LECTURE NOTES

ON
CAD/CAM
2018 – 2019

IV B. Tech I Semester (JNTUA-R15)

Mr. S. Siva Kiran, Assistant Professor

CHADALAWADA RAMANAMMA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(AUTONOMOUS)
Chadalawada Nagar, Renigunta Road, Tirupati – 517 506

Department of Mechanical Engineering

 UNIT-1
OVERVIEW OF CAD/CAM
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) encompasses the entire range of product
development and manufacturing activities with all the functions being carried out with
the help of dedicated software packages. The data required for various functions are passed
from one application software to another in a seamless manner. For example, the product
data is created during design. This data has to be transferred from the modeling software
to manufacturing software without any loss of data. CIM uses a common database
wherever feasible and communication technologies to integrate design, manufacturing
and associated business functions that combine the automated segments of a factory or
a manufacturing facility. CIM reduces the human component of manufacturing and
thereby relieves the process of its slow, expensive and error-prone component. CIM stands
for a holistic and methodological approach to the activities of the manufacturing enterprise
in order to achieve vast improvement in its performance.
This methodological approach is applied to all activities from the design of the product
to customer support in an integrated way, using various methods, means and techniques
in order to achieve production improvement, cost reduction, fulfillment of scheduled
delivery dates, quality improvement and total flexibility in the manufacturing system.
CIM requires all those associated with a company to involve totally in the process of product
development and manufacture. In such a holistic approach, economic, social and human
aspects have the same importance as technical aspects.
CIM also encompasses the whole lot of enabling technologies including total quality
management, business process reengineering, concurrent engineering, workflow
automation, enterprise resource planning and flexible manufacturing.
A distinct feature of manufacturing today is mass customization. This implies that
though the products are manufactured in large quantities, products must incorporate
customer-specific changes to satisfy the diverse requirements of the customers. This
requires extremely high flexibility in the manufacturing system.
The challenge before the manufacturing engineers is illustrated in Fig.1.1.

QUALITY

COST
DELI
VE
R
Y
TI
M
E
 Fig.1.1 Challenges in Manufacturing

Manufacturing industries strive to reduce the cost of the product continuously to remain
competitive in the face of global competition. In addition, there is the need to improve the
quality and performance levels on a continuing basis. Another important requirement is
on time delivery. In the context of global outsourcing and long supply chains cutting across
several international borders, the task of continuously reducing delivery times is really an
arduous task. CIM has several software tools to address the above needs.
Manufacturing engineers are required to achieve the following objectives to be
competitive in a global context.
• Reduction in inventory
• Lower the cost of the product
• Reduce waste
• Improve quality
• Increase flexibility in manufacturing to achieve immediate and rapid response to:
• Product changes
• Production changes
• Process change
• Equipment change
• Change of personnel
CIM technology is an enabling technology to meet the above challenges to the
manufacturing.

The advances in automation have enabled industries to develop islands of automation.

Examples are flexible manufacturing cells, robotized work cells, flexible inspection cells
etc. One of the objectives of CIM is to achieve the consolidation and integration of these
islands of automation. This requires sharing of information among different applications
or sections of a factory, accessing incompatible and heterogeneous data and devices. The
ultimate objective is to meet the competition by improved customer satisfaction through
reduction in cost, improvement in quality and reduction in product development time.
CIM makes full use of the capabilities of the digital computer to improve
manufacturing. Two of them are:
i. Variable and Programmable automation
ii. Real time optimization
The computer has the capability to accomplish the above for hardware components of
manufacturing (the manufacturing machinery and equipment) and software component
of manufacturing (the application software, the information flow, database and so on).
The capabilities of the computer are thus exploited not only for the various bits and
pieces of manufacturing activity but also for the entire system of manufacturing. Computers
have the tremendous potential needed to integrate the entire manufacturing system and
thereby evolve the computer integrated manufacturing system.
1.2 TYPES OF MANUFACTURING
The term “manufacturing” covers a broad spectrum of activities. Metal working industries,
process industries like chemical plants, oil refineries, food processing industries, electronic
industries making microelectronic components, printed circuit boards, computers and
entertainment electronic products etc. are examples of manufacturing industries.
Manufacturing involves fabrication, assembly and testing in a majority of situations. However,
in process industries operations are of a different nature.
Manufacturing industries can be grouped into four categories:
i. Continuous Process Industries
In this type of industry, the production process generally follows a specific
sequence. These industries can be easily automated and computers are widely
used for process monitoring, control and optimization. Oil refineries, chemical
plants, food processing industries, etc are examples of continuous process
industries.
ii. Mass Production Industries
Industries manufacturing fasteners (nuts, bolts etc.), integrated chips, automobiles,
entertainment electronic products, bicycles, bearings etc. which are all mass
produced can be classified as mass production industries. Production lines are
specially designed and optimized to ensure automatic and cost effective operation.
Automation can be either fixed type or flexible.

iii. Batch Production (Discrete Manufacturing)

The largest percentage of manufacturing industries can be classified as batch
production industries. The distinguishing features of this type of manufacture are
the small to medium size of the batch, and varieties of such products to be taken
up in a single shop. Due to the variety of components handled, work centres
should have broader specifications. Another important fact is that small batch
size involves loss of production time associated with product changeover.
As mentioned earlier, integration of computer in process industries for production
automation, process monitoring and control and optimization is relatively easy. In the
case of mass production and batch production computer integration faces a number of
problems as there are a large number of support activities which are to be tied together.
These are discussed in detail later in this chapter.
Automation of manufacture has been implemented using different techniques since
the turn of the 20th Century. Fixed automation is the first type to emerge. Single spindle
automatic lathe, multi spindle automatic lathe and transfer lines are examples of fixed
automation. Fixed automation using mechanical, electrical, pneumatic and hydraulic
systems is widely used in automobile manufacturing. This type of automation has a severe
limitation - these are designed for a particular product and any product change will require
extensive modifications to the automation system.
The concept of programmable automation was introduced later. These were electrically
controlled systems and programs were stored in punched cards and punched tapes. Typical
examples of programmable automation are:
i. Electrical programme controlled milling machines
ii. Hydraulically operated Automatic lathes with programmable control drum iii.
Sequencing machines with punched card control /plug board control
Development of digital computers, microelectronics and microprocessors significantly
 altered the automation scenario during 1950-1990. Machine control systems are now
designed around microprocessors and microelectronics is part and parcel of industrial
drives and control. The significant advances in miniaturization through integration of large
number of components into small integrated chips and the consequent improvement in
reliability and performance have increased the popularity of microelectronics. This has
resulted in the availability of high performance desktop computing machines as well as
file servers which can be used for industrial control with the help of application software
packages.

1.3 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING

Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) is considered a natural evolution of the
technology of CAD/CAM which by itself evolved by the integration of CAD and CAM.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT, USA) is credited with pioneering the
development in both CAD and CAM. The need to meet the design and manufacturing
requirements of aerospace industries after the Second World War necessitated the
development these technologies. The manufacturing technology available during late 40’s
and early 50’s could not meet the design and manufacturing challenges arising out of the
need to develop sophisticated aircraft and satellite launch vehicles. This prompted the US
Air Force to approach MIT to develop suitable control systems, drives and programming
techniques for machine tools using electronic control.
The first major innovation in machine control is the Numerical Control (NC),
demonstrated at MIT in 1952. Early Numerical Control Systems were all basically hardwired
systems, since these were built with discrete systems or with later first generation integrated
chips. Early NC machines used paper tape as an input medium. Every NC machine was
fitted with a tape reader to read paper tape and transfer the program to the memory of the
machine tool block by block. Mainframe computers were used to control a group of NC
machines by mid 60’s. This arrangement was then called Direct Numerical Control (DNC)
as the computer bypassed the tape reader to transfer the program data to the machine
controller. By late 60’s mini computers were being commonly used to control NC machines.
At this stage NC became truly soft wired with the facilities of mass program storage, off-
line editing and software logic control and processing. This development is called Computer
Numerical Control (CNC).
Since 70’s, numerical controllers are being designed around microprocessors, resulting
in compact CNC systems. A further development to this technology is the distributed
numerical control (also called DNC) in which processing of NC program is carried out in
different computers operating at different hierarchical levels - typically from mainframe
host computers to plant computers to the machine controller. Today the CNC systems are
built around powerful 32 bit and 64 bit microprocessors. PC based systems are also
becoming increasingly popular.
Manufacturing engineers also started using computers for such tasks like inventory
control, demand forecasting, production planning and control etc. CNC technology was
adapted in the development of co-ordinate measuring machine’s (CMMs) which automated
inspection. Robots were introduced to automate several tasks like machine loading,
materials handling, welding, painting and assembly. All these developments led to the
evolution of flexible manufacturing cells and flexible manufacturing systems in late 70’s.
Evolution of Computer Aided Design (CAD), on the other hand was to cater to the
geometric modeling needs of automobile and aeronautical industries. The developments
in computers, design workstations, graphic cards, display devices and graphic input
and output devices during the last ten years have been phenomenal. This coupled with
the development of operating system with graphic user interfaces and powerful interactive
(user friendly) software packages for modeling, drafting, analysis and optimization
provides the necessary tools to automate the design process.
CAD in fact owes its development to the APT language project at MIT in early 50’s.
Several clones of APT were introduced in 80’s to automatically develop NC codes from

the geometric model of the component. Now, one can model, draft, analyze, simulate,
modify, optimize and create the NC code to manufacture a component and simulate the
machining operation sitting at a computer workstation.
If we review the manufacturing scenario during 80’s we will find that the
manufacturing is characterized by a few islands of automation. In the case of design,
the task is well automated. In the case of manufacture, CNC machines, DNC systems,
FMC, FMS etc provide tightly controlled automation systems. Similarly computer control
has been implemented in several areas like manufacturing resource planning, accounting,
sales, marketing and purchase. Yet the full potential of computerization could not be
obtained unless all the segments of manufacturing are integrated, permitting the transfer
of data across various functional modules. This realization led to the concept of computer
integrated manufacturing. Thus the implementation of CIM required the development
of whole lot of computer technologies related to hardware and software.

1.4 CIM HARDWARE AND CIM SOFTWARE

CIM Hardware comprises the following:
i. Manufacturing equipment such as CNC machines or computerized work centres,
robotic work cells, DNC/FMS systems, work handling and tool handling devices,
storage devices, sensors, shop floor data collection devices, inspection machines
etc.
ii. Computers, controllers, CAD/CAM systems, workstations / terminals, data entry
terminals, bar code readers, RFID tags, printers, plotters and other peripheral
devices, modems, cables, connectors etc.,
CIM software comprises computer programmes to carry out the following functions:
Management Information System
Sales
Marketing
Finance
Database Management
Modeling and Design
Analysis
Simulation
Communications
Monitoring
Production Control
Manufacturing Area Control
Job Tracking
 Inventory Control
Shop Floor Data Collection
Order Entry
Materials Handling
Device Drivers
Process Planning
Manufacturing Facilitie
Facilities Planning
Work Flow Automation
Business Process Engineering
Network Management
Quality Management

1.5 NATURE AND ROLE O

OF THE ELEMENTS OF CIM SYSTEM
Nine major elements of a CIM system are in Fig 1.2. They are:
Marketing
Product Design
Planning
Purchase
Manufacturing Engineering
Factory Automationn Hardware
Warehousing
Logistics and Supply Chain Management
Finance
Information Management

Fig.1.2 Major Elements of a CIM System

 i. Marketing: The need for a product is identified by the marketing division. The
specifications of the product, the projection of manufacturing quantities and the
strategy for marketing the product are also decided by the marketing department.
Marketing also works out the manufacturing costs to assess the economic viability
of the product.
ii. Product Design: The design department of the company establishes the initial
database for production of a proposed product. In a CIM system this is
accomplished through activities such as geometric modeling and computer aided
design while considering the product requirements and concepts generated by
the creativity of the design engineer. Configuration management is an important
activity in many designs. Complex designs are usually carried out by several
teams working simultaneously, located often in different parts of the world. The
design process is constrained by the costs that will be incurred in actual production
and by the capabilities of the available production equipment and processes. The
design process creates the database required to manufacture the part.
iii. Planning: The planning department takes the database established by the
design department and enriches it with production data and information to
produce a plan for the production of the product. Planning involves several
subsystems dealing with materials, facility, process, tools, manpower, capacity,
scheduling, outsourcing, assembly, inspection, logistics etc. In a CIM system,
this planning process should be constrained by the production costs and by
the production equipment and process capability, in order to generate an
optimized plan.
iv. Purchase: The purchase departments is responsible for placing the purchase
orders and follow up, ensure quality in the production process of the vendor,
receive the items, arrange for inspection and supply the items to the stores or
arrange timely delivery depending on the production schedule for eventual supply
to manufacture and assembly.
v. Manufacturing Engineering: Manufacturing Engineering is the activity of carrying
out the production of the product, involving further enrichment of the database
with performance data and information about the production equipment and
processes. In CIM, this requires activities like CNC programming, simulation and
computer aided scheduling of the production activity. This should include on-
line dynamic scheduling and control based on the real time performance of the
equipment and processes to assure continuous production activity. Often, the
need to meet fluctuating market demand requires the manufacturing system
flexible and agile.
vi. Factory Automation Hardware: Factory automation equipment further enriches
the database with equipment and process data, resident either in the operator or
the equipment to carry out the production process. In CIM system this consists
of computer controlled process machinery such as CNC machine tools, flexible
 manufacturing systems (FMS), Computer controlled robots, material handling
systems, computer controlled assembly systems, flexibly automated inspection
systems and so on.
vii. Warehousing: Warehousin
Warehousing is the function involving storage and retrieval
of raw materials, components
components, finished goods as well as shipment
shipmen of items. In
today’s complex outsourcin
outsourcing scenario and the need for just-in-tim
time supply of
components and subsystems
subsystems, logistics and supply chain management
managemen assume
great importance.
viii. Finance: Finance deal
deals with the resources pertaining to money.
money Planning
of investment, workin
working capital, and cash flow control, realization
realizatio of
receipts, accountin
accounting and allocation of funds are the majorr tasks of the
finance departments.

