ACI STRUCTURAL JOURNAL TECHNICAL PAPER

Title No. 118-S41

Rational Approach for Computing Long-Term Deflection of

Reinforced Concrete
by Peter H. Bischoff and Lluis Torres

The ACI 318 Building Code computes time-dependent deflections

from creep and shrinkage as the product of immediate deflection
from sustained loads and a deflection multiplier that depends on
the duration of loading and amount of compression reinforcement.
An alternative methodology is proposed that extends the approach
developed for an effective moment of inertia Ie, recently adopted by
ACI 318-19 for computing immediate deflection to include time-de-
pendent deflections from creep under sustained load and shrinkage.
Separate components are developed for creep and shrinkage defor-
mation based on a rational tension stiffening model that accounts
for the reduced member stiffness from creep, shrinkage warping
of the uncracked and cracked sections, and loss of stiffness from
a lower cracking moment that results as tensile stresses develop
in the concrete from restraint to shrinkage and cause additional
cracking. Comparison is also made with the Eurocode 2 approach.
Validation with long-term test data shows close agreement within a
few percent for the proposed approach and Eurocode 2 approach.
ACI 318-14 underestimates deflection by 27% and ACI 318-19
overestimates deflection by 23% for the test results evaluated in Fig. 1—Short-term response of flexural member.
this study.
effective moment of inertia Ie is extended to include time-de-
Keywords: beams; creep; deflection; effective moment of inertia; long- pendent deflections from creep under sustained loading and
term; shrinkage; slabs. shrinkage. The proposed approach computes deformation
from creep, which is load-dependent, separately from that
INTRODUCTION caused by shrinkage. Deflection from creep arises from a
Deflection of flexural members under service load is reduced elastic modulus for concrete that includes imme-
computed by integrating curvature or using formulas for diate deflection. Deflection from shrinkage is caused by
elastic deflection that include an elastic concrete modulus shrinkage warping of a partially cracked section in addition
Ec and effective moment of inertia Ie. ACI 318 computes to a loss of stiffness from additional cracking through the
immediate deflection using an elastic deflection equa- use of a lower cracking moment that results from the devel-
tion, and additional time-dependent deflection from creep opment of restraint stress in the concrete as the concrete
and shrinkage by multiplying the immediate deflection shrinks over time. Comparison with test data demonstrates
value from sustained loads with a long-term multiplier the proposed approach can provide reasonable estimates of
that depends on the duration of loading and amount of long-term deflection with the correct material properties.
compression reinforcement. Another well-known approach
is to compute long-term deflection using an effective elastic SHORT-TERM DEFLECTION MODEL
modulus for concrete with a reduced value to account for ACI 318-19 uses an effective moment of inertia Ie devel-
creep under sustained loads plus a separate deflection value oped by Bischoff (2005, 2020) where a tension stiffening
from shrinkage warping (CEN 2004; fib 2013, 2019). moment ΔMts is added onto the cracked EcIcr response of the
This paper presents a rational approach for computing flexural member as shown in Fig. 1. Conversely, the tension
long-term deflection that builds on the principles used to stiffening curvature Δϕts can be subtracted from the EcIcr
develop an effective moment of inertia adopted by ACI response. Both approaches give the same result. Using the
318-19 (ACI Committee 318 2019) for immediate deflec- former approach for a defined service load moment Ma
tion of nonprestressed members. Comparison is made with
existing approaches and validated with experimental data.
ACI Structural Journal, V. 118, No. 2, March 2021.
MS No. S-2020-131, doi: 10.14359/51728192, received April 5, 2020, and reviewed
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2021, American Concrete Institute.
The approach adopted by ACI 318-19 for computing All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is obtained from
the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s closure, if any, will
immediate deflection of nonprestressed concrete using an be published ten months from this journal’s date if the discussion is received within
four months of the paper’s print publication.

ACI Structural Journal/March 2021 215

 Ma = EcIcrϕa + ΔMts (1) K depends on the type of load and support conditions (ACI
Committee 435 2020). For example, the value of K for a
with ΔMts = βtsΔMcr; the tension stiffening moment at member with a uniformly distributed load w equals 1.0
cracking ΔMcr = ηMcr; and η ≅ 1 – Icr/Ig, where the moment for a simply supported member, 2.4 for a cantilever, and
of inertia of the uncracked transformed section Itr is approx- 1.2 – 0.2Mo/Ma for a continuous span with Mo = wL2/8. Ie is
imated with the gross moment of inertia Ig of the concrete computed using Ma at the critical section and accounts for
section neglecting the reinforcement. Icr is the moment of nonlinear behavior after the member cracks.
inertia of the cracked transformed section, Ec is the elastic
modulus of the concrete, and βts is a tension stiffening factor EXISTING ACI APPROACH FOR LONG-TERM
with an upper limit equal to 1 at cracking that gradually DEFLECTION
drops down to 0 at high loads relative to Mcr. For the cracking The total deflection Δtotal over the long term is comprised
moment Mcr = frIg/yt, fr is the rupture modulus of concrete, of the computed short-term deflection value Δi plus the addi-
and yt is the distance from the centroid of the uncracked tional time-dependent deflection Δt from the effects of creep
(gross) section to the tension face. under sustained loads and shrinkage warping. This gives
Rearranging Eq. (1) in terms of the curvature ϕa and Δtotal = Δi + Δt. ACI 318-19 computes additional time-depen-
setting this equal to Ma/EcIe gives dent deflection by multiplying the short-term (immediate)
deflection value from sustained loads (including the portion
Ma M (1 − ∆M ts / M a ) Ma  M cr  of live load that is sustained) with a single multiplier λΔ = ξ/
φa = = a = 1 − βts η M  (2) (1 + 50ρ′) that includes the combined effects of creep plus
Ec I e Ec I cr Ec I cr a shrinkage
leading to
Δt = [Δi,D + Δi,L(sus)]λΔ (5a)
I cr I cr
Ie = = (3) where Δi,D equals the immediate deflection from dead load
M  I  M   I 
2

