INTRODUCTION

Presently found worldwide in tropical locations, Parthenium hysterophorus (Heliantheae:

Asteraceae) is an annual plant of neotropical origins. Ever since it was initially reported to
have happened in India in the early 1950s, and then a little later in Australia (Navie et al.,
1996).
Either parthenium weed, as it is more often known in Australia, or Congress grass, as it is
distinctively termed in India, where the bloom form has been jokingly compared to the
Congress building in New Delhi, has swiftly emerged as a prominent weed in both of these
nations. Collet and Lamb (1976). Parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus L.), one of
the most invasive weeds that persists throughout time, is a hazard to natural ecosystems
and agroecosystems in over 30 nations worldwide. Parthenium weed causes serious
financial losses to individuals and their interests in many countries across the world,
reduces the richness of natural plant communities, damages crops and pastures, and poses
health hazards to people and animals (Adkins et al., 2014). Parthenium hysterophorus is a
toxic plant found in America, Asia, Africa, and Australia. This plant is suspected of
causing mutagenicity in animals as well as contact dermatitis and allergic respiratory
disorders. Crop productivity is drastically reduced as a result of allelopathy. Furthermore,
the aggressive dominance of this plant threatens biodiversity. It has not yet been
established that Parthenium hysterophorus, an annual herbaceous weed, has any economic
relevance. It is tenacious and aggressive. The terms "altamisa," "Scourge of India," bitter
weed, star weed, white top, wild feverfew, and congress grass are among other names for
it. Asteraceae include the widespread weed Parthenium hysterophorus. It produces
thousands of small white capitula, each of which delivers five seeds when it reaches
maturity. Often found on abandoned ground, this noxious plant establishes residential
colonies beside to roadways, railroad tracks, irrigation and drainage canals, and cities. This
weed thrives lushly in existing gardens, plantations, and vegetable farms. Because of its
great fecundity, a single plant can release 10,000 to 15,000 viable seeds, which can then
spread and germinate to cover large regions. (Patel and others, 2011). Parthenium weed
was found in the Maharashtra State, near Poona, in 1951. By 1972, it had spread to most of
the western states, from Kashmir in the north to Kerala in the south. Since its discovery in
1979 in Assam, it has spread to almost every region of the subcontinent. Most possibly the
most prevalent weed in Karnataka State, where it has invaded almost 5 million hectares.
(1992, Parsons & Cuthbertson). Parthenium weed is an extraordinarily prolific seed
producer, producing up to 25,000 seeds (achenes) per plant and a large seed bank estimated
at 200,000 seeds/m2 in abandoned fields in India (Joshi, 1991a). It might develop into a
very hostile crop-colonizer. Because of its intricate, direct, or indirect total influence on the
production system, losses are difficult to measure (Navie et al., 1996). Allelopathy is
known to exist for P. hysterophorus; reports of sesquiterpene lactones and water-soluble
phenolics from the roots, stems, leaves, inflorescences, pollen, and seeds substantiate this
theory. In 1973, Rajan and Kanchan reported finding plant growth inhibitors in parthenium
weed (1975). Additionally, parthenin, caffeic acid, and p-coumaric acid were identified by
the latter author as the primary inhibitors in stem tissues. Africa, Asia, and Australia have
all seen the expansion of Parthenium hysterophorus L., an invasive weed that originated in
tropical and subtropical America (Shabbir, McConnachie, & Adkins, 2019). According to
McConnachie et al. (2010), parthenium is believed to have reached Ethiopia in the late
1970s, most likely through tainted food grains in the east of the nation. From there, it
spread over the whole country. This annual plant may sprout and thrive all season long if
the proper growth conditions are fulfilled. Due to its low seed weight, massive seed
production, resistance to drought, adaptation to a variety of ecosystems, ability to emit
harmful compounds against other plants, and rapid growth rate, it may invade new regions
and spread swiftly (Adkins, McClay, & Bajwa, 2019). Partheniums can be controlled in
agricultural and pasture areas by a range of methods, including chemical and manual
weeding. Hand weeding is not a workable option since the weeds grow all season long and
must be removed by hand many times throughout the busy cropping season. Due to the
high number of persons who are sensitive to parthenium leaves and pollen, hand weeding