Fig.1.3 Various Activities in CIM

FEM - Finite Element Modelin

Modeling MeM - Mechanism Modeling ERP - Enterprise
Resource Planning
ix. Information Management
Management: Information Management is perhaps onee of the crucial
tasks in CIM. This involves master production scheduling, database management,
communication, manufacturin
manufacturing systems integration and management
managemen information
systems.
It can be seen from Fig 1.3 that CIM technology ties together all the manufacturing and
related functions in a company
company. Implementation of CIM technology thus involves
involve basically
integration of all the activities of the enterprise.
1.6 DEVELOPMENT OF CIM
CIM is an integration process leading to the integration of the manufacturing enterprise.
Fig 1.4 indicates different levels of this integration that can be seen within an industry.
Dictated by the needs of the individual enterprise this process usually starts with the
need to interchange information between the some of the so called islands of automation.
Flexible manufacturing cells, automatic storage and retrieval systems, CAD/CAM based
design etc. are the examples of islands of automation i.e. a sort of computer based
automation achieved completely in a limited sphere of activity of an enterprise. This
involves data exchange among computers, NC machines, robots, gantry systems etc.
Therefore the integration process has started bottom up. The interconnection of physical
systems was the first requirement to be recognized and fulfilled.

Fig. 1.4 Levels of Integration Against Evolution of CIM

The next level of integration, application integration in Fig 1.4 is concerned with the
integration of applications, the term applications being used in the data processing sense.
The applications are those which are discussed in section 1.4 under the heading CIM
hardware and software. Application integration involves supply and retrieval of
information, communication between application users and with the system itself. Thus
the application integration level imposes constraints on the physical integration level.
There has to be control of the applications themselves also.
 The highest level of integration, business integration in Fig.1.4 is concerned with the
management and operational processes of an enterprise. The management process
provides supervisory control of the operational process which in turn co-ordinates the
day-to-day execution of the activities at the application level. The business integration
level therefore places constraints on the application level. This level offers considerable
challenge to the integration activity.
2.2 PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT CYCLE
Industries have to continuously upgrade their products as well as introduce new products
in the market in order to retain as well as to increase their market share. The product
development is the responsibility of the research and development (R&D) department of
a manufacturing company. When a product is initially introduced the sales volume will be
low. If the product is good and satisfies the customers, the sales will pick up. Sometimes,
if there are any problems in the product the company will have to make changes or
improvements in the product which is a very expensive proposition. If the defect is serious
enough the company may have to recall an entire batch of products at enormous cost and
loss of goodwill. The sales and service department usually takes care of attending to the
customers’ problems. That is why manufacturers of automobiles, entertainment electronic
goods, fast moving consumer goods like washing machines and refrigerators etc have
elaborate sales and service network.
The sales volume will pick up gradually and peak after some time. The product will
continue to sell for some time. The sales will then start gradually declining owing to
availability of better products in the market. It is time for the company to introduce a new
and improved product in the market as well as to retire the old product. The companies
will usually advice the customers that the old product will be further supported by the
sales and service department only for a limited period of time.

The cycle through which a product goes through from development to retirement is
called the product life cycle. The variation of the sales volume during the life cycle of a
product is graphically shown in Fig.2.1.

P E AK S AL ES
le s Vo lu m e

PRODUCT
IN T R O D U C T IO N

R E T IR E M E N T

Fig. 2.1 Variation of the Sales Volume Vs Life of a Product

 The product development cycle starts with developing the product concept, evolving
the design, engineering the product, manufacturing the part, marketing and servicing. This
is shown in Fig. 2.2. The idea of a product may come from a patent, suggestion of the
customers, feedback of the sales and service department, market research carried out by
the marketing department or from the R&D department itself. The next stage is the
conceptualization of the product. The cost at which the product could be sold in the market
is decided and the overall design in terms of shape, functional specifications, ergonomics,
aesthetics etc are considered in detail and finalized at this stage. The work of product
development is then taken to the next stage by the design department who carefully designs
each assembly and each component of the assembly. Detailed design analysis and
optimization is carried out at this stage. A design may have several variants. For example,
passenger car may have what is called a stripped down version with the bare minimum
options and luxury versions with several add on functionalities. Between these two extreme
versions, there will be a number of models or variants to meet the needs of customers with
different paying capacities. In a similar way, a satellite launch vehicle may be designed for
different payloads. A fighter aircraft may have different versions. A refrigerator will have
to be marketed with different capacities. The design department creates these designs
through a top down approach or a bottom up approach. In top down approach, the
entire assembly is designed first and individual designs are done latter. In bottom up
approach, the component design is done first and the product is realized by assembling
the components suitably. The design also will involve preparation of detail drawings.

Engineering the product consists of process planning, tool design, facility design, capacity
planning, quality assurance activities, procurement, assembly planning, etc. Marketing
department will have the responsibility of carrying out appropriate product launch activities
as well as planning the sales and service network, advertising and training of sales and
service personnel.

Concept

Service Design

Marketing Planning
 Manufacture

Fig. 2.2 Product Development Cycle

In actual practice product development activities form a spiral as shown in Fig. 2.3.
The product goes through a series of continuous refinement and improvements, additions
etc. A typical example is a software package improved versions of which are released as
new versions at periodic intervals. The feedback from the marketing and services leads
to improvements in design and/or evolution of new designs. As an example, the reader
is advised to make a study of the evolution of the various models of aircraft or passenger
cars over the last five decades.
This is how most of the present products have been evolved over the period. One can
evidently realize it by comparing a 1928 model T Ford car with the current jelly bean
shaped cars. However, the design evolution however does not stop at any stage and is a
continuous process.
Similarly one can observe the vast improvements that have taken place in the design of
entertainment electronic goods, computers, aircrafts and even domestic appliances like
refrigerators. Often an altogether new concept may make a design obsolete. Songs were
recorded at different times on discs, tapes, cassettes and CD-ROMS. Correspondingly, the
design of the music player has also undergone radical changes from the old gramophone
record player to the present MP3 player. It is interesting to note the rate of obsolescence of
technology in music players.
Q u a lity C o n tro l
M a n u f a c tu r e

Q u a lity C o n tro l
M a n u f a c tu r e
P lan nin g M a rk e tin g

Q u a lity C o n tro l
M a n u f a c tu r e M a rk e tin g
P lan nin g S e rv ic e
D e s ig n
M a rk e tin g
P lan nin g S e rv ic e
D e s ig n

S e rv ic e
D e s ig n
C oncep t
Data structures

CAD programs are interactive, graphic oriented, and have to operate on many large
vectors and arrays, so they demand a colossal amount of memory. This makes good
organization and structure of data necessary, to ensure that the programs will run smoothly
and efficiently. The purpose of data structuring is to achieve this goal.

Data structures and the design process

Data Structures are the logical organization of data for the purpose of numerically solving
problems. The design process itself is an act of solving a problem. The design process is
instigated by the acknowledgement of a need or dissatisfaction. By designing a product, the
designer is trying to find a way to meet this need and dispel any dissatisfaction. If a
computer is going to be used to help find the solution (how to meet the design
specifications), then an algorithm for the physical problem must be made and translated into
computer-friendly form. The computer can only process information written as numbers
and characters, so a numerical model (an organized collection of numbers grouped
logically) of the problem must be fabricated. The numerical model is then transformed into
data form. Using data structuring, the data is grouped to represent every property of the
physical problem so that a computer model can be generated. Good data structuring is
critical. If done poorly some of the properties of the problem may be lost during the
transformation of the numerical model to the computer model, search and retrieval
operations will be slow, and future programming will become more difficult.

Complex cases

Data structuring in many CAD applications is not an easy task. Though most engineering
problems are number oriented, every computation stage generates massive quantities of
data that needs to be stored and then later retrieved. In some cases, the problem is not easily
adapted into numeric form. These problems tend to be ambiguous and complex, containing
many inconsistencies, assumptions and conflicts. Such problems are much more difficult to
organize since the data must be presented in a logical and clear manner.

Abstract data types

Data is usually grouped together into different data objects based on the type of operations
that are to be carried out on them. Most computer language compilers offer a limited variety
of data types (such as characters, integers, and floats) that can only perform very basic
operations. In most situations, a higher-level data object/type is needed. These higher-level
data types, which are programmer defined, are called Abstract Data Types (ADT’s).
Abstract Data Types are the keys to data organization. Some examples of ADT’s are lists,
stacks, queues, trees, and graphs. These types of data objects can be linked and combined to
produce more complex data objects. Creating and relating the data types can generate a
computer model that is true to the physical problem.

Data structuring methods

One method for data structuring is called Data Modelling. Data Modelling formally
describes data structuring by defining

• object types

• object structures

• relationships

• consistency rules

The first three items in the list are the main components of the data structuring process.

Another way of structuring data is the centralized hierarchical structure which PHIG
(Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System) supports. This type of structuring
groups structure elements (units of data) together into compounds (also known as
structures) which are organized as networks.

Computer graphics:
Modern computer graphics displays are simple in construction. They consist of basically
three components.
i. Monitor
 ii. Digital Memory or Frame Buffer
iii. Display Controller
Most of the computer graphics displays use raster CRT which is a matrix of discrete
cells each of which can be made bright. A graphic entity like line or circle is represented as
a series of “points or dots” on the screen. Therefore, it is called as a point plotting device.
The video display screen is divided into very small rectangular elements called a picture
element or pixel. This happens to be the smallest addressable screen element. Graphic
images are formed by setting suitable intensity and color to the pixels which compose the
image. Depending upon the resolution screens may have varying number of pixels. For
example, an SVGA monitor with a resolution of 1024 x 768 will have 1024 pixels in every
row (X - direction) and 768 pixels in every column (Y-direction). Monitors of larger size
will have resolution of 1024 x 1024 or more. A raster scan system displays the image on a
CRT in a certain fixed sequence.
The refresh rate is the number of complete images or frames scanned per second. In
the case of interlaced refresh cycle odd numbered raster lines are refreshed during 1/60th
of a second. Even numbered raster lines are refreshed during the next 1/60th of a second.
In non-interlaced displays, all lines are refreshed in 1/60th of a second. The quality of non-
interlaced display is hence, superior. These systems, however, require expensive frame
buffer memory and display controller.

GRAPHIC PRIMITIVES
A drawing is created by an assembly of points, lines, arcs, circles. For example, drawing
shown in Fig 3.1 consists of several entities. In computer graphics also drawings are created
in a similar manner. Each of these is called an entity. The drawing entities that a user may
find in a typical CAD package include :
point
line
construction line, multi-line, polyline
circle
spline
arc
ellipse
polygon
rectangle
 CIRCLE LINE
ARC
 LINE

LINE

LINE

Fig. 3.1 A Simple Drawing

The fundamental principles of generation of some of these entities are discussed below :

POINT PLOTTING
The frame buffer display is an example of a point plotting device. The smallest unit accepted
by such displays is a single pixel. To construct a useful picture on a point plotting device,
a picture must be built out of several hundreds of pixels.

DRAWING OF LINES
Straight line segments are used a great deal in computer generated pictures. The following
criteria have been stipulated for line drawing displays :
i. Lines should appear straight
ii. Lines should terminate accurately
iii. Lines should have constant density
iv. Line density should be independent of length and angle
v. Line should be drawn rapidly
The process of turning on the pixels for a line segment is called vector generation. If the
end points of the line segment are known, there are several schemes for selecting the pixels
between the end pixels. One method of generating a line segment is a symmetrical digital
differential analyzer (DDA).

ELLIPSE
The ellipse is a variation of a circle. Stretching a circle in one direction produces an ellipse.
The polar equations for an ellipse with centre at XC, YC are:
X = XC + a * cos ()
Y = YC + b * sin ()
The above equations can be used to plot an ellipse in a manner similar to that of
generating a circle.

TRANSFORMATION IN GRAPHICS
Geometric transformations provide a means by which an image can be enlarged in size, or
reduced, rotated, or moved. These changes are brought about by changing the co-ordinates
of the picture to a new set of values depending upon the requirements.
CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS USED IN GRAPHICS AND WINDOWING
Transformations can be carried out either in 2-dimensions or in 3-dimensions. The theory
of two-dimensional transformations is discussed first in this chapter. This is then extended
to three dimensions.
When a design package is initiated, the display will have a set of co-ordinate values. These
are called default co-ordinates. A user co-ordinate system is one in which the designer can
specify his own co-ordinates for a specific design application. These screen independent co-
ordinates can have large or small numeric range, or even negative values, so that the model
can be represented in a natural way. It may, however, happen that the picture is too crowded
with several features to be viewed clearly on the display screen. Therefore, the designer may
want to view only a portion of the image, enclosed in a rectangular region called a window.
Different parts of the drawing can thus be selected for viewing by placing the windows. Portions
inside the window can be enlarged, reduced or edited depending upon the requirements.
Figure 3.7 shows the use of windowing to enlarge the picture.