1 − βts  cr  1 − cr  1 −  cr  1 − cr 
 Ma   Ig   Ma   Ig 
assuming βts = Mcr/Ma after cracking. Ie equals Ig before
cracking. Restraint to shrinkage from the internal reinforce-
ment and supports causes tensile stresses to develop in the
concrete, leading to a reduction in the external moment
needed to crack the member and additional time depen-
dent cracking that reduces tension stiffening. Scanlon and
Bischoff (2008) recommend using 2/3Mcr for the reduced
cracking moment to give the expression for Ie adopted by
ACI 318-19 (Bischoff 2020).
I cr
Ie  2
2 
 M cr   I cr 
1  3  1  
 M a   Ig  Δt = Δcp + Δsh (5b)
 
when Ma > 2/3Mcr. Ie equals Ig when Ma ≤ 2/3Mcr. A reduced
cracking moment of 0.8Mcr is recommended for FRP rein-
forced concrete because the FRP reinforcement provides
less restraint to shrinkage than steel reinforcement (Bischoff
and Gross 2011). ACI 318-14 and earlier editions have used
Branson’s (1965) equation for Ie at full Mcr with Ie = (Mcr/
Ma)3Ig + [1 – (Mcr/Ma)3]Icr ≤ Ig.
Computing deflection with Ie
Short-term (immediate) deflection Δi under service loads
is calculated using either a linear elastic deflection equation
such as Δi = K(5/48)MaL2/EcIe or by integrating curvature
M/EcIe along the member span L where Ie depends on the
moment M at each location. For the deflection equation, Ma is
the service load moment at the critical section (located at the
support for a cantilever and at midspan for simply supported
and continuous members), and the elastic deflection factor
and Δi,L(sus) equals the immediate deflection from the portion
of live load sustained. The ACI time-dependent factor ξ
depends on the duration of sustained loading and is equal
to 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, and 2.0 for loads sustained over a dura-
tion of 3, 6, 12, and 60 months or more, respectively (ACI
Committee 318 2019). The compression reinforcement ratio
ρ′ = As′/bd acts to reduce time-dependent deflections, where
As′ equals the area of compression reinforcement, b is the
member width, and the effective depth d is taken from the
compression face of the section to the centroid of the tension
reinforcement area As.
An alternative, more detailed approach permitted by ACI
318-19 is to compute the additional time-dependent deflec-
(4) tions from creep and shrinkage separately (ACI Committee
435 1966, 2020; Branson 1965, 1977), where
The deflection Δcp caused by creep of the concrete under
sustained stress is given by
Δcp = krCtΔi (6)
where kr = 0.85/(1 + 50ρ′); Ct is the creep coefficient (related
to strains); and Δi is the immediate deflection from sustained
loads. The reduction factor kr is needed because the rela-
tive increase in curvature and corresponding increase in
deflection is less than the relative increase in strain when
the neutral axis depth shifts towards the tension face as the
compressive strain increases over time from creep (Branson
1977). kr also accounts for restraint of creep strains from the
presence of compression reinforcement. Time dependent
expressions for Ct that can range in complexity are readily
available and depend on several factors that include the age
of concrete at loading, duration of loading, curing conditions

216 ACI Structural Journal/March 2021

that account for the relative humidity and age when drying
starts, size and volume-surface ratio of the member, cement
type, and compressive strength (ACI Committee 209 1992,
2008; ACI Committee 435 2020; fib 2013). A convenient
and simple expression relating the creep coefficient to the
ACI time-dependent factor ξ is given by Ct = (ξ/2.0) × Cult.
In the absence of more detailed information, ACI Committee
435 (1978) recommends using a value of 1.6 for the ultimate
creep coefficient Cult while ACI Committee 209 (1992, 2008)
recommends a value of 2.35 under standard conditions.
Deflection Δsh caused by warping that occurs when short-
ening from concrete shrinkage is non-uniform through the
depth of the member is obtained by integrating the shrinkage
curvature ϕsh along the member span, making sure to account
for secondary moments that develop when the member is
restrained at the supports. A general equation for shrinkage
deflection is given by

Δsh = kshϕshL2 (7a)

where the factor ksh depends on the support conditions and

distribution of ϕsh along the member span L (0.125 for a
simply supported member, 0.090 for a member with one end
continuous, 0.065 for a member continuous at both ends, and
0.5 for a cantilevered member). The shrinkage curvature ϕsh
due to restraint from the internal reinforcement is based on a
modification of Miller’s (1958) empirical method developed
by Branson (1965, 1977)

