range of products in it’s diet (LECATO,
1976) Indian meal moth is one of the most frequent and the most
dangerous pest of stored grains in our country also (KRNJAJIĆ
and ILIĆ, 1982). Many researchers already studied this moth in
Serbia ( STOJANOVIĆ 1955) Lifecycle of Indian meal moth could
be completed in 30-days under optimal conditions, (REES, 2004).
Development depends from the temperature (BELL, 1975) Plodia
interpunctella has been classified as a freeze in tolerant
organisms and one of the most cold-tolerant species among
stored-product insects (Fields 1992). The mean developmental
time and adult progeny production of the Indian meal moth are
largely influenced by the type of diet on which the moth feeds
during the larval stage (LeCato, 1976; Cline and Highland, 1985).
Most studies on development of the Indian meal moth have been
done on stored cereals, dried fruits, or their products but
information on the development of this species in garlic is scanty.
Therefore, in the present study, larval developmental time, adult
fecundity, and egg hatch rates for moths reared on garlic bulbs
were investigated. In addition, the efficacy of three pesticides
(including malathion) to protect garlic against infestation by this
moth was also tested. Currently, there is no label rate for
malathion or any other insecticide for stored garlic that will be
used as seed for the next year’s crop. ( Allotey, J., Goswami, L.,
1990) Diet (food) is the most important factor for determining
the developmental period of the insect and can feed on wide
range of food (Johnson J.A) Oviposition behavior in P.
interpunctella is influenced by food odor (Phillips and Strand,
1994), and eggs are laid on or near the food surface, often
spatially aggregated in some fashion (Mullen and Arbogast, 1977;
Arbogast and Mullen, 1978). ( Deseo 1976) showed fecundity of
P. interpunctella is increased by food odor and that the eggs are
laid in batches near the source of the odor. Orientation of adult P.
interpunctella towards oviposition sites could be based on primary
host-derived or secondary conspecific-insect-derived chemical
cues. ( Phillips and Strand 1994) found that adult P. interpunctella
oriented towards food odors and laid more eggs on substrates
containing food than on those without food, and more eggs were
laid on dishes that contained conspecific larval secretions. The
adults may lay their eggs near the food surface when the food is
inaccessible due to packaging or other barriers, or when the food
odors are weak (Silhacek et al., 2003). The presence of oils can
also lead to an increase in oviposition of P. interpunctella (Nansen
and Phillips, 2003).

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Pyralidae
Tribe: Phycitini
Genus: Plodia
Species: P. interpunctella