W I ND O W

O R IG IN A L

2-D TRANSFORMATIONS
In computer graphics, drawings are created by a series of primitives which are represented
by the co-ordinates of their end points. Certain changes in these drawings can be made by
performing some mathematical operations on these co-ordinates. The basic transformations
are scaling, translation and rotation.
SCALING
Changing the dimensions of window and view port, it is possible to alter the size of
drawings. This technique is not satisfactory in all cases. A drawing can be made bigger by
increasing the distance between the points of the drawing. In general, this can be done by
multiplying the co-ordinates of the drawing by an enlargement or reduction factor called
scaling factor, and the operation is called scaling. Referring to Fig. 3.10, P1 (30, 20) represents
a point in the XY plane. In matrix form, P1 can be represented as:
P1 = [30, 20]
If we multiply this by a matrix
2 0 
0 3 
 
we get a new point P2 (60, 60). The matrix is called the scaling matrix. In general, the
scaling matrix can be represented as:
S x 0 
0 S y 

where Sx and Sy are scaling factors in X and Y directions.

10
9
8

Y 7
P2 (6 ,6 )
6
5
4
3
P (3 ,2 )
2 1

1
0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
X

Fig. 3.10 Scaling a Point

An example of scaling in the case of a triangle is shown in Fig. 3.11. Fig. 3.11 (a) shows
the original picture before scaling. Fig. 3.11 (b) shows the triangle after the co-ordinates
are multiplied by the scaling matrix.
 10 10 C 1 (6 ,1 0 )

9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 C (3 ,5 ) 5
4 4
B 1 (2 , 4 )
3 3
2 2
1 B (1 , 2 ) 1
A (4, 0 ) A1 (8 , 0 )
0 0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Fig. 3.11 (a) Fig. 3.11 (b)

Fig. 3.11 Scaling a Triangle

TRANSLATION
Moving drawing or model across the screen is called translation. This is accomplished by
adding to the co-ordinates of each corner point the distance through which the drawing is
to be moved (translated). Fig. 3.12 shows a rectangle (Fig. 3.12 (a)) being moved to a new
position (Fig. 3.12 (b)) by adding 40 units to X co-ordinate values and 30 units to Y co-
ordinate values. In general, in order to translate drawing by (TX , TY ) every point X, Y will
be replaced by a point X1 , Y1 where
X1 = X + TX
Y = Y + TY

10 10
9 9 (5 , 8 ) (8 , 8 )
8 8
7 7
Y 6 Y 6
1 ,5 ) (4 ,5 )
5 5
4 4
(5 , 4 ) (8 , 4 )
3 3
2 2
1 1
(1 , 1 ) (4 , 1 )
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X X

Fig. 3.12(a) Original Rectangle Fig. 3.12 (b) Rectangle After Translation

ROTATION
Another useful transformation is the rotation of a drawing about a pivot point. Consider
Fig. 3.13. Point P1 (40, 20) can be seen being rotated about the origin through an angle,  =
45°, in the anti-clockwise direction to position P2. The co-ordinates of P2 can be obtained
by multiplying the co-ordinates of P1 by the matrix:
  Cos Sin 
 –Sin Cos 

The new co-ordinates are

 Cos 45° Sin 45° 

= [40 20]  –Sin 45° Cos 45° 
 

 0.707 0.707 
= [40 20]  –0.707 0.707 
 
= [14.14 42.42]
For rotating drawings in anticlockwise direction positive angles are used.

50
P2 (14.14, 42.42)
40
Y

30

20 P1 (4,2)

10

0 10 20 30 40 50
X

Fig. 3.13 Rotation

SHEARING
A shearing transformation produces distortion of an object or an entire image. There are
two types of shears: X-shear and Y-shear. A Y-shear transforms the point (X, Y) to the point
(X1, Y1) by a factor Sh1, where
X1 = X
Y1 = Sh1. X + Y
Fig. 3.14 shows Y shear applied to a drawing.
 C1
D1
10 AFTER Y-SHEAR
9
8
Y E1 D ORIGINAL
7 B1
PART
6
5
4 E C

3 A1
2
1
A B
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
X

Fig. 3.14 Shearing

An X-shear transforms the point (X, Y) to (X1, Y1), where

X1 = X + Sh2.Y
Y1 = Y Sh2 is the shear factor.
Fig. 3.15 shows the effect of X-shear.

10
AFTER X-SHEAR
9
8
Y D D1 ORIGINAL
7
PART
6
5
E1 C1
E C
4
3
2
1 A1
A B B1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
X

Fig. 3.15 X-Shear

HOMOGENEOUS TRANSFORMATIONS
Each of the above transformations with the exception of translation can be represented
as a row vector X, Y and a 2 X 2 matrix. However, all the four transformations discussed
above can be represented as a product of a 1 X 3 row vector and an appropriate 3 X 3
matrix. The conversion of a two-dimensional co-ordinate pair (X, Y) into a 3-dimensional
vector can be achieved by representing the point as [X Y 1]. After multiplying this vector
by a 3 X 3 matrix, another homogeneous row vector is obtained [X1 Y1 1]. The first two
terms in this vector are the co-ordinate pair which is the transform of (X, Y). This three
dimensional representation of a two dimensional plane is called homogeneous co-
ordinates and the transformation using the homogeneous co-ordinates is called
homogeneous transformation. The matrix representations of the four basic
transformations are given below.
Translation:
1 0 0
 
0 1 0
[X1 Y1 1] = [ X Y 1] 
Tx Ty 1 

Rotation
 Cos Sin 0
 Sin Cos 0 
[ X1 Y1 1] = [ X Y 1] 
0 0 1
Scaling
Sx 0 0
0 0 
[ X1 Y1 1] = [ X Y 1]  Sy
0 0 1
X-shear
 1 0 0
 
0 0
[ X1 Y1 1] = [ X Y 1] Shx
0 0 1
Y-shear
 1 Shy 0
0 1 0 
[ X1 Y1 1] = [ X Y 1] 
 0 0 1 

COMBINATION TRANSFORMATIONS
Sequences of transformations can be combined into a single transformation using the
concatenation process. For example, consider the rotation of a line about an arbitrary point.
Line AB is to be rotated through 45° in anticlockwise direction about point A (Fig 3.16(a)).
Fig. 3.16(b) shows an inverse translation of AB to A1B1. A1B1 is then rotated through 45° to
A2B2. The line A2B2 is then translated to A3B3.
 The respective transformation matrices are:
 1 0 0
 
 0 1 0
 Tx Ty 1 


 Cos Sin 0
 Sin Cos 0 

 0 0 1

and
1 0 0
 
0 1 0
 1
Tx Ty
The same effect can be achieved using the concatenated (combined) matrix given below:
 1 0 0   Cos Sin 0
 
0 1 0  Sin Cos 0 X
[X1 Y1 1] = [X Y 1] 
 Tx Ty 1  0 0 1

1 0 0
 
0 1 0
 1
Tx Ty
Since matrix operations are not commutative, care must be taken to preserve the order
in which they are performed while combining the matrices.

10 10

AB A B A1 B AB
8 8 1 1 2 3
B3
7 7
Y6 Y 6 3
B2
5 5
4 4
B 2 B
3 3
A A
2 2
1
B
(1,1) 1
0 0A
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X X

Fig. 3.16 (a) Fig. 3.16 (b)

Fig. 3.16 Rotation about an Arbitrary Point
CLIPPING
Clipping is the process of determining the visible portions of a drawing lying within a
window. In clipping each graphic element of the display is examined to determine whether
or not it is completely inside the window, completely outside the window or crosses a
window boundary. Portions outside the boundary are not drawn. If the element of a drawing
crosses the boundary the point of inter-section is determined and only portions which lie
inside are drawn. Readers are advised to refer to books on computer graphics for typical
clipping algorithms like Cohen-Sutherland clipping algorithm. Fig. 3.17 shows an example
of clipping.

D R A W IN G

W IN D O W

Fig. 3.17 Example of Clipping

3-DIMENSIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS
It is often necessary to display objects in 3-D on the graphics screen. The transformation
matrices developed for 2-dimensions can be extended to 3-D.

Sx 0 0 0 
 0 S 0 0
i. Scaling: The scaling matrix in 3-D is:  y

 0 0 Sz 0
 
 0 0 0 1 

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
ii. Translation: The translation matrix is:  
0 0 1 0
 
Tx Ty Tz 1

iii. Rotation: Rotation in 3-D can be about X - , Y - or Z axis.

  Cos Sin 0 0
 Sin Cos 0 0 
Rotation about Z axis: Rz = 
 0 0 1 0
 
 0 0 0 1 

1 0 00
 0 Cos Sin 0 
Similarly Rx =  
0 Sin Cos 0
 
 0 0 0 1

similarly
 Cos∏ 0 Sin∏ 0
 0 1 0 0
 
and Ry = Sin 0 Cos∏ 0
∏
 
 0 0 0 1

PROJECTIONS
In drawing practice, a 3-dimensional object is represented on a plane paper. Similarly in
computer graphics a 3-dimensional object is viewed on a 2-dimensional display. A
projection is a transformation that performs this conversion. Three types of projections are
commonly used in engineering practice: parallel, perspective and isometric.

PARALLEL (ORTHOGONAL) PROJECTION

This is the simplest of the projection methods. Fig. 3.18 shows the projection of a cube on
to a projection plane. The projectors, which are lines passing through the corners of the
object are all parallel to each other. It is only necessary to project the end points of a line in
3-D and then join these projected points. This speeds up the transformation process.
However a major disadvantage of parallel projection is lack of depth information.
Y

C1
D1
B1
A
1

A C

Fig. 3.18 Parallel Projection of Cube

HIDDEN SURFACE REMOVAL
One of the difficult problems in computer graphics is the removal of hidden surfaces from
the images of solid objects. In Fig. 3.25 (a) an opaque cube is shown in wire frame
representation. Edges 15, 48, 37, 14, 12,23,58 and 87 are visible whereas edges 56, 67 and 26
are not visible. Correspondingly, surfaces 1265, 2673 and 5678 are not visible since the object
is opaque. The actual representation of the cube must be as shown in Fig. 3.25 (b).

5 5

1 1
8 8

4 6 4

2 2
7 7

3 3

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.25 Hidden Surface Removal

There are a number of algorithms available for removal of hidden lines and hidden
surfaces. Table 3.5 gives a list of algorithms for hidden line removal and hidden surface
removal.

Table 3.5 Algorithms for Hidden Line and Hidden Surface

Hidden line removal Hidden surface removal

Floating horizon Blinn-Whitted

Image space Catmull subdivision
List priority Clark
Object space Lane Carpenter
Ray tracing Scan line
Roberts Warnock Image space
List priority
Newell -Newell-Sancha
Schumacher
Object space
Ray tracing
Roberts Algorithm
Scan line Z-buffer
Warnock
Watkins
Weiler Atherton

There are two popular approaches to hidden surface removal. These are scan line based
systems and Z-buffer based systems. Other important approaches are area subdivision
and depth list schemes.
SHADING
In simple polygonal mesh models, the surface is represented by constant shading. To
introduce more realistic shading, incremental shading is necessary. Two commonly used
incremental shading techniques are:
i. Gauraud Shading
ii. Phong Shading

GAURAUD SHADING
Gauraud Shading involves bilinear intensity interpolation over a polygon mesh. It is
restricted to diffuse component of the reflection model. The technique first calculates
the intensity at each vertex, assuming that the light source is at infinity. The intensity of
the light reflected over the polygonal surface can then be obtained by integrating the
interpolation process with the scan conversion process. The intensities at the edge of
each scan line are calculated from the vertex intensities and intensities along the scan
line from these.

PHONG TECHNIQUE
Phong model overcomes some of the deficiencies of Gauraud technique and incorporates
specular reflection. The important feature of the Phong model are :
i. Vertex normals instead of vertex intensities are calculated by averaging normal
vectors of the surface that share the vertex.
ii. Bilinear interpolation is used for incremental interpolation of points interior to
polygons.
iii. A separate intensity is evaluated for each pixel from the interpolated normals.
 UNIT-2
GEOMETRIC MODELLING
INTRODUCTION
Product development activity starts with the design of the product. As mentioned in
Chapter 2 this is a very critical activity which will influence the cost, performance, service
life, quality, manufacturability, maintainability etc. The challenges before the product
designers today are listed below:

• Higher customer quality expectations

• Need to have innovation and originality in design
• Need for global collaboration across and beyond the enterprise among designers,
customers and vendors to reduce development lead times

• Need to evaluate feasibility throughout the design process

• Ability to react quickly to design changes as and when change requests are made

• Ability to express the design intent in terms of shape and function using the tools

available as well as the ability of the tools to transfer data back and forth seamlessly.
Manufacturing of machine parts and components is carried out with the help of
drawings. The machine operator is provided with the drawing of the finished part and an
operation sheet which gives step by step instructions to produce the part. Drawings are
also required for process planning, tool design, production planning, and CNC
programming, inspection, assembly, costing and vendor development. Thus, drawings
are essential documents for product development as well as for regular production.
However, with the introduction of computer integrated manufacturing the importance of
drawing as the basic document for product development and manufacture has diminished.
In addition to production drawings of components, the design department has to create
layout drawings, assembly drawings, and tool drawings (Jigs, fixtures, templates, special
tools, inspection fixtures etc). The number of drawings required for a product varies with
the complexity of the product. In the case of the development of a centre lathe, it may be
necessary to create about 400-500 drawings. For an aircraft, the number of drawings will
be of the order of 30,000 to 60,000. In addition to component drawings, it is necessary to
create hundreds of tool drawings and jig and fixture drawings for manufacture, assembly
and inspection. Considerable manpower and time will be required to create such a large
volume of drawings and the time required for this task represents a significant portion of
the lead time required for product development.
Computer aided design and drafting (CADD) is a powerful technique to create the
drawings. Traditionally, the components and assemblies are represented in drawings with
the help of elevation, plan, and end views and cross sectional views. In the early stages of
development of CADD, several software packages were developed to create such drawings
using computers. Figure 6.1 shows four views (plan, elevation, end view and isometric
view) of a part. Since any entity in this type of representation requires only two co-ordinates
(X and Y) such software packages were called two-dimensional (2-D) drafting packages.
With the evolution of CAD, most of these packages have been upgraded to enable 3-D
representation.