Ash ε sh
φ sh = (7b)
h
with Ash = 0.7(ρ – ρ′)1/3[(ρ – ρ′)/ρ]1/2 for (ρ – ρ′) ≤ 3% and Ash
= 1 for (ρ – ρ′) > 3%. For this case, the tension reinforcement
ratio ρ = As/bd and compression reinforcement ratio ρ′ = As′/
bd are expressed as percentages, and h is the member thick-
ness. Time-dependent expressions for the free shrinkage
strain εsh are readily available and depend on factors like
those affecting creep (ACI Committee 209 1992, 2008;
ACI Committee 435 2020; fib 2013). A convenient expres-
sion relating the shrinkage strain to the ACI time-dependent
factor ξ is given by εsh = (ξ/2.0) × εsh,ult. ACI Committee
435 (1978) recommends a value of 400 × 10–6 for the ulti-
mate shrinkage strain εsh,ult while ACI Committee 209 (1992,
2008) suggests using a value of 780 × 10–6 under standard
conditions when more detailed information is not available.
PROPOSED LONG-TERM DEFLECTION MODEL
The short-term deflection model for Ie is extended to
include time-dependent deflections from creep and shrinkage
based on an approach described by Bischoff and Darabi
(2012). This approach gives the total deflection Δtotal which
includes short-term deflection.
From Fig. 2(a), creep reduces the stiffness of the long-term
uncracked response E̅cI̅ tr which is offset by a curvature ϕsh,tr
caused by shrinkage. Similarly, the long-term response of
the fully cracked section has a reduced stiffness E̅cI̅ cr arising
from creep and is offset by a shrinkage curvature ϕsh,cr that is
typically between 1 to 6 times greater than ϕsh,tr depending
Fig. 2—(a) Long-term response of flexural member
(including short-term response); and (b) zoomed-in long-
term response of flexural member (initial part).
on the reinforcing ratios ρ and ρ′, ratios d/h and d′/h, concrete
compressive strength fc′, which affects the elastic concrete
modulus, and creep coefficient Ct. ϕsh,cr/ϕsh,tr is greater for
lower values of ρ and Ct and for higher values of fc′. The
relative difference between ϕsh,cr and ϕsh,tr is not affected by
the shrinkage strain, although shrinkage does reduce the
cracking moment. Figure 2(b) provides a zoomed-in view of
the initial part of the long-term response.
For long-term calculations, an effective elastic modulus
of concrete E̅c = Ec/(1 + Ct) that includes the immediate
and creep components of strain (Gilbert 1988) is used to
compute the long-term moments of inertia of the uncracked
transformed section I̅ tr and cracked transformed section I̅ cr.
The long-term (effective) modular ratio n̅ = Es/E̅c = n(1 + Ct)
is used to transform the reinforcement in the uncracked and
cracked sections, where n = Es/Ec is the short-term modular
ratio and Es is the elastic modulus of the reinforcement.
Model development
Referring to Fig. 2(a), the tension stiffening moment ΔMts
is added onto the long-term cracked response E̅cI̅ cr of the
flexural member (similar to the approach used for short-term
deflection) which is offset by ϕsh,cr

ACI Structural Journal/March 2021 217

 Ma = E̅cI̅ cr(ϕa – ϕsh,cr) + ΔMts (8)

with ΔMts = βtsΔMcr; ΔMcr = η̅(Mcr′ + ΔMsh); and η̅ = 1 – I̅ cr/

I̅ tr. I̅ tr can be approximated with Ig for design but is kept as
I̅ tr for the purposes of this paper as it is more exact. Gilbert
(2003) suggests that the use of Ig is unnecessarily conserva-
tive in deflection calculations. Mcr′ is the reduced cracking
moment caused by the development of tensile stresses in
the concrete from restraint to shrinkage by the internal rein-
forcement. A reduction in tensile strength under sustained
load can also lead to a decrease in the cracking moment.
The offset moment from shrinkage ΔMsh = (E̅cI̅ cr/η̅)Δϕsh with
Δϕsh = ϕsh,cr – ϕsh,tr (refer to Fig. 2(a) and (b) for a visual
description of these terms). Hence, ΔMcr = η̅Mcr′ + E̅cI̅ crΔϕsh.
Rearranging Eq. (8) in terms of the curvature ϕa gives

M a (1 − ∆M ts / M a ) Fig. 3—Effect of short-term plus sustained loading combined