Insect instar and sex identification

Morphological structures of the insects were used in identifying
the different instars of the insect. For instance, the colour of the
outer two-thirds of adult wings is bronze to reddish brown, while
the part of the wings closer to the body is grayish white (Rees,
2004). The sexes were also differentiated using their sizes, male
are smaller than female when freshly emerged. Male
P.interpunctella is tapered at the apex of the abdomen; while
female the apex of the abdomen is truncated (Richard et al.,
1932; Akinneye, 2003).
Description
Eggs
Eggs of the Indianmeal moth appear grayish-white and range in
length from 0.3 to 0.5 mm. Eggs are oviposited singly or in
clusters, and are generally laid directly on the larval food
source( Thomas R. Fasulo) The egg is grayish-white, ranging
from 0.3 to 0.5 millimeter in length and almost perfectly ovate.
The surface, as seen through the binocular microscope, shows a
granular texture which diffracts light in many colors. The wall itself
is not wholly opaque, as the developing larva may often be seen
inside.(J. C. HAMLIN)The highest number of eggs laid was
observed on moths reared on maize flour. Incubation of eggs
examined on the diets ranges from 3-4 days {Onaolapo, 2017 #3)
The eggs hatch in around three days at 30°C (BAXTER , 2008)
There are different data about number of laid eggs, starting from
only 26 (ALMAŠI,1984) on the wheat, through 96.8
(MOHANDASS et al., 2007), i.e. 150-200 under optimal
conditions during the crepuscular periods (REES, 2004), to the
maximum of 400 eggs (FASULO and KNOX, 2008)
Larva
P. interpunctella larvae are associated with 179 different food
commodities in 48 different countries spanning six continents
( Hagstrum D.W., Klejdysz T., Subramanyam B., Nawrot J. )
Newly hatched larvae are able to invade films with pinholes of
0.293 mm or larger, but cannot invade pinholes of 0.173 mm or
smaller, and are unable to penetrate polyethylene films of 20 µm
thickness (Tsuji H. ) Second and fifth instars of P. interpunctella
have shown the ability to chew through Kraft paper (114 µm
thick), polyethylene (25.4 µm), and aluminum foil (16.5 µm) when
held without food ( Cline L.D)Fifth instars of P. interpunctella were
unable to penetrate polypropylene (28 µm) pouches, but they
were able to penetrate 63% of polyvinyl chloride (25 µm)
pouches. In addition, 25% of polyvinyl chloride (25 µm) pouches
were penetrated by first instars, indicating that older instars are
stronger penetrators compared with first instars ( Bowditch T.G)to
four days at 30°C. Upon hatching, the larvae begin to disperse,
and within a few hours can establish themselves in a food source.
The larvae can complete their development in six to eight weeks
at temperatures ranging from 18 to 35°C. The number of larval
instars varies from five to seven (depending on the food source
and the temperature)(Arthur FH, Highland HA, Mullen MA. 1991)
The larvae or "caterpillars" are about 2/3 inch (12.5mm) when
mature. Brown-headed larvae are dirty white, sometimes tinged
pink or green. Larvae are quite active and molt four to seven
times before pupating ( Keith L. Smith) There are five or seven
larval instars stages. Larvae of Indian meal moth cause the most
of food damages by secreting silky webs which permeate all
substrait and contains larval feces and exuviae (ALMAŠI, 1984;
FASULO and KNOX, 2008).
Pupae
The pupae measure 6 to 11 mm and are pale brown in color.
Pupation takes place away from the infested material. In fact, lThe
larvae pupate either in a silken cocoon or unprotected. ate instar
larvae can travel such distances that they are often mistaken for
clothing pests. Within pantries small larvae often climb to other
shelves before pupating. This misleads people trying to find the
source of the infestation The pupal stage can last from 15 to 20
days at 20°C and seven to eight days at 30°C.(. Arthur F. 1989.
Adult
Adults of P. interpunctella are capable of laying 100–300 eggs per
female ( United States Department of Agriculture )Adults are a
common sign of an infestation. Flying adults often appear to be
fluttering instead of maintaining a direct line of flight. They are
attracted to light and may move to distant rooms in the house
away from the infestation(. Bongers AJ, Brandi DG, Hinsch RT,
Hoogendorn H, Soderstrom EL) As a result, they are also
commonly mistaken for clothing pests. Adults do not feed.
However, even though unnecessary for egg production, adults
have been reported to be interested in fruit juice and sugar baits
(Kullberg, personal communication). Adults are about 12.7 mm
long with a wing span of about 16 to 20 mm. The forewings of this
moth are reddish brown with a copper sheen on the outer two
thirds and gray on the inner third. At rest the wings are held roof-
like over the body. The head and thorax of the moth appears gray
and the posterior brown, with a coppery sheen.(. Beeman RW,
McGaughey WH) Adult moths are about 3/8-inch (8 to 10mm)
long when at rest and have a wing spread of about 1/2 to 3/4 inch
(18 to 20mm). When viewed from above with the wings folded
over the back, the outer 2/3 of the wing appears reddish-brown or
bronze colored "at the wing tips" while the inner 2/3 of the wing "at
the basal portion" is light gray to ochre-yellow. Also, the head and
thorax are reddish-brown and the hind wings gray(Keith L. Smith)
Adult Indian meal moths do not feedbut can produce important
number of descendants (ALMAŠI and SRDIĆ, 1988)
MANAGEMENT
Prevention is the best control for pantry pests. When purchasing
bulk grains, dried fruit, flour, etc., inspect it carefully when loading
it into bags for weighing. Inspect products again when you get it
home and put it into storage containers. Keep food in glass jars,
plastic containers, or metal canisters. Glass jars that pressure
seal with rubber gaskets are the best. Make sure they have tight-
fitting lids. Many of the pantry pests are very small and can crawl
under loose-fitting lids. Do not store products in plastic bags, or
cardboard boxes as the insects can chew through them. Try to
store foods in a cool dry place. Most of the stored product pests
multiply faster at higher humidity. Many products can be kept in
the freezer to prevent infestation, especially products that are not
used right away. Nuts, flours, meals, and dried chili peppers can
all be frozen. Infested foods should be thrown away and the
shelves cleaned thoroughly to eliminate food material and insect
eggs or larvae which might be in cracks or corners. Vacuum the
shelves and then wash the cupboards with warm soapy water. Do
not spray any food storage areas with insecticides. Clean up any
food spills promptly ( Brower JH, Press JW. 1990)
Freeezing and Heating: If an infestation is detected, freezing the
product for several days has proven to be an effective control
measure. Infested products should be kept in temperatures of 0°F
(-18°C) until the cold penerates all areas of the packaging. Four
days should kill the life stages of most stored product pests. Heat
will also kill stored product pests if temperatures of 130°F to
150°F (54°C to 66°C) are maintained for 24 hours in infested
facilities. Small quantities of infested materials can be treated in
their original packaging or the loose material may be placed in a
shallow pan. Then heat the material for 150°F (66°C) for 20
minutes. However, one reference advises propping the oven door
open to keep it from getting too hot (VanRykeghem A 2004).