Fig. 6.1 Four Views of a Part

GEOMETRIC MODELING
Computer representation of the geometry of a component using software is called a
geometric model. Geometric modeling is done in three principal ways. They are:
i. Wire frame modeling
ii. Surface modeling
iii. Solid modeling
These modeling methods have distinct features and applications.

. WIRE FRAME MODELING

In wire frame modeling the object is represented by its edges. In the initial stages of CAD, wire
frame models were in 2-D. Subsequently 3-D wire frame modeling software was introduced.
The wire frame model of a box is shown in Fig. 6.2 (a). The object appears as if it is made out of
thin wires. Fig. 6.2(b), 6.2(c) and 6.2(d) show three objects which can have the same wire frame
model of the box. Thus in the case of complex parts wire frame models can be confusing. Some
clarity can be obtained through hidden line elimination. Though this type of modeling may
not provide unambiguous understanding of the object, this has been the method traditionally
used in the 2-D representation of the object, where orthographic views like plan, elevation,
end view etc are used to describe the object graphically.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 6.2 Ambiguity in Wire Frame Modeling

A comparison between 2-D and 3-D models is given below:

 2 - D Models
Ends (vertices) of lines are represented
by their X and Y coordinates
Curved edges are represented by
circles, ellipses, splines etc. Additional
views and sectional views are necessary
to represent a complex object with clarity.
3-D image reconstruction is tedious.
Uses only one global coordinate system
3-D Wire Frame Models
Ends of lines are represented by their X,
Y and Z coordinates.
Curved surfaces are represented by
suitably spaced generators. Hidden line
or hidden surface elimination is a must
to interpret complex components
correctly.
2-D views as well as various pictorial
views can be generated easily.
May require the use of several user
coordinate systems to create features on
different faces of the component.

SURFACE MODELING
In this approach, a component is represented by its surfaces which in turn are represented
by their vertices and edges. For example, eight surfaces are put together to create a box, as
shown in Fig. 6.3. Surface modeling has been very popular in aerospace product design
and automotive design. Surface modeling has been particularly useful in the development
of manufacturing codes for automobile panels and the complex doubly curved shapes of
aerospace structures and dies and moulds.

Fig. 6.3 Surface Representation

 Apart from standard surfac
surface types available for surface modeling (box, pyramid,
pyramid wedge,
dome, sphere, cone, torus, dis
dish and mesh) techniques are available for interactive
interactiv modeling
and editing of curved surface geometr
geometry. Surfaces can be created
eated through an assembly of
polygonal meshes or using advance
advanced curve and surface modeling techniquess like B-splines
or NURBS (Non-Uniform Rationa
Rational B-splines). Standard primitives used in a typical
typica surface
modeling software are show
shown in Fig. 6.4. Tabulated surfaces, ruled surfaces
surface and edge
surfaces and revolved aree simple ways in which curved geometry could be created and
edited. Surface modeling is discussed in detail later in this chapter.

Fig. 6.4 Typical Approaches in Surface Modeling

SOLID MODELING
The representation of solid models uses the fundamental idea that a physical object divides
the 3-D
D Euclidean space into two regions, one exterior and one interio
interior,, separated by the
boundary of the solid. Solid models are:
• bounded
• homogeneously threee dimensional
• finite
There are six common representations
epresentations in solid modeling.
i. Spatial Enumeration: In this simplest form of 3D volumetric raster model, a
section of 3D space is described by a matrix of evenly spaced cubic volume
elements called voxels.
ii. Cell Decomposition: This is a hiera
hierarchical
chical adaptation of spatial enumeration. 3D
space is sub-divided into cells. Cells could be of different sizes. These simple cells
are glued together to describe a solid object.
iii. Boundary Representation
esentation: The solid is represented by its boundary which whic consists
of a set of faces, a set o
of edges and a set of vertices as well as their topological
topologica relations.
iv. Sweep Methods: In n this technique a planar shape is moved along alon a curve.
Translational sweep can be used to create prismatic objects and rotational sweep
could be used for axisymmetric components.
 v. Primitive Instancing: This modeling scheme provides a set of possible object
shapes which are described by a set of parameters. Instances of object shape can
be created by varying these parameters.
vi. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG): Primitive instances are combined using
Boolean set operations to create complex objects.
In most of the modeling packages, the approach used for modeling uses any one of the
following three techniques:
i. Constructive solid geometry (CSG or C-Rep)
ii. Boundary representation (B-Rep)
iii. Hybrid method which is a combination of B-Rep and CSG.

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)

In a CSG model, physical objects are created by combining basic elementary shapes known
as primitives like blocks, cylinders, cones, pyramids and spheres. The Boolean operations
like union (∗), difference (–) and intersection ) are used to carry out this task. For example,
let us assume that we are using two primitives, a block and a cylinder which are located in
space as shown in Fig. 6.5.

Fig.6.5 CSG Operation

A “union” operation (A ∗ B) will combine the two to convert them into a new solid.(Fig.
6.5 (c)) The difference operation (A – B) will create a block with a hole (Fig. 6.5. (D)). An
intersection operation (A ) B) will yield the portion common to the two primitives. (Fig.
6.5(E)).
Boundary Representation:
Boundary representation is built on the concept that a physical object is enclosed by a set
of faces which themselves are closed and orientable surfaces. Fig. 6.6 shows a B-rep model
of an object. In this model, face is bounded by edges and each edge is bounded by vertices.
The entities which constitute a B-rep model are:
Geometric entities Topological entities
Point Vertex
Curve, line Edge
Surface Face

Fig. 6.6 B-Rep Model

A solid model is a 3-D representation of an object. It is an accurate geometric description

which includes not only the external surfaces of part, but also the part’s internal structure.
A solid model allows the designer to determine information like the object’s mass properties,
interferences, and internal cross sections.
Solid models differ from wire frame and surface models in the kind of geometric
information they provide. Wire frame models only show the edge geometry of an object.
They say nothing about what is inside an object. Surface models provide surface
information, but they too lack information about an object’s internal structure. Solid models
provide complete geometric descriptions of objects.
Engineers use solid models in different ways at different stages of the design process.
They can modify a design as they develop it. Since computer-based solid models are a lot
easier to change and manipulate than the physical mock-ups or prototypes, more design
iterations and modifications can be easily carried out as a part of the design process. Using
solid modeling techniques a design engineer can modify a design several times while
optimizing geometry. This means that designers can produce more finished designs in
less time than by using traditional design methods or 2-D CAD drafting tools.
Solid models can be used for quick and reliable design analysis. Solid models apart
from geometric information provide important data such as volume, mass, mass
properties and centre of gravity. The designer can also export models created to other
applications for finite element analysis (FEA), rapid prototyping and other special
engineering applications.
Finally designers can generate detailed production drawings directly from the solid
model. This capability increases design productivity considerably. Another important
feature of solid modeling is associativity. Detailed drawings are linked to solid model
through the associativity feature. This is a powerful function - as an engineer modifies a
design, the drawings get updated automatically. In bidirectional associativity, any
modifications made to geometry in the drawing are reflected in the model. In more
advanced design and manufacturing environments, solid models are used for rapid
prototyping and automated manufacturing applications.
The salient features of the solid modeling approach to design are discussed in the
following sections.

SALIENT FEATURES OF SOLID MODELING

FEATURE-BASED DESIGN
The most fundamental aspect in creating a solid model is the concept of feature-based
design. In typical 2-D CAD applications, a designer draws a part by adding basic geometric
elements such as lines, arcs, circles and splines. Then dimensions are added. In solid
modeling a 3-D design is created by starting a base feature and then adding other features,
one at a time, until the accurate and complete representation of the part’s geometry is
achieved.
A feature is a basic building block that describes the design, like a keyway on a shaft.
Each feature indicates how to add material (like a rib) or remove a portion of material (like
a cut or a hole). Features adjust automatically to changes in the design thereby allowing
the capture of design intent. This also saves time when design changes are made. Because
features have the ability to intelligently reference other features, the changes made will
navigate through design, updating the 3-D model in all affected areas. Figure 6.7 shows a
ribbed structure. It consists of feature like ribs and holes.
 Fig. 6.7 A Ribbed Structure

Similarly, if a flanged part shown in Fig. 6.8 (A) is to be created, the one approach is to
sketch the cross section as shown in Fig. 6.8 (B) and then revolve through 360°.

(A ) (B )

Fig. 6.8 Flanged Part

In typical solid modeling software the designer can create a feature in two basic ways.
One is to sketch a section of the shape to be added and then extrude, revolve,
evolve, or sweep it
to create the shape. These aree called sketched features.
Another type of feature iss the pick-and-place feature. Here the designer simply
simpl performs
an engineering operation such as placing a hole, chamfering or rounding a set of edges, or
shelling out the model.
 An important component of every feature is its dimensions. Dimensions are the
variables that one changes in order to make the design update automatically. When a
dimension is changed the solid modeling software recalculates the geometry.
Design of a part always begins with a base feature. This is a basic shape, such as a
block or a cylinder that approximates the shape of the part one wants to design. Then by
adding familiar design features like protrusions, cuts, ribs, keyways, rounds, holes, and
others the geometry of a part is created.
This process represents true design. Unlike many CAD applications in which designing
means drawing a picture of the part, working with the feature-based solid modeling method
is more like sculpting designs from solid material.
Features/available in typical solid modeling software are:
Extrude Revolve Thin
Blend Slot Cut
Protrusion Shaft Round
Hole Flange Rib
Chamfer Push Dome
Draft Ear Shell
Offset Lip
Pipe Sweep

MODELING TOOLS
When a 3-D model is built the designer describes the features that make up a part. Parts
are put together to make an assembly, and then documentation is made.

Sketching
The first step in creating many 3-D features is sketching a 2-D section. Then by using
appropriate instructions the design conveys the information regarding how far to extend
this section in a space. The third dimension is created this way. For instance, a 30 mm
circle extruded 50 mm through space produces a cylinder 30 mm diameter and 50 mm
high. The circle is the sketched section of the cylinder.

Creating Parts
As mentioned earlier solid modeler uses features such as cuts, protrusions, holes,
chamfers, and other basic shapes to build part geometry. The designer gets the information
about the geometry of a feature (like the size and shape of cuts and protrusions), from a
sketcher window.
As the features are added the geometry of the part is enhanced. By adding to
geometry one feature at a time, parts with very complex geometry can be created as
shown in Fig. 6.9.
 Fig. 6.9 Part with Complex Geometry

Many tools for modifying geometry, establishing relations between features, and
defining or modifying feature attributes are provided in solid modeling softwares.
Regardless of whether simple parts or complex ones are designed, part geometry is created
and modified in the same way.

Building Assemblies
Designs usually consist of several parts. Solid modelers can put two or more parts
together in an assembly. All the tools a designer needs to build, modify, and verify
assemblies are available in solid modeling softwares.

Fig. 6.10 Exploded View of an Assembly

Documenting Designs
The final step of designing a part or assembly is communicating it in a medium other
than the computer monitor ’s display. For some operations this means plotting out design
drawings. Solid modelers provide tools to produce finished drawings complete with
geometric tolerancing and text annotation.
Drawings may not be the final step for everybody. Many users export designs to other
applications for analysis, manufacturing, and other forms of post-processing. Modeling
software also will incorporate a variety of tools for exporting designs to other softwares.

USING USER CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS (UCS)

CAD packages have a facility to define several user co-ordinate systems. Plane figures can
be drawn in these user co-ordinate systems to create a 3-D wire frame model. For example,
consider the object shown in Fig. 6.22. Different sides of the object can be created in the
respective planes as indicated.
A plane figure drawn in a User Co-ordinate System can be assigned a thickness to
create a 3-D wire frame model. Complex 3-D models can be created using a combination
of several user co-ordinate systems and thicknesses.