φa = + φ sh , cr (9a)
Ec I cr with deformation from shrinkage.
plus creep behavior under sustained loads and shrinkage
Ma  M cr  deformation as follows
a  1  ts    ts sh ,tr  1  ts  sh , cr (9b)
Ec I cr  Ma 
I cr
Compare Eq. (9a) and (9b) with Eq. (2) for short-term Ie  2 (11a)
deformation. Adopting a generalized expression for the 2 
 M cr   I cr 
curvature at Ma 1  3  1  
 M a   I tr 
Ma  
φa = + φ sh , e (10a)
Ec I e 2   2 
 M cr    3 M cr 
leads to a time-dependent (long-term) value for the effec- sh , e  3  sh ,tr  1     sh , cr (11b)
tive moment of inertia I̅ e used to compute curvature from the  M a    M a  
effects of creep under sustained loading that includes short-      
term deformation I̅ tr can be approximated with Ig for design as noted earlier.
Hence, before cracking when Ma ≤ 2/3Mcr, I̅ e = Ig and ϕa =
I cr Ma/E̅cIg + ϕsh,tr. After cracking when Ma > 2/3Mcr, ϕa = Ma/
Ie = (10b)
M′  I  E̅cI̅ e + ϕsh,e using Eq. (11a) for I̅ e and Eq. (11b) for ϕsh,e.
1 − βts cr 1 − cr 
Ma  I tr 
Offset curvatures caused by shrinkage
and an effective shrinkage curvature ϕsh,e The offset curvatures ϕsh,tr and ϕsh,cr arising from shrinkage
are obtained using the “equivalent tensile force method”
ϕsh,e = βtsϕsh,tr + (1 – βts)ϕsh,cr (10c) (Branson 1977) for both the uncracked and fully cracked
sections as depicted in Fig. 4 and are similar to those
I̅ e depends on the level of cracking in the member through computed with the fib Model Code 2010 (fib 2013). In this
the Mcr′/Ma ratio and βts factor, while ϕsh,e depends on the approach, an equivalent tensile shrinkage force Tsh = EsAsεsh
level of cracking through the βts factor only. Figure 3 demon- located at the centroid of the tension reinforcing steel is
strates how deformation from short-term plus sustained multiplied by the eccentricity e of the force relative to the
loading (Ma/E̅cI̅ e) is combined with the deformation value centroid of the long-term uncracked transformed section or
from shrinkage warping of the partially cracked section long-term cracked transformed section to give an equivalent
(ϕsh,e) which represents a weighted average of deformation shrinkage moment Tshe. Separate tensile forces are obtained
caused by shrinkage warping of the uncracked and cracked for the tension steel and compression steel with each having
sections. their own eccentricity. This approach adopts the same prin-
For long-term behavior, the tension stiffening factor βts ciple as using a fictious decompression force introduced by
= (Mcr′ + ΔMsh)/(Ma + ΔMsh). Simplifying this factor by Nilson (1976) for evaluating prestressed concrete.
ignoring ΔMsh gives βts ≈ Mcr′/Ma, which provides a conser- Dividing the shrinkage moment Tshe by the effective
vative estimate of deflection. With this substitution and concrete modulus E̅c and long-term moment of inertia
assuming a reduced cracking moment Mcr′ = 2/3Mcr for (depending on whether the section is uncracked or fully
steel-reinforced concrete, the proposed model for computing cracked) gives the respective offset curvatures. Warping
total deflection gives separate components for immediate deflection occurs because of nonuniform shortening through