is not very effective. Herbicide use is too costly for the majority of African smallholder
farmers, and it must be repeated in later seasons to provide efficient control throughout the
growing season (Dhileepan & Strathie, 2009). Australia began a biological management
campaign for parthenium in the 1970s by introducing the weed's natural enemies from its
native environment. Eleven natural enemies were released in 1981 following parthenium
specificity testing. Of these, two fungal bioagents and at least seven insect agents have
been identified (Strathie, McConnachie, & Retief, 2011; Dhileepan & Strathie, 2009).
Other countries, such as South Africa, India, and Uganda, have also imported natural
enemies to manage parthenium (Dhileepan & Strathie, 2009; Strathie et al., 2011).
Ethiopia introduced the stem-boring weevil, Listronotus setosipennis (Hustache)
(Coleoptera: Curulionidae), and the leaf-feeding beetle, Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister
(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) after host-range tests carried out under quarantine revealed
the biocontrol agents only damaged parthenium (Mersie et al., 2018).
Parthenium in Ethiopia is starting to suffer from both biocontrol agents' establishment and
harm. L. setosipennis is very efficient against parthenium in the drier parts of Ethiopia
(Alemayehu & Mersie, 2019). An adult L. setosipennis oviposits in the petioles of leaves
when it is unable to locate a parthenium flower. The parthenium flower's female digs
beneath its surface, deposits the egg, and then seals the entrance with a black frass.
Oviposition markings are these black, dented patches that indicate the adult has placed
eggs. The larvae from these eggs burrow to the base of the flower or leaf and pierce the
stem three to five days after hatching. The larva spends its first 18 to 30 days feeding
inside the stem, after which it emerges at the bottom to pupate in the soil and finally eclose
as an adult, which can live for up to eight months. At a steady temperature of 30C, an egg
develops into an adult in around 23 days (Wild et al., 1992).
Adults can consume flowers and foliage, although they seldom gain anything from this.
Rather, the larvae eating within the stem is what damages partheniums. As few as two
larvae at the rosette stage and as many as four to five larvae eating inside a blooming stem
can destroy parthenium. (Dhileepan, 2003). In 2016, L. setosipennis was widely cultivated
and released into the field in several Ethiopian districts. Mersie and Alemayehu, 2019).
P. hysterophorus has rapidly spread throughout the Province of Punjab, the Islamabad
Capital Territory (ICT), and portions of the Khyber Pukhtunkhwa (KP) Province in
Pakistan since it was first discovered in the Gujrat district of Punjab Province in the 1980s
(Shabbir et al. 2012). Reports have also come from the provinces of Sindh and
Baluchistan. In natural ecosystems, parthenium weed is considered a prominent weed
species, and it is still spreading in Pakistani agriculture (Adkins and Navie 2006; Bajwa et
al., 2019) and other areas (Iqbal 2015). It is commonly recognized that this plant causes
severe allergies in humans and is toxic to animals (Adkins and Shabbir 2014). In Pakistan,
there are few alternatives for managing P. hysterophorus; the two primary methods are
physical removal and herbicide treatment. But there are disadvantages to both strategies.
Herbicides are not a long-term solution for extensive weed management, but removing
weeds by hand without gloves increases the risk of contact dermatitis. Thus far, the
biological management approach has received little attention and is not a useful tool for
managing weeds in Pakistan. In India, where it was first introduced as a traditional
biological control agent in 1984, Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister (Coleoptera:
Chrysomelidae), a leaffeeding beetle that is naturally antagonistic to P. Listronotus
setosipennis (Hustache), which was introduced to Australia to control parthenium weed, is
more prevalent on plants in areas with black, alluvial soil than in clay or sand. As larval L.
Setosipennis develops from feeding in the stem to roots, it finally extinguishes to create a
pupal chamber in the soil, which is thought to be the future soil type that will be limited
(Dhileepan et al., 2018). Regional differences in nutrient availability can impact the
development of host plants and control agents. Although there are few instances where
nutrients are thought to limit the distribution of agents (Harms and Cronin, 2019; Room et
al., 1989; Uyi et al., 2016; Wheeler and Center, 1997), they do have the unintended