X1
Y1
Y2 UCS 1
X2
UCS 2
Z
WCS
Y X
WCS-WORLD COORDINATE
SYSTEM
UCS-USER COORDINATE
SYSTEM

Fig. 6.22 User Co-ordinate System

PLOTTING A DRAWING
Plotters are output devices which produce hard copies of drawings with good resolution,
as much as 2400×1200 dpi. The lines and curves so plotted appear neat and smooth as
contrasted with the drawing shown on the VDU screen. (Plotters are available in various
sizes (A4-A0) and they use single or multi colors. Printers are less accurate, but very useful
particularly for commercial drawings like pie-charts.
Color printers can also be used to make hard copies of drawings. These devices should
be configured to the system before use. All softwares provide driver programmes to drive
these output devices. The flexibility of a software depends on the number of varieties of
input/output devices for which it has driver programs available. Otherwise the choice of
hardware is restricted. Many plotters are HP-GL (Hewlett Packard Graphics Language)
compatible. Many plotters use fuzzy logic for vector sorting which reduces unnecessary
movements while plotting. Laser plotters are also available now.

REPRESENTATION OF CURVES AND SURFACES

A curve or a surface may be described or represented by a set of equations. These
equations can be categorized into two forms:
i. Generic form
The generic form in which any generic point (x, y, z) satisfies a relationship in
implicit form in x, y, and z i.e. f(x, y, z) = 0. A single such constraint generally
describes a surface while two constraints considered together can be thought of
as a curve which is the intersection of two surfaces. This may be expressed in
an explicit form in the following manner:
x = g1(y, z)
y = g2(x, z)
z = g3(x, y)
ii. Parametric form
A parametric curve is one whose defining equations are in terms of a simple,
common independent variable known as parametric variable.
In the parametric form, the representation is done by a set of functions. A curve may be
represented by
 x = x (u)
y = y (u)
z = z (u)
where x, y, z are co-ordinates of the points on the curve which are functions of some
parameter u and the parametric variable is constrained in the interval. For example, a
point (x, y) is located at an angle  from +X axis on a circle with centre at (0, 0) and radius
= 1 can be described in parametric form as:
x = Cos 
y = Sin 
where  is the parameter. Surfaces are described similarly for which x, y and z are functions
two independent parameters u and v. Parametric design is very popular in computer aided
design for a variety of reasons, which are listed below:
• Separation of variables
• Each variable is treated alike
• More degrees of freedom/control
• Parametric equations can be transformed directly
• Infinite slopes can be handled without computational breakdown
• Easy to express as vectors
• Amenable to plotting and digitizing
• Inherently bounded

DESIGN OF CURVED SHAPES

Design of curved shapes should satisfy the following requirements:
i. It should be possible to represent the shape mathematically.
ii. The modeling should involve minimum computation.
iii. It should be possible to generate a CNC program to machine the surfaces (2, 3,
4 and 5 axis machining) or to prepare a mould or die to make the part (as in plastic
injection molding or casting or automobile panel pressing).
A component can be designed using the curves and shapes which can be mathematically
described e.g. arc, circle, conics, ellipsoid, hyperbolic paraboloid, sphere, and cone, cylinder,
linear, conical - and circular swept surfaces etc. However very often the designer starts
with specifying a few points which roughly describe the shape.
Two approaches are available to designers to model curves and surfaces in such cases:
interpolation and approximation. The interpolation essentially tries to pass a curve on a
surface called interpolant through all these points. Approximation tries to fit a smoother
curve on surface which may be close to these points but may not actually pass through
each of them. Fig. 6.27 illustrates the difference between interpolation (a) and
approximation (b).
 IN T E R P O L AT IO N

A P P R O X IM AT IO N

Fig. 6.27 Interpolation and Approximation

One of the popular methods of interpolation is to use the Lagrange polynomial, which
is the unique polynomial of degree n passing through n + 1 points. However, Lagrange
polynomial is unsuitable in modeling of curves because of:
i. Large number of computations involved and
ii. Tendency for the curve to oscillate between data points when the data points are
large.
Another approach is to look for a polynomial of fewer degrees than W passing through
these W + 1 data points. This is done by combining polynomials of lesser degree passing
through several consecutive data points and smoothly piecing several such curve segments
together by blending. In general, the modeling of curves is done to satisfy the following:
i. Axis independence
ii. Global and local control
iii. Smoothness of curves
iv. Versatility
v. Continuity between adjoining segments of curve.

CUBIC SPLINES
Splines are functions that are used for fitting a curve through a number of data points. A
cubic spline has the property that the three co-ordinate functions x (u), y (u), and z (u) are
each cubic polynomials in the variable u:
x (u) = a u3 + b u2 + c u + d
y (u) = e u3 + f u2 + g u + h
z (u) = j u3 + k u2 + l u + m
 Whereas parametric curves are generally considered to be defined over an infinite
range of parameter values of u, it is always necessary to limit these to a finite interval
when modeling shapes on a computer. The domain u is, therefore taken as 0 < u < = 1 in
the discussion that follows:
A spline passes through two end points and satisfies differentiality condition at these
end points. These four conditions require a polynomial degree of at least 3. The derivations
of cubic splines for x, y and z are similar. The difference will be only in the end point co-
ordinates and derivatives at the end points. Therefore only the derivation of x(u) is
considered here.
Let x(0), x(1), x’(0) and x’(1) are the end points and the derivatives at the end points
respectively.
Since x(u) = au3 + bu2 + cu + d, we get
x (0) = d
x (1) = a + b + c + d
x’(0) = c
x’(1) = 3a + 2b + c
The above equations can be solved to obtain the four equations given below:
a = 2X(0) – 2X(1) + X’(0) + X’(1)
b = –3X(0) + 3X(1) – 2X’(0) – X’(1)
c = X’(0)
d = X(0)
(or)

a  2 2 1 1  x(0) 

b   3 3 2 1  x(1) 
     
c  = 0 0 1 0   x '(0)
 d   1 0 0 0   x '(1) 

The coefficients of cubic spline polynomials y(u) and z(u) are similarly obtained by
replacing x data by y and z data.
In a vectorial form the parametric cubic curve can be expressed as:
P(u) = au3 + bu2 + cu + d
where u (0,1)
P(u) = [u3 u2 u 1] [ a b c d]T
Let U = [u3 u2 u 1] and A = [a b c d]T
P = UA
 Curves are defined by interpolating points and tangents at these points. The parametric
cubic curve can be designed using the four vectors P(0), P(1), P’(0) and P’(1). Each one of
these vectors has three components.
P0 = d
P1 = a + b + c + d
P’(0) = c
P’(1) = 3a + 2b + c
P = (2u3 –3u2 + 1)P0+ (–2u3 + 3u2 )P1 + (u3– 2u2+u) P’0+ (u3– u2) P’1
Let F1 = 2u3 – 3u2 + 1
F2 = -2u3 + 3u2
F3 = u3 – 2u2 + u
F4 = u3 – u2
then P = F1 P0 + F2 P1 + F3 P’ + F4 P’
Let F = [ F1 F2 F3 F4 ] and B = [ P0 P1 P’0 P’1]
then P = FB
F1 , F2 , F3 , F4 , are called blending function or Hermite polynomial basis functions. B is
the matrix of geometric coefficients. F is the blending function matrix. The blending function
matrix F can be written as the product of two matrices.
F = UM
Where

 2 2 1 1
  3 3  2 1
 
M = 0 0 1 0
 
1 0 0 0

where M is called universal transformation matrix.

Therefore P = UMB
P = UA
Hence A = MB
and conversely
B = M–1 A
where
0 0 0 1
 
1 1 1 1
 
M–1 = 0 0 1 0
 
3 2 1 0
For a given set of end points P 0 and P1 and slopes P’0 and P’1 several sets of curves
can be generated by varying the magnitude of the tangent vectors. (unit tangent vector
t = Pu / |Pu| ).
Figure 6.28 shows a cubic spline connecting four points. There are several other
formulations of cubic splines. Ferguson used cubic polynomials for curve and surface design
in aircrafts. However, these methods generally suffer from the fact that they do not allow
the user to change the smoothness of the curve.

X '( 0 )

X (0 )
X (1 )

X '( 1 )

Fig. 6.28 Cubic Spline

BEZIER CURVES
Bezier curves, developed by P.Bezier at Ranault Automobile Company and P. de Casteljau
at Citreon, France are used for curve and surface design of automobile panels. A Bezier
curve is blended at the joints and is completely defined by four consecutive points (X0,
Y0), (X1,y1), (X2,Y2), (X3,Y3). The curve passes only through the first and fourth point.
The two intermediate points are used to define the slope of the curve at the end points. If
X0, X1, X2 and X3 are the X- co-ordinates of the control points, it is assumed that :
i. The curve passes through the end points X0 and X3
ii. The slope at the points are:
X’(0) = 3(X1 – X0)
 X’(1) = 3(X3– X2)
Using these properties, the coefficients of Bezier curve for x term can be expressed as :

a  1 3  3 1 X0
   
b   3 6 3 0 X1
 c  =  3 3 0 0 X2
    X3
d  1 0 0 0
The cubic polynomial x(t) in the Bezier form can be expressed as :

 1 3  3 1 X0
 3 6 3
0 X1
 
x (t ) = (u3 u2 u1 )  3 3 0 0 X2
  X3
1 0 0 0

The advantages of Bezier curve over cubic spline is that the direction of the curve at the
joints can be defined and changed simply by specifying the position of the second and third
data points. Changing a control point not only affects the shape of the curve near the control
point but has an influence throughout the curve. This lack of local control is a major weakness
of Bezier curve. Fig. 6.29 shows Bezier cubic segments for two sets of values of X.

X1 X3 X2

X1 X4
X1 X4

X3
Fig. 6.29 Bezier Curve

The Bezier cubic segment discussed above is a special case of the more general Bezier
polynomial curve segment
3

P (u ) =  P , B , 3(u)
i=0
i i
where u  [0,1]
With blending functions: Bi,n (u) = C(n,i) ui (1 – u)n-i
where n is the binomial coefficient

n!
C (n, i ) = (n  1)!
i!
and p(u) are the control points and there are n+1 of them defining the vertices of the
characteristic polygon.

-SPLINES
This form of cubic segments uses a third set of basis functions different from the types
discussed earlier. A cubic -spline curve is a special case of spline curve. The equation
for this curve can be written as:
n

P (u) =  P i N i, k (u)
i=1

u  [0, (n– k + 2)]

This generates what is known as piecewise polynomial. The N(u) blending functions
are defined recursively as :
N (u) = 1 if ti < u < ti+1
= 0 otherwise

(u t )N , K (u ) + (t u )N , K (u )
N (u ) = t1  t t1  t
The resulting parametric polynomials are of degree (k - 1). The t are called knot values.
For an open curve there are
ti = 0 if i < k
ti = i – k +1 if k δ i δ n i  [0, n + k]
ti = n – k + 2 if i > n
The blending functions confine the effects of a control point movement to the immediate
locale. Thus the curve change shape is local and not global as it is for Bezier curves.

1 4 1 0  xi  2 
 3 0 x 
 3 0  i 1 
x(u) = (1 u u2 u3 ) 1/6  3  6 3 0  xi 
   
 1 3  3 1  x i +1 
 When the control points are distinct, this curve is continuous in slope and in curvature
between successive segments but it does not pass through any of the intermediate control
points. The cubic -spline has the advantage that the control points may be moved
without affecting slope and curvature continuity and only four spans of the overall
curve will be affected by the change. Moreover, by allowing two control points to
coincide it is possible to create a curvature discontinuity. A slope discontinuity, similarly,
can be introduced by choosing three successive control points to be coincident.
It is possible to represent complex curve shapes by considering composite curves
constructed from individual segments, in the case of cubic spline, Bezier and B-spline
techniques.

REPRESENTATION OF SURFACES
A surface can be defined as the locus of points which satisfy a constraint equation in the
form of F(X, Y, Z) = 0. In parametric form a surface may be represented as
x = X (u, v)
y = Y (u, v)
z = Z (u, v)
where X, Y and Z are suitable functions of two parameters u and v. For example, the
parametric representation of the surface of a sphere whose centre is at the origin of co-
ordinates and of radius R is
x = X (, ) = R sin  cos 
y = Y (, ) = R sin  sin 
z = Z (, ) = R cos 

DESIGN OF SURFACES
The design of surfaces may be based on quadrics like ellipsoid, hyperboloid, cone,
hyperbolic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, elliptic cylinder and elliptic paraboloid. A surface
may be generated by sweeping a pattern curve along a spline curve. The swept surface
may also be linear, conical linear or circular swept surface.

PARAMETRIC DESIGN OF SURFACES

Parametric surfaces may be defined in one of the following methods:
i. In terms of points of data (positions, tangents, normals)
ii. In terms of data on a number of space curves lying in these surfaces.
The resulting surface will either interpolate or approximate the data. Surfaces are
normally designed in patches, each patch corresponding to a rectangular domain in u-v
space. A surface patch defined in terms of point data will usually be based on a rectangular
array of data points which may be regarded as defining a series of curves in one
parameter direction which in turn are interpolated or approximated in the direction of
the other parameter to generate the surface. Fig. 6.30 shows the parameter curves on a
surface patch defined by a rectangular array of data points.

Fig. 6.30 A Surface Patch

SURFACE MODELING COMMANDS

There are a number of commands to create a surface
model
i. 3-D face: The different faces of an object can be modeled using this command.
The X,Y,Z co-ordinates of each vertex are input one after another to model a face
and each of the faces is defined one after another in this manner.
ii. P face: The P-face command produces a general polygon mesh of a arbitrary
topology. Using this command, it is possible to avoid defining a single vertex
several times as is done in 3-D face command. The user defines all vertices and
then defines the faces in terms of the vertices.
iii. Rulesurf: This command creates a polygon representing the ruled surface
between two curves. Figure 6.32 shows an example of ruled surfaces.

