Occupational Safety and Health

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

www.osha.gov

- Part of the Department of Labor

- Assures safe and healthful workplaces

- Sets and enforces standards

- Provides training, outreach, education, and assistance

-State regulations possibly more stringent

National Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health (NIOSH) www.cdc.gov/niosh

- Part of the Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

-Conducts research and makes recommendations for the prevention of work-related illness

Construction Hazards

 Cuts
 Electrocution
 Falls
 Falling objects
 Heat/cold stress
 Musculoskeletal disease
 Tripping

Construction Accidents

Construction is one of the most hazardous occupations. This industry accounts for

 8% of the workforce, but 20% of fatalities

 About 1,100 deaths annually
  About 170,000 serious injuries annually

Design as a Risk Factor

 Main finding: design contributes significantly to work-related serious injury.

 37% of workplace fatalities are due to design-related issues.
 In another 14% of fatalities, design-related issues may have played a role

Fall

 Number one cause of construction fatalities - in 2010, 35% of 751 deaths

www.bls.gov/news.release/cfoi102.htm
 Common situations include making connections, walking on beams or near openings such as
floors or windows
 Fall protection is required at height of 6 feet above a surface 29 CFR 1926.760].
 Common causes: slippery surfaces, unexpected vibrations, misalignment, and unexpected loads

What is Prevention through Design?

Eliminating or reducing work-related hazards and illnesses and minimizing risks associated with

 Construction
 Manufacturing
 Maintenance
 Use, reuse, and disposal of facilities, materials, and equipment

Hierarchy of Controls

ELIMINATION

Design it out

SUBSTITUTION

Use something else

ENGINEERING CONTROLS

Isolation and guarding

 ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS

Training and work scheduling

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Last resort

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Last line of defense against injury

Examples:

 Hard hats
 Steel-toed boots
 Safety glasses
 Gloves
 Harnesses
Process Tasks

 Perform a hazard analysis

 Incorporate safety into the design documents
 Make a CAD model for member labeling and erection sequencing

Why Prevention through Design?

 Ethical reasons
 Construction dangers
 Design-related
 safety issues
 Financial and non-financial benefits
 Practical benefits

Ethical Reasons

National Society of Professional Engineers' Code of

Ethics:

"Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public..."

American Society of Civil Engineers' Code of Ethics:

"Engineers shall recognize that the lives, safety, health and welfare of the general public are dependent
upon engineering decisions..."

Applies to Constructability

How reasonable is the design?

 Cost
 Duration
 Quality
 Safety

Three Entities Associated with Design

 Engineer
  Detailer
 Fabricator

Design Phase

 Owner establishes architectural/engineering requirements for building

 Designer runs analysis on design according to building codes
 Building is designed for safety, serviceability, construetability, and economy
 Client receives final design specifications and drawings
 Designer stores the calculations

Detailing

Fabricator programs engineer's drawings with software to visualize connections

Shop Drawings

While detailing, fabricator makes drawings containing specifics about how to fabricate cach member

Fabrication

To achieve its final configuration, the steel may be

 Cut
 Sheared
 Punched
 Drilled
 Fit
 Welded

Each final member is labeled with a piece mark, length, and job number for identification.

Transportation

Members are transported via

 Flatbed truck
 Train
  Waterways

Unloading and Shake-out

 Steel members are unloaded and placed on blocking to allow space for chokers to be easily
attached.
 Shake-out: members are sorted on the ground to allow for efficient erection.

Picking and Hoisting

 Cranes lift members into place

 Hole at end of each column
 After a choker is tied around the center of gravity, multiple beams can be lifted at once

Positioning and Initial Bolting

 Each beam is lowered into place, and a worker lines it up correctly with drift pins. At least two
bolts are attached before the crane releases the load.
 OSHA requirement

Final Bolting

 Once everything is in the correct position, the final bolting is performed with a torque wrench or
similar tool.

Prefabrication

 Shop work is often faster than field work.

 Shop work is less expensive than field work.
 Shop work is more consistent because of the controlled environment.
 Shop work yields better quality than field work.
 With prefabrication, less work is done at high elevations, which reduces the risks of falls and
falling objects.