consequence of changing host-plant defenses (Nybakken et al., 2018; Tomley 1990).
Nutrients directly affect agents through altered life history traits and population dynamics.
The adult L. setosipennis digs holes in the parthenium bloom after it has opened, deposits
its eggs within, and then covers the eggs with black frass. The oviposition dots on
parthenium blooms so look as black markings. It can also lay eggs on the petiole leaves of
non-flowering parthenium plants. After the eggs hatch in three to five days, the first instar
larva burrows into the base of the flower or leaf and enters the plant. The larva emerges at
the bottom to enter the soil after eating inside the stem for 18 to 30 days, or around four
and a half weeks. The larva can go through up to five instar changes before it grows and
emerges from the stem into the earth. After penetrating the earth, the larva pupates in four
days, and the adult ecloses in five. According to Lidya Alemayehu and Wondi Mersie
(2019), parthenium can be destroyed by as few as two larvae at the rosette stage and as
many as four to five larvae feeding inside a blooming stem.
REVIEW OF LITRATURE
Mao, R. et al. (2021) told the story of the parthenium invasion that took place over
two centuries worldwide, including its spread and countermeasures. When P.
hysterophorus was first taxonomically identified in 1753 on the island of Jamaica, it was
believed to be native to the West Indies, the nearby coastal regions of North and South
America, or south-central South America. More than two centuries have passed since
parthenium weed, or Parthenium hysterophorus L., first left its native range. The first
reports of parthenium date from 1752 and 1761 in South Africa and the African Indian
Ocean islands; 1810 in South Asia from India; 1869 or 1881 in Australia and the Pacific
Ocean; 1922 in South and Southeast Asia; and 1960 in northern, eastern, and Western
Asia. Parthenium spreads locally via a variety of routes, including roads and vehicles,
water and wind, contaminated seed feed lots, and flower bouquets. It also spreads
internationally through unchecked imports of seeds (16%) and other commodities (17%).
Adjacent counties (51%) and overseas islands (5%) had higher percentages of people with
unknown origins (32%) or people who were directly from their native range (12%).
International research communities are becoming more aware of this weed, but as of yet,
invaded nations have not coordinated well enough, and laws to stop the weed's spread and
effects have not yet been codified and put into effect.
The temporal and spatial patterns of research on Parthenium hysterophorus, a
globally significant invasive weed, were reviewed by Maharjan, S. et al. in 2020. More
than 6,000 cases of P. hysterophorus have been documented worldwide, endangering
agroecosystems and natural ecosystems in more than 30 countries. The rapid spread was
later caused by the weed's reintroduction to Australia and India in 1956 and 1958,
respectively. The plant had unpleasantly spread to many areas of Australia and India by the
1970s. P. hysterophorus is a ruderal herb that grows in a variety of places. These include
open spaces in urban areas, riverbanks, floodplains, roadsides, wastelands, cleared and
grazed pastures, summer crops, disturbed and cultivated areas, and so on. Even though the
plant has invaded 49 countries outside of its native range. However, only a few countries
like India, Australia, Ethiopia, South Africa, and Pakistan have made some efforts to
manage P. hysterophorus. In addition, dispersal vectors, introduction pathways and their
role in the spreading should be focused to minimize the spread of P. hysterophorus to the
new areas.
Strathie, L.W. et al (2021) examined how insects were introduced and how they are
currently affecting parthenium biological control in South Africa. Studies on post-release
monitoring revealed that L. setosipennis and S. lutulentus had a localised establishment
and impact. Even though Listronotus setosipennis spreads slowly, its larval feeding causes
structural damage, as evidenced by its persistence during extreme drought conditions. S.
lutulentus is becoming more established, and in areas where it is, less seed is produced. A
few sites experienced defoliation as a result of Zygogramma bicolorata, but establishment
has been weak and the beetle has not been seen since 2019. While it has been demonstrated
that a mix of fungal and insect agents can decrease P. hysterophorus, the presence of more
natural enemies may enhance control. Although there has been progress in the biocontrol
of P. hysterophorus during this time, more agents are being introduced and approved
agents are being used more frequently..