Fig. 6.32 Ruled Surface

iv. Tabsurf: A polygon mesh representing general tabulated mesh defined by a path
curve and a direction vector (generatrix) is created by this command. Fig. 6.33
shows a typical surface created by this command.

v. Revsurf: A surface of revolution is created by rotating a path curve or

profile about an axis. The rotation can be through 360 degrees or part of it.
vi. Edgesurf: This command constructs a Coon’s surface patch using four
adjoining curved edges, an example of edgesurf commands is shown in Fig.
6.34.

Fig. 6.34 Example of Edge

Surface
 Unit -3 :

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL

The variety being demanded in view of the varying tastes of the consumer calls for a
very small batch sizes. Small batch sizes will not be able to take advantage of the mass
production techniques such as special purpose machines or transfer lines. Hence, the need
for flexible automation is felt , where you not only get the benefits of rigid automation
but are also able to vary the products manufactured thus bringing in the flexibility. Numerical
control fits the bill perfectly and we would see that manufacturing would increasingly be
dependent on numerical control in future.

Numerical control

Numerical control of machine tools may be defined as a method of automation

in which various functions of machine tools are controlled by letters, numbers and
symbols. Basically a NC machine runs on a program fed to it. The program consists of
precise instructions about the methodology of manufacture as well as movements. For
example, what tool is to be used, at what speed, at what feed and to move from which point
to which point in what path. Since the program is the controlling point for product
manufacture, the machine becomes versatile and can be used for any part. All the functions
of a NC machine tool are therefore controlled electronically, hydraulically or pneumatically.
In NC machine tools, one or more of the following functions may be automatic.

a. Starting and stopping of machine tool spindle.

b. Controlling the spindle speed.

c. Positioning the tool tip at desired locations and guiding it along desired paths
by automatic control of motion of slides.

d. Controlling the rate of movement of tool tip ( feed rate)

e. Changing of tools in the spindle.

Functions of a machine tool

The purpose of a machine tool is to cut away surplus material, usually metal from the
material supplied to leave a work piece of the required shape and size, produced to
an acceptable degree of accuracy and surface finish. The machine tool should possess certain
capabilities in order to fulfill these requirements. It must be

a. Able to hold the work piece and cutting tool securely.

 b. Endowed the sufficient power to enable the tool to cut the work piece material
at economical rates.

c. Capable of displacing the tool and work piece relative to one another to produce the
required work piece shape. The displacements must be controlled with a degree of
precision which will ensure the desired accuracy of surface finish and size.

Concept of numerical control

Formerly, the machine tool operator guided a cutting tool around a work piece by
manipulating hand wheels and dials to get a finished or somewhat finished part. In his
procedure many judgments of speeds, feeds, mathematics and sometimes even
tool configuration were his responsibility. The number of judgments the machinist had to
make usually depended on the type of stock he worked in and the kind of organization
that prevailed. If his judgment was an error, it resulted in rejects or at best parts to be
reworked or repaired in some fashion.

Decisions concerning the efficient
depended on the craftsmanship, knowledge
two expert operators produced identical
judgment of speeds, feeds and tooling. In
same manner the second time around.
and correct use of the machine tool then
and skill of the machinist himself. It is rare that
parts using identical procedure and identical
fact even one craftsman may not proceed in

Process planners and programmers have now the responsibilities for these matters.

It must be understood that NC does not alter the capabilities of the machine tool.
The With NC the correct and most efficient use of a machine no longer rests with the
operator.Actual machine tool with a capable operator can do nothing more than it
was capable of doing before a MCU was joined to it. New metal removing principles are
not involved. Cutting speeds, feeds and tooling principles must still be adhered to. The
advantage is idle time is reduced and the actual utilization rate is mush higher (compresses
into one ortwo years that a conventional machine receives in ten years).

Historical Development

1947 was the year in which Numerical control was born. It began because of an
urgent need. John C Parsons of the parson’s corporation, Michigan, a manufacturer of
helicopter rotor blades could not make his templates fast enough. so he invented a way of
coupling computer equipment with a jig borer.

The US air force realized in 1949 that parts for its planes and missiles were becoming more
complex. Also the designs were constantly being improved; changes in drawings were
frequently made. Thus in their search for methods of speeding up production, an air
force study contract was awarded to the Parson’s Corporation. The servomechanisms lab
of MIT was the subcontractor.

In 1951, the MIT took over the complete job and in 1952; a prototype of NC machine was
successfully demonstrated. The term “Numerical Control” was coined at MIT. In 1955 seven
companies had tape controlled machines. In 1960, there were 100 NC machines at the
machine tool shown in Chicago and a majority of them were relatively simple point to point
application.

During these years the electronics industry was busy. First miniature electronic tubes were
developed, then solid state circuitry and then modular or integrated circuits. Thus the
reliability of the controls has been greatly increased and they have become most compact
and less expensive.

Today there are several hundred sizes and varieties of machines, many options and many
varieties of control system available.

Definition:

The simplest definition is as the name implies, “a process a controlled by numbers “.

Numerical Control is a system in which the direct insertions of programmed numerical value,
stored on some form of input medium are automatically read and decoded to cause a
corresponding function on the machine tool which it is controlling.

Advantages of NC machine tools:

1. Reduced lead time:

Lead time includes the time needed for planning, design and manufacture
of jigs, etc. This time may amount to several months. Since the need for special jigs
and fixtures is often entirely eliminated, the whole time needed for their design and
manufacture is saved.

2. Elimination of operator errors:

The machine is controlled by instructions registered on the tape provided

the tape is correct and machine and tool operate correctly, no errors will occur in the
job. Fatigue, boredom, or inattention by operator will not affect the quality or
duration of the machining. Responsibility is transferred from the operator to the
tape, machine settings are achieved without the operator reading the dial.

3. Operator activity:

The operator is relieved of tasks performed by the machine and is free

to attend to matters for which his skills and ability are essential. Presetting of
tools, setting of components and preparation and planning of future jobs fall
into this category. It is possible for two work stations to be prepared on a single
machine table, even with small batches. Two setting positions are used, and the
operator can be setting one station while machining takes place at the other.

4. Lower labor cost

 More time is actually spent on cutting the metal. Machine manipulation
time ex.:. Gear changing and often setting time are less with NC machines and help
reduce the labor cost per job considerably.

5. Smaller batches

By the use of preset tooling and presetting techniques downtime

between batches is kept at a minimum. Large storage facilities for work in progress
are not required. Machining centers eliminate some of the setups needed for a
succession of operation on one job; time spent in waiting until each of a succession
of machine is free is also cut. The components circulate round the machine shop in a
shorter period, inter department costs are saved and ‘program chasing’ is reduced.

6. Longer tool life

Tools can be used at optimum speeds and feeds because these functions are
controlled by the program.

7. Elimination of special jigs and fixtures

Because standard locating fixtures are often sufficient of work on

machines. the cost of special jigs and fixture is frequently eliminated. The capital cost
of storage facilities is greatly reduced. The storage of a tape in a simple matter, it
may be kept for many years and manufacturing of spare parts, repeat orders or
replacements is made much more convenient.

8. Flexibility in changes of component design

The modification of component design can be readily accommodated by

reprogramming and altering the tape. Savings are affected in time and cost.

9. Reduced inspection.

The time spent on inspection and in waiting for inspection to begin is greatly
reduced. Normally it is necessary to inspect the first component only once the tape is
proved; the repetitive accuracy of the machine maintains a consistent product.

10. Reduced scrap

Operator error is eliminated and a proven tape results in accurate component.

11. Accurate costing and scheduling

The time taken in machining is predictable, consistent and results in a

greater accuracy in estimating and more consistency in costing.

Evolution of CNC:

With the availability of microprocessors in mid 70’s the controller technology has
made a tremendous progress. The new control systems are termed as computer
numerical control (CNC) which are characterized by the availability of a dedicated
computer and enhanced memory in the controller. These may also be termed “soft wired
numerical control”.

There are many advantages which are derived from the use of CNC as compared to
NC.

• Part program storage memory.

• Part program editing.

• Part program downloading and uploading.

• Part program simulation using tool path.

• Tool offset data and tool life management.

• Additional part programming facilities.

• Macros and subroutines.

• Background tape preparation, etc.

The controls with the machine tools these days are all CNC and the old NC control do not
exist anymore.
 DEFINITION AND FEATURES OF CNC

Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

CNC refers to a computer that is joined to the NC machine to make the machine versatile.
Information can be stored in a memory bank. The programme is read from a storage medium
such as the punched tape and retrieved to the memory of the CNC computer. Some CNC
machines have a magnetic medium (tape or disk) for storing programs. This gives more
flexibility for editing or saving CNC programs. Figure 1 illustrates the general configuration
of CNC.

Magnetic
tape or disk
or paper tape
reader Miscellaneous
control -e.g. limit
switches, coolant,
spindle, etc.

CNC
controller
with keypad
and display

Machine tool

Axis drive and

control
(x,y,z,a,b,w)
Paper
spindle speed
tape punch
 Figure 1 The general configuration of CNC.

Advantages of CNC

1. Increased productivity.

2. High accuracy and repeatability.

3. Reduced production costs.

4. Reduced indirect operating costs.

5. Facilitation of complex machining operations.

6. Greater flexibility.

7. Improved production planning and control.

8. Lower operator skill requirement.

9. Facilitation of flexible automation.

Limitations of CNC:

1. High initial investment.

2. High maintenance requirement.

3. Not cost-effective for low production cost.

Features of CNC

Computer NC systems include additional features beyond what is feasible with

conventional hard-wired NC. These features, many of which are standard on most CNC
Machine Control units (MCU), include the following:

• Storage of more than one part program : With improvements in computer storage
technology, newer CNC controllers have sufficient capacity to store multiple
programs. Controller manufacturers generally offer one or more memory
expansions as options to the MCU

• Various forms of program input : Whereas conventional (hard-wired) MCUs are

limited to punched tape as the input medium for entering part programs, CNC
controllers generally possess multiple data entry capabilities, such as punched tape,
magnetic tape, floppy diskettes, RS-232 communications with external computers,
and manual data input (operator entry of program).
• Program editing at the machine tool : CNC permits a part program to be edited
while it resides in the MCU computer memory. Hence, a part program can be
tested and corrected entirely at the machine site, rather than being returned to
the programming office for corrections. In addition to part program corrections,
editing also permits cutting conditions in the machining cycle to be optimized.
After the program has been corrected and optimized, the revised version can be
stored on punched tape or other media for future use.

• Fixed cycles and programming subroutines : The increased memory capacity and
the ability to program the control computer provide the opportunity to store
frequently used machining cycles as macros, that can be called by the part program.
Instead of writing the full instructions for the particular cycle into every program, a
programmer includes a call statement in the part program to indicate that the
macro cycle should be executed. These cycles often require that certain
parameters be defined, forexample, a bolt hole circle, in which the diameter of the
bolt circle, the spacing of the bolt holes, and other parameters must be specified.

• Interpolation : Some of the interpolation schemes are normally executed only on a

CNC system because of computational requirements. Linear and circular interpolation
are sometimes hard-wired into the control unit, but helical, parabolic, and cubic
interpolations are usually executed by a stored program algorithm.

• Positioning features for setup : Setting up the machine tool for a given workpart
involves installing and aligning a fixture on the machine tool table. This must be
accomplished so that the machine axes are established with respect to the
workpart. The alignment task can be facilitated using certain features made possible
by software options in the CNC system. Position set is one of the features. With
position set, the operator is not required to locate the fixture on the machine
table with extreme accuracy. Instead, the machine tool axes are referenced to the
location of the fixture using a target point or set of target points on the work or
fixture.

• Cutter length and size compensation : In older style controls, cutter dimensions
hade to be set precisely to agree with the tool path defined in the part
program. Alternative methods for ensuring accurate tool path definition have been
incorporated into the CNC controls. One method involves manually entering the actual
tool dimensions into the MCU. These actual dimensions may differ from those
originally programmed. Compensations are then automatically made in the computed
tool path. Another method involves use of a tool length sensor built into the machine.
In this technique, the cutter is mounted in the spindle and the sensor measures its
length. This measured value is then used to correct the programmed tool path.

• Acceleration and deceleration calculations : This feature is applicable when the

cutter moves at high feed rates. It is designed to avoid tool marks on the work surface
that would be generated due to machine tool dynamics when the cutter path changes
abruptly. Instead, the feed rate is smoothly decelerated in anticipation of a tool path
 change and then accelerated back up to the programmed feed rate after the direction
change.

• Communications interface : With the trend toward interfacing and networking in

plants today, most modern CNC controllers are equipped with a standard RS-232 or
other communications interface to link the machine to other computers and
computer- driven devices. This is useful for various applications, such as
(1)downloading part programs from a central data file; (2)collecting operational
data such as workpiece counts, cycle times, and machine utilization; and
(3)interfacing with peripheral equipment, such as robots that unload and load parts.

• Diagnostics : Many modern CNC systems possess a diagnostics capability that

monitors certain aspects of the machine tool to detect malfunctions or signs of
impending malfunctions or to diagnose system breakdowns.