218 ACI Structural Journal/March 2021


Fig. 4—Equivalent tension force model used to compute
shrinkage curvature for section with tension reinforcement As.
the depth of the section. For a member with tension rein-
forcement only
nAs etr nAs eg
φ sh ,tr = ε sh ≈ ε sh (12a)
I tr Ig
nAs ecr
φ sh , cr = ε sh (12b)
I cr
The eccentricities e̅ tr and e̅ cr of the equivalent tension
force are taken relative to the centroids of the uncracked and
cracked long-term transformed sections respectively. For a
more exact approach an age-adjusted effective modulus of
concrete equal to Ec/(1 + χCt) that includes an aging coef-
ficient χ (assumed equal to 0.8) can be used to account for
the gradual development of restraint stress in the concrete as
shrinkage increases with time (Gilbert 1988).
The actual E̅cI̅ cr response is initially nonlinear because
of the axial load from the tensile shrinkage force Tsh acting
on the cracked section, but converges quickly to the slope
of the shifted E̅cI̅ cr response as shown in Fig. 2(b). This
behavior is similar but opposite to a prestressed member
with a compressive axial force from the prestressing acting
on the cross section (Bischoff et al. 2018). Shrinkage can
be considered as negative prestressing which decreases the
cracking moment, causes an initial downwards deflection in
the uncracked member, and a shift in the E̅cI̅ cr response (rela-
tive to the E̅cI̅ tr response) to the right and downwards.
Discussion
Figure 3 demonstrates how the proposed approach for
computing long-term deformation treats the time-dependent
effects from creep and shrinkage separately. Separating the
deflection components is advantageous when the variation
ACI Structural Journal/March 2021
Fig. 5—Long-term member response comparison.
of curvature along the member length from sustained load
is different from that of shrinkage, particularly when elastic
deflection equations are used to compute deflection. Short-
term deflection plus the effects of creep from sustained
loading are computed with the long-term effective moment of
inertia I̅ e using Eq. (11a), while deformation from shrinkage
is based on an effective shrinkage curvature ϕsh,e defined by
Eq. (11b) that also depends on the level of loading relative to
the cracking load as seen in Fig. 3. Branson (1965, 1977) and
others (Walkup et al. 2019) have typically based shrinkage
deformation calculations on the uncracked flexural member
only.
For loads less than the defined cracking load moment,
the effective shrinkage curvature equals the shrinkage
curvature ϕsh,tr of the uncracked section. At higher loads,
the shrinkage curvature equals a weighted average of the
uncracked and cracked shrinkage curvature values that grad-
ually approaches the shrinkage curvature ϕsh,cr of the fully
cracked section as the applied load becomes increasingly
greater than the cracking load (Fig. 3). Hence, deformation
from both creep and shrinkage are dependent on the extent
of flexural cracking which is directly linked to the magni-
tude of service load moment relative to the reduced cracking
moment value.
Figure 5 compares the proposed approach using both
the exact tension stiffening factor βts = (Mcr′ + ΔMsh)/(Ma +
ΔMsh) and approximate tension stiffening factor βts ≈ Mcr′/
Ma with Mcr′ = 2/3Mcr. Comparison is made with the Euro-
code 2 approach (CEN 2004; fib 2013), which is similar to
the proposed approach but slightly more conservative, as
discussed in the Appendix. The ACI 318 equations for fr
(used to compute Mcr) and Ec are used for each comparison
including for Eurocode 2. For the typical example shown in
Fig. 5, approximating the tension stiffening factor βts with
Mcr′/Ma increases deformation by approximately 4% at full
service load (in this example, the service load moment Ma
= 2.4Mcr), and by another 3% with the approximation made
in Eurocode 2. Differences between these approaches are
not great and are affected primarily by the reinforcing ratio,
free shrinkage strain value and creep coefficient. Differ-
ences related to the specific equations used by ACI 318
and Eurocode 2 for the cracking stress (which affects Mcr)
219
and Ec are not considered (refer to the Appendix for more
details about these differences). The values adopted for Ct
and εsh are highly variable and play an important role also in
affecting computed values of deformation. Deflection calcu-
lations at the design stage can easily vary by ±30% or more,
and should be intended for control of deflection only unless
specific details of the construction process, loading history,
and material properties (including shrinkage and creep) can
be well controlled.
Deflection under sustained loading
Long-term deflection under sustained loading accounts for
preloading from construction loads by computing the long-
term effective moment of inertia I̅ e and effective shrinkage
curvature ϕsh,e using the full dead MD plus live ML service
load moment. In other words, I̅ e and ϕsh,e are computed using
Eq. (11a) and (11b), respectively, with Ma = MD + ML. Long-
term deflection from the sustained load is computed using
the elastic deflection equation Δ = K(5/48)MsusL2/E̅cI̅ e and
added to the computed deflection from shrinkage using Eq.
(7a) with ϕsh,e being substituted for ϕsh to give Δsh = kshϕsh,eL2.
The sustained load moment Msus = MD + ML,sus.
EVALUATION AND COMPARISON WITH TEST
RESULTS
The presented methodology is validated by comparison
with long-term tests from Jaccoud and Favre (1982) and
Gilbert and Nejadi (2004). Jaccoud and Favre tested seven
simply supported slab strips with a span of 3.1 m (10.2 ft)
at five different levels of sustained load corresponding to
a midspan moment between 20 and 60% of the ultimate
capacity. The magnitude of load relative to the cracking
moment (0.71Mcr to 2.15Mcr) affects the level of cracking
in the member and therefore the tension stiffening effect.
The slab strips were subjected to four-point loading (near
the third points) in addition to the member self-weight.
Specimens were identical and had a cross-section 750 mm
(29.5 in.) wide by 160 mm (6.3 in.) thick, tension reinforce-
ment ratio of 0.58%, and compression reinforcement ratio of
0.06%. The specimens were moist cured for the first 7 days
prior to being exposed in a laboratory-controlled environ-
ment at 21 ± 1°C (70 ± 1.8°F) and 60 ± 5% relative humidity.
Load was applied at 28 days and sustained for either 365 or
510 days, depending on the specimen tested.
Average values of measured concrete properties at the age
of loading are provided for cylinder strength fc (30.6 MPa
[4450 psi]), modulus of elasticity Ec (29.5 GPa [4280 ksi]),
and tensile strength fr (2.8 MPa [406 psi]). The concrete
creep coefficient Ct had an average measured value of 2.31 at
365 days and 2.39 at 510 days, while the measured shrinkage
strain εsh was 268 × 10–6 at 365 days and 320 × 10–6 at 510
days. The ACI 318 time-dependent factor ξ used to compute
long-term deflection equals 1.4 for the specimens with a load
duration of 365 days (12 months) and 1.55 at 510 days (17
months) of loading. The steel reinforcement had an elastic
modulus Es of 205 GPa (29,730 ksi). Deflection calculations
are based on the measured material properties.
Gilbert and Nejadi (2004) carried out their long-term
tests on six beams and six slab strips. Both the beams and
220
slabs were simply supported with a 3.5 m (11.5 ft) span.
The beams were loaded with two sustained point loads
applied at the third points, while the slabs were loaded with
a superimposed load that was uniformly distributed. Load
from the member self-weight is included in the analysis.
The beams had a square cross-section 250 mm (9.8 in.) wide
by either 333 or 348 mm (13.1 or 13.7 in.) high (depending
on the concrete cover) and reinforcing ratio of 0.53% and
0.8%. The slab strips had a cross section 400 mm (15.75
in.) wide by 160 mm (6.3 in.) thick and reinforcing ratio of
0.42%, 0.63%, and 0.84%. Hence, all members were lightly
reinforced. Each pair of identical beams was subjected to
a sustained load corresponding to either 26 to 30% or 42
to 44% of the ultimate moment capacity at midspan (1.2
to 1.5Mcr and 1.8 to 2.5Mcr), while each pair of identical
slabs was loaded at 32 to 39% and 44 to 50% of the ulti-
mate moment capacity at midspan (1.15 to 1.7Mcr and 1.5
to 2.3Mcr).
The beams and slabs were moist-cured for 14 days and
then loaded with a constant sustained load for a further 380
days. Temperature was not controlled and varied from 11 to
24°C (52 to 75°F) during the period of testing. Humidity was
not reported and was likely not controlled either. Material
tests gave an average compressive strength fc of 18.3 MPa
(2650 psi) and concrete modulus Ec of 22.82 GPa (3310 ksi)
at the time of loading (14 days). Gilbert and Nejadi (2004)
used a computed value of fr = 0.6√fc (2.6 MPa or 375 psi) to
compute the cracking moment Mcr for these tests because
of difficulties with matching the observed cracking moment
with computed values based on the measured rupture
modulus fr at the time of loading. Efforts were made to
minimize shrinkage before loading by keeping the concrete
moist cured up to the time of loading at 14 days. The creep
coefficient Ct had a measured value of 1.71 after 380 days
of loading and relatively high shrinkage strain εsh of 825 ×
10–6. The ACI 318 time-dependent factor ξ equals 1.44 for
these long-term deflection calculations. The elastic modulus
of steel Es is assumed to equal 200 GPa (29,000 ksi).
Computed values of long-term deflection (Δcalc) are
compared with experimental values (Δexp) in Fig. 6 and
7, showing lines for perfect prediction (Δcalc/Δexp = 1) and
±30% deviation (Δcalc/Δexp = 1.3 and 0.7). Statistical details
of the accuracy for all approaches evaluated are provided
in Table 1 for each study and for the two studies combined,
with mean values of the prediction ratio (Δcalc/Δexp), standard
deviation (St. Dev.) and coefficient of variation (COV).
Comparison in Fig. 6 for the proposed approach and
Eurocode 2 approach shows that both provide close agree-
ment mostly within a few percent of the measured deflec-
tion values. Both models provide a consistent prediction of
deformation with a reasonably low coefficient of variation
for these tests. However, it is important to realize the signifi-
cance of Mcr on computed values of deflection. For example,
using the measured rupture modulus fr at the time of loading
(3.7 MPa or 537 psi) to compute Mcr for Gilbert and Nejadi’s
(2004) tests leads to an unconservative prediction of deflec-
tion with the proposed approach giving Δcalc/Δexp = 0.84 on
average (compared to Δcalc/Δexp = 0.98 from Table 1) because
of Mcr having too high a value.
ACI Structural Journal/March 2021
 Table 1—Statistical comparison of calculated and
experimental deflections
Δcalc/Δexp
Standard
Approach Test series Mean deviation COV
A 0.97 0.143 14.7%
Proposed B 0.98 0.058 5.8%
A+B 0.98 0.094 9.6%
A 0.98 0.159 16.2%
Eurocode 2 B 1.05 0.066 6.3%
A+B 1.02 0.110 10.8%
A 1.34 0.375 27.9%