Example: Prefabricated Truss

  Fewer connections to make in the air
 Safer and faster

Access Help

 Shop-installed vertical ladders

 Bolts on ladders and platforms can be removed later or kept for maintenance

Column Safety

 Column splices
 Tabs/Holes for safety lines
 Base plates

Column Splices

 Have column splice around 4 feet above the working floor

 OSHA requirement

Holes for Safety Lines

 Include holes at 21 inches and 42 inches for guardrails

 Additional, higher holes can also be included for lifeline support

Base Plates

 Column base plates should always have at least 4 anchor rods bolted in
 OSHA Requirement

Beams and Girders

Workers walk on beams to get to connections or other columns, a common fall hazard. Increase safety
by considering

 Beam width
 Use of cantilevers
  Ability to support lifelines

Beam Width

 For walking safely, use beams with a minimum beam width of 6 inches.

Use of Cantilevers

Minimize the use of cantilevers, which

 are not good for tying off

 pose connection difficulties

Ability to Support Lifelines

 Design beams near or above openings to be able to support lifelines

 Contract drawings should make clear how many lifelines each beam can support, and at what
locations they can be attached

Connections

Connections are very important but can be very difficult to install. There are two main tools for making
connections:

 Bolts
 Welds

Bolts

For safe bolted connections, consider:

 Self-supporting connections
 Double connections
 Erection aid: "dummy holes"
 Bolt sizes
 Minimum number of bolts
 Awkward or dangerous connection locations

Self-Supporting Connections
  Avoid hanging connections
 Consider using beam seats

Double Connections

 Avoid beams of common depth connecting into the column web at the same location.
 If double connections are necessary, design them to have full support during the connection
process.
 OSHA requirement

Erection Aids: "Dummy Holes"

 Provide an extra "dummy hole" in the connection, where a spud wrench can be inserted
 This is most appropriate when there are only two bolts

Bolt Sizes

 Use as few bolt sizes as possible

Minimum Number of Bolts

 Use a minimum of two bolts per connection

 OSHA requirement

Immediate Stability

Provide pin-holed or bolted connections to provide immediate stability after placement of members

Avoid Awkward or Dangerous Connection Locations

 Time-consuming and dangerous

 Can cause strain

Welds

For safer welded connections:

 Avoid awkward or dangerous connection locations

  Immediate stability
 Welding location
 Welding material

Welding Locations

 Specify shop welding rather than field welding

 If field welds are necessary, design them in convenient locations

Welding Material

Welding can be a fire hazard and can emit toxic fumes. Always be aware of what material is being
welded.

Other Methods for Safer Construction

Address these factors:

 Sharp corners
 Access problems
 Temporary bracing
 Crane safety
 Member placement
 Tripping hazards

Avoid Sharp Corners

 Corners can cause clothing or wires to snag, resulting in falling objects or tripping hazards
 Corners can cause scratches or cuts

Access Problems

Complicated connections take time to complete and are dangerous if they require awkward positioning,
so consider

 Adequacy of space for making connections

 Small column size access
 Hand trap danger
Provide Enough Space for Connections

 There may not be enough space for common tools

 These connections can be made better by clipping away portions or increasing distances

Small Column Size Access

 Small column depth can make connections difficult

 Access to bolts can be blocked by the column flanges
 Attach a tab to the column

Hand Trap

 The situation shown can create a dangerous hand trap

 A solution is to cut out a section of the flange to allow access to the bolts

Know Approximate Sizes of Tools

"Knuckle-busting" - workers knuckles get damaged from trying to fit their hands into a tight space

Cranes and Derricks

 Erection and disassembly must be carefully planned.

 Site layout affects crane maneuverability.
 Show site utilities on plans.
 Comply with OSHA standards.

Member Placement

 Members need sufficient space to fit between columns

 Members without enough space could cause columns to tilt

Tripping Hazards
Avoid having connections on top of beams and joists.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

The structural design of buildings, whether of structural steel or reinforced concrete, requires the
determination of the overall proportions and dimensions of the supporting framework and the selection
of the cross sections of individual members.

Ideally, the engineer and architect will collaborate throughout the design process to complete the
project in an efficient manner. In effect, however, the design can be summed up as follows:

1. The architect decides how the building should look;

2.The engineer must make sure that it doesn't fall down.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Although these distinctions are an oversimplification, it affirms the tirst priority of the structural
engineer: SAFETY

Other important considerations include serviceability (how well the structure performs in terms of
appearance and deflection) and economy.

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

A structure is an assembly of materials which can carry applied loads (forces). If an engineering
structure fails, people are likely to get injured/killed, hence, we, as Engineers study and investigate the
behavior of structures with utmost precision.

Man-made structures include buildings, bridges, dams, ships, airplanes, rockets, trains, cars, and other
large structures.