The Machine Control Unit (MCU) for CNC

The MCU is the hardware that distinguishes CNC from conventional NC. The general
configuration of the MCU in a CNC system is illustrated in Figure 2. The MCU consists of
the following components and subsystems: (1) Central Processing Unit, (2) Memory, (3)
Input/Output Interface, (4) Controls for Machine Tool Axes and Spindle Speed, and (5)
Sequence Controls for Other Machine Tool Functions. These subsystems are
interconnected by means of a system bus, which communicates data and signals among the
components of a network.

• Central Processing Unit : The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the MCU. It
manages the other components in the MCU based on software contained in main
memory. The CPU can be divided into three sections: (1) control section, (2) arithmetic-
logic unit, and (3) immediate access memory. The control section retrieves commands
and data from memory and generates signals to activate other components in the
MCU. In short, it sequences, coordinates, and regulates all the activities of the MCU
computer. The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) consists of the circuitry to perform various
calculations (addition, subtraction, multiplication), counting, and logical functions
required by software residing in memory. The immediate access memory provides a
temporary storage of data being processed by the CPU. It is connected to main
memory of the system data bus.

• Memory : The immediate access memory in the CPU is not intended for storing CNC
software. A much greater storage capacity is required for the various programs and data
needed to operate the CNC system. As with most other computer systems, CNC
memory can be divided into two categories: (1) primary memory, and (2) secondary
memory. Main memory (also known as primary storage) consists of ROM (read-only
memory) and RAM (random access memory) devices. Operating system software
and machine interface programs are generally stored in ROM. These programs are
usually installed by the manufacturer of the MCU. Numerical control part programs
are stored in RAM devices. Current programs in RAM can be erased and replaced by
new programs as jobs are changed.
Memory Central Input/output interface
Processing
• ROM – Operating Unit (CPU) • Operator panel
System
• Tape reader
• RAM – Part Program

System bus

Machine tool controls Sequence controls

• Position control • Coolant

• Spindle speed • Fixture clamping

control
• Tool changer
 Figure 2 Configuration of CNC machine control unit

High-capacity secondary memory (also called auxiliary storage or secondary storage)

devices are used to store large programs and data files, which are transferred to
main memory as needed. Common among the secondary memory devices are hard disks
and portable devices that have replaced most of the punched paper tape traditionally
used to store part programs. Hard disks are high-capacity storage devices that are
permanently installed in the CNC machine control unit. CNC secondary memory is used to
store part programs, macros, and other software.

• Input/Output Interface : The I/O interface provides communication software between

the various components of the CNC system, other computer systems, and the machine
operator. As its name suggests, The I/O interface transmits and receives data and
signals to and from external devices, several of which are illustrated in Figure 2. The
operator control panel is the basic interface by which the machine operator
communicates to the CNC system. This is used to enter commands related to part
program editing, MCU operating mode (e.g., program control vs. manual control), speeds
and feeds, cutting fluid pump on/off, and similar functions. Either an alphanumeric
keypad or keyboard is usually included in the operator control panel. The I/O interface
also includes a display (CRT or LED) for communication of data and information from the
MCU to the machine operator. The display is used to indicate current status of the
program as it is being executed and to warn the operator of any malfunctions in the CNC
system.Also included in the I/O interface are one or more means of entering the part
program into storage. As indicated previously, NC part programs are stored in a
variety of ways. Programs can also be entered manually by the machine operator or
stored at a central computer site and transmitted via local area network (LAN) to the
CNC system. Whichever means is employed by the plant, a suitable device must be
included in the I/O interface to allow input of the program into MCU memory.

• Controls for Machine Tool Axes and Spindle Speed : These are hardware components
that control the position and velocity (feed rate) of each machine axis as well as
the rotational speed of the machine tool spindle. The control signals generated by MCU
must be converted to a form and power level suited to the particular position control
systems used to drive the machine axes. Positioning systems can be classified as
open loop or closed loop, and different hardware components are required in each case.

• Sequence Controls for Other Machine Tool Functions :

In addition to control of table position, feed rate, and spindle speed, several additional
functions are accomplished under part program control. These auxiliary functions are
generally on/off (binary) actuations, interlocks, and discrete numerical data. To avoid
overloading the CPU, a programmable logic controller is sometimes used to manage
the I/O interface for these auxiliary functions.

Classification Of CNC Machine Tools

(1) Based on the motion type 'Point-to-point & Contouring systems’

There are two main types of machine tools and the control systems required for use with
them differ because of the basic differences in the functions of the machines to be
controlled. They are known as point-to-point and contouring controls.

(1.1)Point-to-point systems

Some machine tools for example drilling, boring and tapping machines etc, require
the cutter and the work piece to be placed at a certain fixed relative positions at which
they must remain while the cutter does its work. These machines are known as point-to-
point machines as shown in figure 3 (a) and the control equipment for use with them are
known as point-to-point control equipment. Feed rates need not to be programmed.
In these machine tools, each axis is driven separately. In a point-to-point control
system, the dimensional information that must be given to the machine tool will be
a series of required position of the two slides. Servo systems can be used to move the
slides and no attempt is made to move the slide until the cutter has been retracted back.

(1.2) Contouring systems (Continuous path systems)

Other type of machine tools involves motion of work piece with respect to the
cutter while cutting operation is taking place. These machine tools include milling,
routing machines etc. and are known as contouring machines as shown in figure 3 (b),
3 (c) and the controls required for their control are known as contouring control.
Contouring machines can also be used as point-to-point machines, but it will be
uneconomical to use them unless the work piece also requires having a contouring
operation to be performed on it. These machines require simultaneous control of
axes. In contouring machines, relative positions of the work piece and the tool should be
continuously controlled. The control system must be able to accept information
regarding velocities and positions of the machines slides. Feed rates should be
programmed.
 Figure 3 (a) Point-to-point system Figure 3 (b) Contouring system

Figure 3 (c) Contouring systems

2) Based on the control loops ‘Open loop & Closed loop systems’

(2.1) Open loop systems (Fig 4(a)):

Programmed instructions are fed into the controller through an input device.
These instructions are then converted to electrical pulses (signals) by the controller and sent
to the servo amplifier to energize the servo motors. The primary drawback of the open-loop
system is that there is no feedback system to check whether the program position and
velocity has been achieved. If the system performance is affected by load, temperature,
humidity, or lubrication then the actual output could deviate from the desired output. For
these reasons the open -loop
loop system is generally used in point-to-point point systems
where the accuracy requireements are not critical. Very few continuous-path systems
s utilize
open-loop control.

Figure 4(a) Open loop

p control system Figure 4(b) Closed loop control sysstem

(2.2) Closed loop systems (Fig

ig 4(b)):

The closed-loop system hass a feedback subsystem to monitor the actuall output and
correct any discrepancy from om the programmed input. These systems use position and
velocity feed back. The feedbac ack system could be either analog or digital. The an
nalog systems
measure the variation of physsical variables such as position and velocity in terrms of voltage
levels. Digital systems monitor
itor output variations by means of electrical pulses es. To control
the dynamic behavior and the final position of the machine slides, a varietty of position
transducers are employed. M Majority of CNC systems operate on servo mechani nism, a closed
loop principle. If a discrepanccy is revealed between where the machine eleme ent should be
and where it actually is, the sensing device signals the driving unit to make an n adjustment,
bringing the movable compon ponent to the required
location. Closed-loop systems ms are very powerful and accurate because they are a capable of
monitoring operating cond onditions through feedback subsystems and d automatically
compensating for
or any variations in real-time.
 Figure 4 (c) Closed loop system

(3) Based on the number of axes ‘2, 3, 4 & 5 axes CNC machines’

(3.1) 2& 3 axes CNC machines:

CNC lathes will be coming under 2 axes machines. There will be two axes along which

motion takes place. The saddle will be moving longitudinally on the bed (Z-axis) and the
cross slide moves transversely on the saddle (along X-axis). In 3-axes machines, there will be
one more axis, perpendicular to the above two axes. By the simultaneous control of all the 3
axes, complex surfaces can be machined.

(3.2) 4 & 5 axes CNC machines (Fig. 5):

4 and 5 axes CNC machines provide multi-axis machining capabilities beyond the standard 3-
axis CNC tool path movements. A 5-axis milling centre includes the three X, Y, Z axes, the A
axis which is rotary tilting of the spindle and the B-axis, which can be a rotary index table.

Figure 5: Five axes CNC machine

Importance of higher axes machining:

Reduced cycle time by machining complex components using a single setup. In addition to
time savings, improved accuracy can also be achieved as positioning errors between
setups are eliminated.

• Improved surface finish and tool life by tilting the tool to maintain optimum tool
to part contact all the times.

• Improved access to under cuts and deep pockets. By tilting the tool, the tool can
be made normal to the work surface and the errors may be reduced as the major
component of cutting force will be along the tool axis.

• Higher axes machining has been widely used for machining sculptures surfaces in
aerospace and automobile industry.

(4) Based on the power supply ‘Electric, Hydraulic & Pneumatic systems’

Mechanical power unit refers to a device which transforms some form of energy to
mechanical power which may be used for driving slides, saddles or gantries forming a part of
machine tool. The input power may be of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic.

(4.1) Electric systems :

Electric motors may be used for controlling both positioning and contouring machines. They
may be either a.c. or d.c. motor and the torque and direction of rotation need to be
controlled. The speed of a d.c. motor can be controlled by varying either the field or the
armature supply. The clutch-controlled motor can either be an a.c. or d.c. motor. They are
generally used for small machine tools because of heat losses in the clutches. Split field
motors are the simplest form of motors and can be controlled in a manner according to the
machine tool. These are small and generally run at high maximum speeds and so require
reduction gears of high ratio.Separately excited motors are used with control systems for
driving the slides of large machine tools.

(4.2) Hydraulic systems:

These hydraulic systems may be used with positioning and contouring machine tools of all
sizes. These systems may be either in the form of rams or motors. Hydraulic motors
are smaller than electric motors of equivalent power. There are several types of hydraulic
motors. The advantage of using hydraulic motors is that they can be very small and have
considerable torque. This means that they may be incorporated in servosystems which
require having a rapid response.

CNC MACHINING CENTERS

The machining centre, developed in the late 50’s is a machine tool capable of multiple
machining operations on a work part in one setup under NC program control.

Classification

Machining centres are classified as vertical, horizontal, or universal. The designation refers to
the orientation of the machine spindle.

1. A vertical machining centre has its spindle on a vertical axis relative to the work table. A
vertical machining centre (VMC) is typically used for flat work that requires tool access
from top. E.g. mould and die cavities, Large components of aircraft

2. A horizontal machining centre (HMC) is used for cube shaped parts where tool access can
be best achieved on the sides of the cube.

3. A universal machining centre (UMC) has a work head that swivels its spindle axis to any
angle between horizontal and vertical making this a very flexible machine tool. E.g.:
Aerofoil shapes, Curvilinear geometries.

The term “Multi tasking machine” is used to include all of these machine tools that
accomplish multiple and often quite different types of operations. The processes that might
be available on a single multi tasking machine include milling, drilling, tapping, grinding and
welding. Advantage of this new class of highly versatile machine compared to more
conventional CNC machine tolls include:

• Fewer
steps,

• Reduced part handling,

• Increased accuracy and repeatability because the parts utilize the same
fixture through out their processing

• Faster delivery of parts in small lot sizes.

Features of CNC machining centers:

CNC machining centers are usually designed with features to reduce non productive
time. The features are:

• Automatic tool changer :

The tools are contained in a storage unit that is integrated with the machine
tool. When a cutter needs to be changed, the tool drum rotates to the proper position
and an automatic tool changer (ATC) operating under program control, exchanges
the tool in the spindle for the tool in the tool storage unit. Capacities of tool
storage unit commonly range from 16 to 80 cutting tools.
 • Automatic work part positioner:

Many horizontal and vertical machining centers have the capability to orient the
work part relative to the spindle. This is accomplished by means of a rotary table on
which work part is fixtured. The table can be oriented at any angle about a vertical axis
to permit the cutting tool to access almost the entire surface of the part in a single
setup.

• Automatic pallet changer:

Machining centers are often equipped with two (or more) separate pallets that can be
presented to the cutting tool using an automatic pallet changer. While machining is
performed with one pallet in position at the machine, the other pallet is in a
safe location away from the spindle. In this location, the operator can unload the
finished part and then fixture the raw work part for next cycle.

Axes Designation in horizontal and vertical machining centres (Fig 1) :

CNC PART PROGRAMMING
(1) Programming fundamentals

Machining involves an important aspect of relative movement between cutting tool and workpiece. In machine tools
this is accomplished by either moving the tool with respect to workpiece or vice versa. In order to define relative
motion of two objects, reference directions are required to be defined. These reference directions depend on
type of machine tool and are defined by considering an imaginary coordinate system on the machine tool. A program
defining motion of tool / workpiece in this coordinate system is known as a part program. Lathe and Milling
machines are taken for case study but other machine tools like CNC grinding, CNC hobbing, CNC filament winding
machine, etc. can also be dealt with in the same manner.

(1.1) Reference Point

Part programming requires establishment of some reference points. Three reference points are either set by
manufacturer or user.

a) Machine Origin

The machine origin is a fixed point set by the machine tool builder. Usually it cannot be changed. Any tool
movement is measured from this point. The controller always remembers tool distance from the machine
origin.

b) Program Origin

It is also called home position of the tool. Program origin is point from where the tool starts for its motion
while executing a program and returns back at the end of the cycle. This can be any point within the workspace
of the tool which is sufficiently away from the part. In case of CNC lathe it is a point where tool change is carried
out.
c) Part Origin

The part origin can be set at any point inside the machine's electronic grid system. Establishing the part origin is
also known as zero shift, work shift, floating zero or datum. Usually part origin needs to be defined for each
new setup. Zero shifting allows the relocation of the part. Sometimes the part accuracy is affected by the
location of the part origin. Figure and 2 shows the reference points on a lathe and milling machine.