Chemical control: Numerous insecticides have been used to

control Indian meal moth populations, but effectiveness is limited.
In a study evaluating the effectiveness of an insect growth
regulator, it was found that even after treatment with these
chemicals, Indian meal moths were in corn storage bins. In an
additional study using the same insect growth regulator, it was
found that at rates of 5 and 10 ppm no control of fifth instar larvae
was accomplished( Smith EH, Whitman RC. 1992) Only at 20 to
30 ppm was control of fifth instar larvae observed. Studies show
that resistance increased with increasing selective pressure.
Resistance was also observed in studies performed with the
microbial insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Resistance was
just as likely with exposure to single strains of Bt as with mixtures
of sequences of the insecticide. Resistance, once achieved,
appeared to be inherited as a recessive trait, and with time was
observed as genetically stable ( McGaughey WH, Tabashnik BE.
1994)
Biological control: Population suppression has been observed
in the laboratory using egg and larval parasites. Both the larval
parasite, Bracon hebetor (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and the egg
parasite, Trichogramma pretiosum (Hymenoptera:
Trichogrammatidae) have demonstrated moth population
suppression. When the parasites were used in combination, an
84.3 percent suppression was observed. Trichogramma
pretiosum acting alone offered a 37.3 percent suppression rate
while Bracon hebetor provided a 66.1 percent suppression rate
stable ( McGaughey WH, Tabashnik BE. 1994) Despite the low
pest tolerance, biological control of P. interpunctella by using
hymenopteran parasitoids provides one possible alternative pest
management tactic. A variety of parasitoid species have been
studied, including egg parasitoids in the genus Trichogramma
(Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) as well as the larval
parasitoid Habrobracon hebetor (Say) (Hymenoptera:
Braconidae). Trichogramma spp. Have been explored as potential
natural enemies for a variety of stored product moths in bulk
peanut storage (Brower 1988), bulk wheat storage (Scho¨ller et al.
1994, 1996), and bakeries (Prozell and Scho¨ller 1998, Steidle et
al. 2001).

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