Fig. 6—Long-term deflection comparison with tests using ACI 318-19 B 1.17 0.079 6.8%
proposed approach and Eurocode 2. A+B 1.23 0.241 19.6%
A 0.68 0.278 41.1%
ACI 318-14 B 0.76 0.229 30.0%
A+B 0.73 0.244 33.4%

Note: Test Series A: Jaccoud and Favre (1982); Test Series B: Gilbert and Nejadi
(2004).

Fig. 7—Long-term deflection comparison with tests using
ACI 318-19 and ACI 318-14.
Figure 7 provides a comparison of test data with ACI
318-14 using Branson’s (1965) equation for Ie at full Mcr
and with ACI 318-19 using Bischoff’s (2005) equation for
Ie at 2/3Mcr. ACI 318-14 underpredicts deflection by 27%
on average for both sets of tests while ACI 318-19 over-
predicts deflection by 23% on average. ACI 318-19 gives
a more flexible response and hence more deflection than
ACI 318-14 because of the reduced cracking moment and
problems associated with Branson’s equation for Ie giving
too stiff a response for lightly reinforced members (Bischoff
2020). The accuracy of the two ACI 318 approaches is obvi-
ously also dependent on the long-term deflection multiplier.
Using a single multiplier for the combined effects of creep
and shrinkage has been criticized in the past as the multi-
plier value is influenced by numerous factors that include
the creep and shrinkage characteristics of the concrete,
curing and environmental conditions, age of concrete at first
loading, level of sustained load, and nρ, which is a func-
tion of the reinforcing ratio and elastic modulus of the rein-
forcement (Gilbert 1999; Gilbert and Nejadi 2004; Marí et
al. 2010; Torres at al. 2012). Others have commented on the
influence of the Ig/Icr ratio, controlled primarily by nρ, on the
deflection multiplier (Walkup et al. 2019).
CONCLUSIONS
A rational approach is presented for computing long-term
deflections of reinforced (nonprestressed) concrete. The
proposed approach is based on the same principles used
to formulate an effective moment of inertia Ie adopted by
ACI 318-19 for computing short-term deflection. Separate
components are developed for creep and shrinkage deflec-
tion using a coherent model for tension stiffening that
encompasses both phenomena as follows:
• Creep causes a reduction of stiffness in the concrete
with time that is reflected by a decrease in stiffness of
the load-deformation response for the member in both
the uncracked and cracked states. This leads to a long-
term effective moment of inertia I̅ e used to compute
deformation that includes both the short-term (imme-
diate) deformation and long-term deformation from
creep under sustained loads.
• Shrinkage causes a shift in the member response modi-
fied by creep (in the direction of increasing deforma-
tions), in addition to a reduction of the effective cracking
moment because of tensile stresses in the concrete that
originate from restraint to shrinkage by the internal rein-
forcement and supports. The reduced cracking moment
decreases tension stiffening, which affects both creep
and shrinkage deformation.
Current ACI 318 provisions for time-dependent deflec-
tions apply a single multiplier to the immediate deflection
caused by sustained load. This approach is simple and easy
to apply but does not account for the mechanics of sectional
behavior nor the many factors affecting long-term deforma-
tion such as environmental conditions, the many types of
current concretes (compressive strength, type of cement,
dosage, and so on), age at loading and level of loading,
reinforcement ratios, and relationship between the moduli
of elasticity of the reinforcement and concrete. While
creep deflections depend on the sustained load for which