Dhileepan. K and Racheal, M.C. (2012) assessed the efficiency of biocontrol agents
in Australia for parthenium management. The Listronotus sitosipennis was described in
this study as having an extremely low incidence and population level, despite its initial
rapid spread. The weevil seems to be suited for areas with protracted dry spells and
irregular rainfall patterns. The timing of the beginning of summer rainfall or the total
amount of summer rainfall primarily influences the distribution and abundance of
biological control agents as well as their interactions with their host plants. Parthenium
weed has been significantly harmed by biological control over time.

Strathie, L.W et al., (2016) focused on the management of the invasive plant
Parthenium hysterophorus using natural enemies. After the first season of release
Listronotus sitosipennis had persisted 45% at all sites. The endophagous stem-boring
weevil has established readily in South Africa, even from low founder populations, and is
resilient to extended dry periods, even drought conditions. Larval stem-feeding particularly
damages young plants. However, the weevil disperses slowly, which makes it vulnerable to
prominent levels of site disturbance. More than two years after release, Listronotus
sitosipennis dispersed up to 500m from the releasing point.

Wondi Mersie et al. (2021) explain in In Ethiopia, the invasive weed Parthenium
hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae) was targeted by the establishment and spread of the stem-
boring weevil Listronotus setosipennis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Over a 4-year period,
the establishment and spread of the stem-boring weevil, Listronotus setosipennis
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae), which was released in 2017 to control Parthenium
hysterophorus (L.) (Asteraceae), an invasive weed, were evaluated. At each site where the
weevil was first released and later spread, the number of L. setosipennis eggs on
parthenium in 0.5 m × 0.5 m quadrats was counted. The extent of the parthenium damage
caused by weevils was also noted. Over the course of the 4-year assessment period, there
was an increase in the number of L. setosipennis eggs detected at all release locations,
which suggests that the weevil population has built up in those areas. The number of eggs
increased from 2.7 ± 1.3 m−2 in 2017 to 92 ± 6.1 m−2 in 2020 at one of these locations,
Chorisa. Similarly, over the course of four years, more L. setosipennis eggs were found on
parthenium at the dispersal site—the location where the weevil spread. Damage to
parthenium caused by L. setosipennis larvae was observed at all release locations, with
results ranging from 13.3 ± 3.3% to 36.7 ± 6.7%.Similar level of damage (36.7 ± 5% to
66.7 ± 8.3%) was also recorded at the dispersal sites. After 4 years, the maximum
distance L. setosipennis spread from its original release spots was 185.3 ± 12.0 m. The
establishment and spread of the weevil were slow but was steady at all locations in
northeastern Ethiopia.

K. Dhileepan (2010) Current Status of Australia's introduction of the stem-boring weevil

Listronotussetosipennis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in opposition to Parthenium
hysterophorus (Asteraceae) The stem-boring weevil Listronotus setosipennis (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae) was studied in field cages and a glasshouse to determine its effects on the
various growth stages of Parthenium hysterophorus (Asteraceae) and to determine its field
prevalence in Queensland, Australia. L. setosipennis decreased plant height in the
glasshouse by 51%, leaf count by 78%, flower production by 63%, and plant biomass by
54% in rosette stage plants. The field cage plants that were in the rosette stage experienced
a 26% reduction in primary stem height and a 38% reduction in flower production due to
L.setosipennis damage. However, there was no significant impact on total plant height,
basal stem width, root length, number of branches, root biomass, and total plant biomass.
L. setosipennis had no discernible effect on parthenium's preflowering or flowering stages
in either greenhouse or field cage. In 48% of the parthenium-infested sites (n/132)
sampled, L. setosipennis was found, and 16% of the sites had high to very high incidence.
Compared to clay and sandy soils, L.setosipennis was more common on alluvial and black
soils. A promising biocontrol agent for areas with protracted dry spells and irregular
rainfall patterns is L. setosipennis.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This study is carried out in Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Pakistan (Coordinate: 34,9,4” N 72,3,13”E) at the Biological Control Lab, Department of
Entomology.

Culture of L. setosipennis
The L. setosipennis will be acquired from the center of Agriculture and Biosciences
(CAB). International Pakistan, which they have already imported from South Africa. The
insect will be further reared on pot-grown P. hysterophorous caged plants, as the complete
rearing setup is available at the biological control lab of the Department of Entomology.
This setup consist of cages, with four pots in each cage and P hysterophorous. plant that
will be 40-50 cm in height having thick stem, large and healthy leaves with newly bloomed
flowers. Before placing the plant, we must ensure that it is free from spiders and mites or
other predatory insects. The plant and pot will sprayed with 2% sodium hypo-chloride. A
total of 25 L.setosipennius adult will released on flowers of each plant for oviposition.
Adult will be collected after one week and release on new plants. After four weeks of
exposure to adults L. setosipennis the parthenium plant stem will be dissected to collect
the larva. The collected larva of L.setosipennius will be placed for pupation in netted
plastic containers filled with sterilized soil. The pupal period is about 2 weeks. The soil
will be moistened with 2% sodium hypochlorite solution and examined for freshly
emerged adults. The emerged adult will be transferred to oviposition cages for breeding or
eventual release.
The newly emerged adults collect from netted plastic container and shifted into new cage
for reproduction.
Mass rearing of L. setosipennis:

Releasing of L. setosipennis into breeding cages (4×4 ft) with a metal frame and nylon
mesh covering cages. Fully grown and healthy with thick stem plant of parthenium were
moved from a field into pots which were filled with soil. The cages were placed on
benches which is made up of wood. All pest like ants, spiders, and predators were taken
out of the cages prior to the plants being placed within them. After some days when
parthenium plants were stabled in the pots then placed it into the cages and released of 100
adults of L. setosipennis in each and every cages for mass rearing.

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