Structural engineers design and access structure to ensure that they are efficient and stable under the
effects of various forces.

Structural Analysis - is the process to determine the response of a structure under applied loading
conditions or combinations of various loads.
Analysis is done by making assumptions. We assume the dimensions of the structural elements (, b, d),
their loading conditions (DL, LL, EL, etc.), material properties (E, Fu, Fy), and support conditions (fixed,
hinged, roller, etc.).

Analysis of a structure includes the study of: strength, stiffness, stability, and response of all elements.

In analyzing, the support reactions, shear forces, bending moment, torsion, deflection, stress, strains
etc. are calculated, that the particular member would undergo due to the applications of loads.

Structural Design- is the process to find out the safe, durable and economical specifications of the
structure including materials, geometry, the size of structural member which can carry loads during the
lifetime of the structure.

In the structural design the geometry is checked against the design load criteria as per codal provisions.
The stresses in member should not exceed permissible limits and permissible deflection etc.

All the elements are checked for its load resisting capacity i.e. stress of different types i.e. flexure, direct
shear and stress etc., strain, deflection, rotation etc. If these values exceeds the permissible limits, the
members are to be redesigned.

For given loading, geometryis checked as per codes, and checked against permissible values.

Methods of Structural Design

 Working stress method

 Ultimate load method
 Limit state method

STRUCTURAL STEEL

Steel is widely used as a building material.

This is because of a number of factors including its

1. Mechanical properties

2. Availability in a variety of useful and practical shapes,

3. Economy

4. Design simplicity, and

5. Ease and speed of construction.

ADVANTAGES OF STEEL as structural material

1. Steel exhibits desirable physical properties that

make it one of the most versatile structural material to use.

2. Its great strength, uniformity, lightweight, ease of use, and many other desirable properties makes it
the material of choice for numerous structures such as steel bridges, high rise buildings, towers and
other structures.

3. The many advantages of steel can be summarized as follows

High Strength

This means that the weight of the structure that made of steel will be small.

Uniformity

Properties of steel do not change as oppose to concrete.

Elasticity

Steel follows Hooke's Law very accurately.

Ductility

A very desirable property of steel in which steel can withstand extensive deformation without failure
under high tensile stresses i.e., it gives warning before failure takes place.

Toughness

Steel has both strength and ductility

Additions to Existing Structures

Example: New bays or even entire new wings can be added to existing frame buildings and steel
bridges may easily be winded.

DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL as structural material

The many disadvantages of steel can be summarized as follows:

Maintenance Cost

Steel Structures are susceptible to corrosion

when exposed to air, water and humidity. They must be painted periodically.

Fireproofing Cost

Steel is incombustible material however; its strength is reduced tremendously at high temperatures
due to common fires.

Susceptibility to Buckling

For most structures, the use of steel columns is very economical because of their high strength-to-
weight ratios. However, as the length and slenderness of a compressive column is increased, its danger
of buckling increases.

Fatigue

The strength of structural steel member can be reduced if this member is subjected to cyclic loading,
an example of that is an earthquake load.

Brittle Fracture

Under certain conditions steel may lose its ductility, and brittle fracture may occur at places of stress
concentration. Fatigue type loadings and very low temperature trigger this situation.

STEEL SECTIONS

Rolled Sections

 Structural Steel can be economically rolled into a wide variety of shapes and sizes without
appreciably changing its physical properties.
 Usually, the most desirable members are those with large moments of inertia in proportion to
their areas
 The l, T and C shapes, so commonly used, fall into this class.
 Steel sections are usually designated by the shapes of their cross sections. As examples, there
are angles, tees, zees and plates.
STEEL SECTIONS

 It is necessary however, to make definite distinction between American standard beams (called
S beams) and the wide flange beams (called W beams) as they are both I-shaped.

Designation System

 Structural shapes are abbreviated by a certain system usually described in LRFD manual for use
in drawings, specifications, and designs.
 The system has been standardized so that all steel mills can use the same identification for
purposes of ordering, billing, etc.
USE OF HIGH STRENGTH STEELS

 Superior corrosion resistance

 Possible savings in shipping, erection, and foundation cost caused by weight savings.
 Use of shallow beams permitting smaller floor depths.
 Possible savings in fireproofing becausse smaller members can be used.

Specifications/ Codes

 The codes provide general guidelines of the minimum requirements for the design of a
structural component or a system.
 These codes, which are actually laws or ordinances, specify minimum;
 Design loads
 Design stresses
 Construction types
 Material quality
 Other factors

Specifications/Codes

 Examples of these codes are as follows

1. The design of steel bridges is generally in accordance with specifications of the American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).