ACI Structural Journal/March 2021 221

a simple multiplier might be applicable, deformation from
shrinkage depends only partly on the level of applied load as
demonstrated with the proposed model. Deformation from
shrinkage is also influenced by the amount of shrinkage
and amounts of reinforcement in relation to the specimen
cross-section details.
Comparison of the proposed approach with the ACI 318 and
Eurocode 2 approaches is made and evaluated with a limited
set of long-term deflection data. The proposed approach and
method used by Eurocode 2 provide close agreement within
a few percent of the test results. ACI 318-14 underpredicts
the defection results by 27% on average while ACI 318-19
overpredicts the same set of data by 23% on average. Recall
that ACI 318-14 uses Branson’s (1965) expression for Ie at
full Mcr to compute immediate deflection which is multiplied
by the deflection multiplier to get the time-dependent deflec-
tion, while ACI 318-19 uses Bischoff’s (2005) expression for
Ie at 2/3Mcr with the same long-term deflection multiplier.
The proposed approach requires the creep coefficient Ct and
shrinkage strain εsh to compute long-term deflection. Use
of a correct cracking moment that accounts for shrinkage
restraint has a significant effect on the accuracy of computed
values for both short- and long-term deflection that cannot
be overemphasized. It is recommended the alternative
detailed approach permitted by ACI 318-19 be replaced with
the proposed approach and be used as the basis to develop a
set of more rational long-term deflection multipliers.
AUTHOR BIOS
Peter H. Bischoff, FACI, is a Professor in the Civil Engineering Depart-
ment at the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, Canada. He
is a member of ACI Committees 224, Cracking; 360, Design of Slabs
on Ground; 435, Deflection of Concrete Building Structures; and 440,
Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement; and Joint ACI-ASCE Committee
408, Bond and Development of Reinforcement. He received the ACI Design
Award in 2014 and ASCE T.Y. Lin Award in 2020. His research interests
include serviceability behavior of concrete structures and design with
fiber-reinforced concrete.
ACI member Lluis Torres is a Professor in the Mechanical Engineering and
Industrial Construction Department at the University of Girona, Girona,
Spain. He is a member of ACI Committees 224, Cracking; 435, Deflection
of Concrete Building Structures; and 440, Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Rein-
forcement. His research interests include serviceability behavior of concrete
structures and fiber-reinforced polymer-reinforced concrete structures.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work presented in this paper was initiated while the first author was
on a sabbatical visit with the AMADE Group (Analysis and Advanced
Materials for Structural Design), Department of Mechanical Engineering
and Industrial Construction, Universitat de Girona, Girona, Spain.
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ACI Structural Journal/March 2021
Members,” Engineering Structures, V. 40, pp. 230-239. doi: 10.1016/j. Adopting the third option for Δϕcr defined by Eq. (A2c)
engstruct.2012.02.021
Walkup, S.; Musselman, E.; and Gross, S., 2019, “Effect of Service Load
leads to a different expression for ϕa
Levels on Long-Term Deflection Multiplier,” ACI Structural Journal, V.
116, No. 2, Mar., pp. 89-100. doi: 10.14359/51711137   M ′ + ∆M sh    M a 
φ a = βts  cr   + φ sh ,tr 
APPENDIX   M a + ∆M sh    Ec I tr 
Tension stiffening curvature approach for long-   M ′ + ∆M sh    M a 
term deformation (including Eurocode 2 approach) + 1 − βts  cr    E I + φ sh , cr  (A3c)
  M + ∆M sh 
Subtracting the tension stiffening curvature Δϕts from the a c cr

long-term E̅cI̅ cr response shown in Fig. 2(a) gives which gives the same computed value of curvature as Eq.
(A3a) and (A3b) when the same tension stiffening factor βts
Ma and reduced cracking moment Mcr′ are used. The ΔMsh term
φa = + φ sh , cr − ∆φts (A1)
Ec I cr which results from shrinkage is an added complication of
using Eq. (A3c), and the relative proportions for deforma-
where Δϕts = βtsΔϕcr and the maximum tension stiffening tion caused by load and shrinkage are not the same as those
curvature at cracking Δϕcr is defined as in Eq. (A2a) and (A2b) because of the ΔMsh term.
Equation (A3c) forms the basis of the Eurocode 2 (CEN
 M′ M′ 
(
∆φcr =  cr − cr  + φ sh , cr − φ sh ,tr
 Ec I cr Ec I tr 
) (A2a) 2004) and fib Model Code 2010 (fib 2013) expressions for
computing long-term deformation. However, this requires
setting ΔMsh = 0, which is another approximation leading to
with (Mcr′/E̅cI̅ cr – Mcr′/E̅cI̅ tr) = ηMcr′/E̅cI̅ cr and η = 1 – I̅ cr/I̅ tr.
a more conservative estimate of deflection as demonstrated
Alternatively, Δϕcr can be expressed by factoring the ratio
in Fig. 5. Assuming βts = Mcr′/Ma and Mcr′ = 0.5M cr =
Mcr′/Ma out of the first pair of terms in Eq. (A2a)
0.71Mcr (compare with Mcr′ = 2/3Mcr for the proposed
approach), along with setting ΔMsh = 0, gives
M cr′  M a M 
∆φcr =  (
− a  + φ sh , cr − φ sh ,tr (A2b)
M a  Ec I cr Ec I tr 
)

2
       Ma
2

φ a = 0.5 M cr Ma M cr
or as a third option  M   E I + φ sh ,tr  + 1 − 0.5  M   + φ sh , cr 
a c tr 
 a   Ec I cr 

 M ′ + ∆M sh   M a
M 
∆φcr =  cr  
− a  + φ sh , cr − φ sh ,tr 
 M a + ∆M sh   Ec I cr Ec I tr 
(A2c)
This third option is based on similar triangles with the
vertex located at the idealized origin positioned at ΔMsh as
shown in Fig. 2(a) and (b), with Δϕcr/(Mcr′ + ΔMsh) = [(Ma/
E̅cI̅ cr + ϕsh,cr) – (Ma/E̅cI̅ tr + ϕsh,tr)]/(Ma + ΔMsh).
Substituting Eq. (A2a) into Eq. (A1) with Δϕts = βtsΔϕcr
leads to
Ma  M cr′ 
φa =
Ec I cr 1 − βts η M  + βts φ sh ,tr + (1 − βts ) φ sh , cr Similar to the proposed approach in this paper, the
a
which is the same as Eq. (9b) and forms the basis of the
proposed model for long-term deflection assuming βts ≈ Mcr′/
Ma and Mcr′ = 2/3Mcr.
Substituting the alternative expression for Δϕcr defined by
Eq. (A2b) into Eq. (A1) leads to a slightly different expres-
sion for ϕa given by Eq. (A3b) which is identical to Eq. (A3a)
except for the first two of four terms in Eq. (A3b) which
represent a rearranged form of the first term in Eq. (A3a).
  M ′   M    M ′   M 
φ a = βts  cr    a  + 1 − βts  cr    a 
  M a    Ec I tr    M a    Ec I cr 
 (A3b)
+βts φ sh ,tr + (1 − βts ) φ sh , cr
  (A4)
(
)
 Equation (A4) is identical to the Eurocode 2 and fib Model
Code 2010 equations for long-term deformation under
sustained loading
M M
φ a = (1 − ζ) +ζ + (1 − ζ) φ sh ,tr + ζφ sh ,cr (A5)
Ec I tr Ec I cr
where ζ = 1 – β(Mcr/M)2 with β = 0.5 for a sustained load.
The concept of a reduced cracking moment equivalent to
√βMcr was introduced in the CEB-FIP Model Code 1990
(CEB 1993) and applies in Eurocode 2 when M > Mcr as
shown in Fig. 5.
shrinkage curvatures are defined using ϕsh = n̅ (S/I)εsh for the
(A3a)
uncracked and fully cracked sections, where S represents the
first moment of the reinforcing steel area about the centroid
of uncracked and cracked sections (Ase̅ tr and Ase̅ cr for the
tension reinforcement), and I is the moment inertia of the
uncracked and cracked sections (I̅ tr and I̅ cr) based on an
effective elastic modulus of concrete E̅c. Refer to Balázs et
al. (2013) for a more detailed explanation.
Specific differences between the proposed ACI approach
and Eurocode 2 approach for long-term deformation are
summarized in Table A1. In general, the tensile strength of
concrete used to compute the cracking moment is between
10 to 25% greater using the ACI equation for fr (except
for slabs and shallow beams), while the elastic modulus
of concrete is between 10 to 30% less with the ACI equa-
tion for Ec depending on the concrete strength. Using an

ACI Structural Journal/March 2021 223

Table A1—Differences between ACI proposed approach and Eurocode 2 approach
Proposed ACI Approach Eurocode 2 (EC2) Approach

Reduced cracking moment Mcr′ 2/3Mcr 0.71Mcr*

 M cr′    M′   M cr′ 
2
  M′ 2
ϕsh,e φ sh ,tr + 1 −  cr   φ sh ,cr φ + 1 −  cr   φ sh ,cr
 M a   M a 
sh tr
  Ma     M a  
,

Flexure fr or axial fctm tensile stress fr = 0.62√fc′ in MPa fctm = 0.3(fc′)2/3 in MPa
used to compute Mcr† fr = 7.5√fc′ in psi fctm = 1.58(fc′)2/3 in psi

 f ′+ 8 
0.3

4730√fc′ in MPa 22, 000  c in MPa

Ec  10 
57,000√fc′ in psi
359,300(fc′ + 1160)0.3 in psi
*
EC2 uses a factor β = 0.5 for sustained and repeated loading (for Ma > Mcr) causing a shift in the deformation response equivalent to using a reduced cracking moment value √βMcr
= 0.71Mcr when β = 0.5.
†
EC2 permits the flexural tensile strength fctm,fl = [1.6 – h/1000]fctm ≥ fctm to compute Mcr in the absence of axial tensile stresses such as those caused by shrinkage or thermal effects
(h is in mm with 1 in. = 25.4 mm).

increased value of the cracking moment compared to Euro-
code 2 decreases the computed value of deformation but
this is counteracted with using a lower value of elastic
modulus of concrete which increases deformation. Differ-
ences between the expressions for the effective shrinkage
curvature ϕsh,e arise from the approximation made by setting
ΔMsh = 0 in the Eurocode 2 approach. Figure 5 shows the
effect this approximation has on the difference between
deformation values computed with the two approaches.

224 ACI Structural Journal/March 2021