2. Railroad bridges are designed in accordance with specifications provided by the American Railway
Engineering Association (AREA).

3. Reinforced Concrete Structures are generally designed according to the American Concrete Institute
(ACI).

4. Structural Steel Design of Buildings in the United States is principally based on the specification of the
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)

5. In the Philippines, we have

i. The National Building Code of the Philippines and

ii. The Structural Code of the Philippines where the content of Steel Design section are

generally referred from the AISC.

6. Building Codes

a. Building codes generally treat all issues relating to

i. Safety

ii. Architectural details

ii. Fire Protection

iv. Heating and Air conditioning

v. Plumbing and Sanitation and

vi. Lighting

b. Building Codes also prescribe standard loads for which the structure is to be designed.

The important thing to remember about specitications and building Codes is that they are written, not
for the purpose of réstriçting engineers DU une purpose of protecting the public.

No matter which building code or specification is or is not being used, the ultimate responsibility for the
design of safe structųre lies with the structural design engineer.

Loads

7. Loads

a. The accurate determination of the loads to which a structure or structural element will be subjected
is not always predictable.

b. Even if the loads are well known at one location in a structure, the distribution of load from element
to element throughout the structure usually requires assumptions and approximations.

c. The objective of structural engineer is to design a structure that will be able to withstand all the loads
to which it is subjected while serving its intended purpose throughout its intended life span.

d. Loads can be classified into three broad categories

i. Dead Load, Live Loads and Environmental Loads

8. Types of Loads

DEAD LOADS
i. Dead load is a fixed position gravity service load.

ii. It is called dead load because it acts continuously toward the earth when the structure is in service.

iii. The weight of the structure is considered dead load, as well as attachments to structure such as
pipes, electrical conduit, air conditioning and heating ducts, lighting fixtures and roof and floor covering.

iv. Dead loads are usually known accurately but not until the design has been completed.

v. Reasonable estimate of structure weights may be obtained by referring to similar types of structures
or to various formulas and tables.

vi. Approximate weights of some common building materials for roofs, walls, floors and so on are
provided in the table, but there are plenty others you can find in the National Structural Code of the
Philippines.
LIVE LOADS

i. Gravity loads acting when the structure is in service but varyıng in magnitude and location are termed
as Live loads.

ii. Examples of live loads are

1. Human occupants

2. Furnitures

3. Movable equipment

4. Vehicles

5. Stored goods

iii. A great deal of information on the magnitudes of these various loads, along with specified minimum
values are presented in NSCP.

ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS

i. Impact loads - caused by vibrations of moving or movable loads.

ii. Rain Loads

iii. Wind Loads

iv. Snow Loads

v. Earthquake Loads

vi. Hydrostatic and soil pressure

vii. Thermal and other effects

LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

The available strength of LRFD is referred to as the DESIGN STRENGTH. All of the LRFD provisions are
structured so that the design strength must equal or exceed the required strength.

ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN (ASD)

Allowable strength design is similar to what is known as allowable stress designin that they are both
carried out at the same load level. Thus, the same load combination are used. For ASD, the available
strength is referred to as the allowable strength.
In LRFD the margin of safety for the loads is contained in the load factors and the resistance factors to
account for the unavoidable variations in materials, design equations, fabrication and erection.

In ASD a single margin of safety for all of these effects is contained in the safety factor.
LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR DESIGN (LRFD)

 The Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) is a probability-based design approach.
 It has been adopted in most modern codes.
 The LRFD is based on a limit states philosophy i.e. a state at which structure ceases to perform
its intended function.

 According to ASD, one factor of safety (FS) is used that account for the entire uncertainty in
loads and strength.
 According to LRFD (probability-based), different partial safety factors for the different load and
strength types are used.
 The load factors are usually amplifying factors that are used in LRFD design equation to increase
the loads.
 The purpose of increasing the loads is to account for the uncertainties involved in estimating the
magnitudes of dead and/or live loads.
 How close (6) couldyou estimate the worst wind or snow load that will ever be applied to a
particular building.
 Since the dead loads can be estimated more accurately than live loads, the factor for live load is
usually higher than used for dead loads.
 Examples
 A load factor of 1.6 for live loads in LRFD steel Manual as compared to 1.2 for dead loads.
 A load factor of 1.7 for live loads in ACI Code as compared to 1.4 for dead loads