Figure 1 - Reference points and axis on a lathe

Figure 2 - Reference points and axis on a Milling Machine

1.2 Axis Designation

An object in space can have six degrees of freedom with respect to an imaginary Cartesian coordinate system. Three
of them are liner movements and other three are rotary. Machining of simple part does not require all degrees
of freedom. With the increase in degrees of freedom, complexity of hardware and programming increases.
Number of degree of freedom defines axis of machine.

Axes interpolation means simultaneous movement of two or more different axes generate required contour.

For typical lathe machine degree of freedom is 2 and so it called 2 axis machines. For typical milling machine degree
of freedom is , which means that two axes can be interpolated ata time and third remains independent. Typical
direction for the lathe and milling machine is as shown in figure 1 and figure 2.

1.3 ) Setting up of Origin

In case of CNC machine tool rotation of the reference axis is not possible. Origin can set by selecting three reference
planes X, Y and Z. Planes can be set by touching tool on the surfaces of the workpiece and setting that surfaces
as X=x, Y=y and Z=z.

(1.4 ) Coding Systems

The programmer and the operator must use a coding system to represent information, which the controller can
interpret and execute. A frequently used coding system is the Binary-Coded Decimal or BCD system. This system is
also known as the EIA Code set because it was developed by Electronics Industries Association. The newer coding
system is ASCII and it has become the ISO code set because of its wide acceptance.

(2) CNC Code Syntax

The CNC machine uses a set of rules to enter, edit, receive and output data. These rules are known as CNC Syntax,
Programming format, or tape format. The format specifies the order and arrangement of information entered. This
is an area where controls differ widely. There are rules for the maximum and minimum numerical values and
word lengths and can be entered, and the arrangement of the characters and word is important. The most
common CNC format is the word address format and the other two formats are fixed sequential block address format
and tab sequential format, which are obsolete. The instruction block consists of one or more words. A word
consists of an address followed by numerals. For the address, one of the letters from A to Z is used. The address
defines the meaning of the number that follows. In other words, the address determines what the number stands
for. For example it may be an instruction to move the tool along the X axis, or to select a particular tool.
Most controllers allow suppressing the leading zeros when entering data. This is known as leading zero suppression.
When this method is used, the machine control reads the numbers from right to left, allowing the zeros to the left
of the significant digit to be omitted. Some controls allow entering data without using the trailing zeros. Consequently
it is called trailing zero suppression. The machine control reads from left to right, and zeros to the right of the
significant digit may be omitted.

3) Types of CNC codes

(3.1) Preparatory codes

The term "preparatory" in NC means that it "prepares" the control system to be ready for implementing the
information that follows in the next block of instructions. A preparatory function is designated in a program by
the word address G followed by two digits. Preparatory functions are also called G-codes and they specify the
control mode of the operation.

(3.2) Miscellaneous codes

Miscellaneous functions use the address letter M followed by two digits. They perform a group of instructions
such as coolant on/off, spindle on/off, tool change, program stop, or program end. They are often referred to as
machine functions or M-functions. Some of the M codes are given below.

M00 Unconditional stop M02 End of program

M03 Spindle clockwise

M04 Spindle counterclockwise

M05 Spindle stop

M06 Tool change (see Note below) M30 End of program

In principle, all codes are either modal or non-modal. Modal code stays in effect until cancelled by another
code in the same group. The control remembers modal codes. This gives the programmer an opportunity to save
programming time. Non-modal code stays in effect only for the block in which it is programmed. Afterwards, its
function is turned off automatically. For instance G04 is a non-modal code to program a dwell. After one second,
which is say, the programmed dwell time in one particular case, this function is cancelled. To perform dwell in the
next blocks, this code has to be reprogrammed. The control does not memorize the non-modal code, so it is called
as one shot codes. One-shot commands are non- modal. Commands known as "canned cycles" (a controller's internal
set of preprogrammed subroutines for generating commonly machined features such as internal pockets and drilled
holes) are non-modal and only function during the call.On some older controllers, cutter positioning (axis) commands
(e.g., G00, G01, G02, G03, & G04) are non-modal requiring a new positioning command to be entered each time the
cutter (or axis) is moved to another location.

Command G- Function and Command

group code Illustration
Statement

Rapid traverse
G00
G00 Xx Yy Zz

Linear interpolation
G01
G01 Xx Yy Zz Ff

Circular Interpolation in
clock-wise direction

G02 Xx Yy Ii Jj
G02 G02 Xx Zz Ii Kk
 Circular interpolation in
counter- clockwise
direction

G03 Xx Yy Ii Jj
G03 Xx Zz Ii Kk
G03 Yy Zz Jj Kk

G03

Function and
G- Command
Command group Statement Illustration
code

Cutter
diameter
compensatio
G40 n cancel
 Cutter
diameter
compensatio
G41
n left

Offset and
compensation
Command Function and Command
group
G-code Illustration
Statement

Rapid traverse
G00
G00 Xx Zz

Linear interpolation
G01

Circular Interpolation in
clock-wise direction G02
Xx Zz Ii Kk
G02
(or)

Circular interpolation in
counter- clockwise
direction
Tool G03 Xx Zz Ii Kk
motion G03
Illustrative Example Program

A contour illustrated in figure 3 is to be machined using a CNC milling machine. The details
of the codes and programs used are given below.

Example:

Figure 3 : An illustrative example

O5678 Program number

N02 G21 Metric programming

N03 M03 S1000 Spindle start clockwise with 1000rpm

N04 G00 X0 Y0 Rapid motion towards (0,0)

N05 G00 Z-10.0 Rapid motion towards Z=-10 plane

N06 G01 X50.0 Linear interpolation

N07 G01 Y20.0 Linear interpolation
N08 G02 X25.0
Circular interpolation clockwise(cw)
Y45.0 R25.0

N09 G03 X-25.0

Circular interpolation counter clockwise(ccw)
Y45.0 R25.0

N10 G02 X-50.0

Circular interpolation clockwise(cw)
Y20.0 R25.0

N11 G01 Y0.0 Linear interpolation

N12 G01 X0.0 Linear interpolation

N13 G00 Z10.0 Rapid motion towards Z=10 plane

N14 M05 M09 Spindle stop and program end

4. CNC Part Programming II

In the previous section, fundamentals of programming as well basic motion commands for
milling and turning have been discussed. This section gives an overview of G codes used for
changing the programming mode, applying transformations etc.

4.1 Programming modes

Programming mode should be specified when it needs to be changed from absolute

to

incremental and vice versa. There are two programming modes, absolute and incremental
and is discussed below.

4.1.1 Absolute programming (G90)

In absolute programming, all measurements are made from the part origin established by the
programmer and set up by the operator. Any programmed coordinate has the absolute
value in respect to the absolute coordinate system zero point. The machine control uses
the part origin as the reference point in order to position the tool during program execution
(Figure 4).
4.1.2 Relative programming (G91)

In incremental programming, the tool movement is measured from the last tool position. The
programmed movement is based on the change in position between two successive
points. The coordinate value is always incremented according to the preceding tool
location. The programmer enters the relative distance between current location and the
next point ( Figure

5).

4.2 Spindle
control

The spindle speed is programmed by the letter 'S' followed by four digit number, such
asS1000. There are two ways to define speed :

1. Revolutions per minute (RPM

2. Constant surface
speed

The spindle speed in revolutions per minute is also known as constant rpm or direct rpm. The
change in tool position does not affect the rpm commanded. It means that the spindle
RPM will remain constant until another RPM is programmed. Constant surface speed is
almost exclusively used on lathes. The RPM changes according to diameter being cut. The
smaller the diameter, the more RPM is achieved; the bigger the diameter, the less RPM
is commanded. This is changed automatically by the machine speed control unit while the
tool is changing positions. This is the reason that, this spindle speed mode is known as
diameter speed.

4.3 Tool selection

Tool selection is accomplished using 'T' function followed by a four digit number where, first
two digits are used to call the particular tool and last two digits are used to represent
tool offset in the program. The tool offset is used to correct the values entered in the
coordinate system preset block. This can be done quickly on the machine without actually
changing the values in the program.Using the tool offsets, it is easy to set up the
tools and to make adjustments

4.4 Feed rate control

Cutting operations may be programmed using two basic feed rate

modes:

1. Feed rate per spindle

revolution

2. Feed rate per

time

The feed rate per spindle revolution depends on the RPM

programmed.

5.0 Tool radius Compensation

The programmed point on the part is the command point. It is the destination point of
the tool. The point on the tool that is used for programming is the tool reference point.
These points may or may not coincide, depending on the type of tool used and machining
operation being performed. When drilling, tapping, reaming, countersinking or boring on the
machining center, the tool is programmed to the position of the hole or bore center - this is
the command point.

When milling a contour, the tool radius center is used as the reference point on the
tool while writing the program, but the part is actually cut by the point on the cutter
periphery. This point is at 'r' distance from the tool center. This means that the
programmer should shift the tool center away from the part in order to perform the
cutting by the tool cutting edge. Theshift amount depends upon the part geometry and tool
radius. This technique is known as tool radius compensation or cutter radius compensation.

In case of machining with a single point cutting tool, the nose radius of the tool tip is
required to be accounted for, as programs are being written assuming zero nose radius. The
tool nose radius center is not only the reference point that can be used for programming
contours. On the tool there is a point known as imaginary tool tip, which is at the intersection
of the lines tangent to the tool nose radius.

Cutter compensation allows programming the geometry and not the toolpath. It also allows
adjusting the size of the part, based on the tool radius used to cut part. This is useful
when cutter of the proper diameter is not found. This is best explained in the Figure 11.

Figure 11. Cutter diameter compensation

The information on the diameter of the tool, which the control system uses to calculate the
required compensation, must be input into the control unit's memory before the
operation. Tool diameter compensation is activated by the relevant preparatory functions (G
codes)

as shown in Figure 12.

Compensation for tool radius can be of either right or left side compensation. This can be
determined by direction of tool motion. If you are on the tool path facing direction of tool
path and if tool is on your left and workpiece is on your right side then use G41 (left side
compensation). For, reverse use other code G42 (Right side compensation). Both the
codes are modal in nature and remain active in the program until it is cancelled by using
another code, G40.

5.1 Subroutines

Any frequently programmed order of instruction or unchanging sequences can benefit

by

becoming a subprogram. Typical applications for subprogram applications in CNC

programming are :

• Repetitive machining motions

• Functions relating to tool change

• Hole patterns

• Grooves and threads

• Machine warm-up routines

 • Pallet changing

• Special functions and others

Structurally, subprograms are similar to standard programs. They use the same syntax
rules. The benefits of subroutines involve the reduction in length of program, and
reduction in program errors. There is a definition statement and subroutine call function.

Standard sub-
routine

N10

N20

N30

….

N70 G22 N5

N80

N90

….

N100 G24

….

N160 G20 N5

In the above example G22 statement defines the start block of the sub-routine and G24
marks the end of the sub-routine statement. The subroutine is called by another code G20
identified by the label N5.

Parametric
subroutine

..

..

G23 N18

G01 X P0 Y P1
..

..

G21 N18 P0=k10 P1=k20

In the above example G23 starts the subprogram label and starts the definition, and the
parameters P0, P1 are defined for values of x and y. The G21 statement is used to call
the subroutine and to assign the values to the parameters.

5.2 Canned Cycles

A canned cycle is a preprogrammed sequence of events / motions of tool / spindle stored in

memory of controller. Every canned cycle has a format. Canned cycle is modal in nature and
remains activated until cancelled. Canned cycles are a great resource to make manual
programming easier. Often underutilized, canned cycles save time and effort.

5.2.1 Machining a Rectangular pocket

This cycle assumes the cutter is initially placed over the center of the pocket and at some
clearance distance (typically 0.100 inch) above the top of the pocket. Then the cycle will take
over from that point, plunging the cutter down to the "peck depth" and feeding the cutter
around the pocket in ever increasing increments until the final size is attained. The process is
repeated until the desired total depth is attained. Then the cutter is returned to the center
ofthe pocket at the clearance height as shown in figure 14

Figure 14. Pocket machining

The overall length and width of the pocket, rather than the distance of cutter motion,
are programmed into this cycle.

The syntax is : G87 Xx Yy Zz Ii Jj Kk Bb Cc Dd Hh Ll Ss (This g code is entirely controller

specific and the syntax may vary between controller to controller)

Description:

x,y - Center of the part

z - Distance of the reference plane from top of

part i - Pocket depth

j,k - Half dimensions of the target geometry (pocket)

b - Step depth
c - Step over

d - Distance of the reference plane from top of

part

h - Feed for finish pass

l - Finishing allowance
s - Speed

For machining a circular pocket, the same syntax with code G88 is used

Common G-Words:
Common M-Words
 Part programming for vertical machining centres

Part programming example 1:

Part programming example 2:
Programming on turning centre

Example 1:

N01 G91 G71 M03 S800 (incremental mode,metric, spindle start

with a speed of 800 rpm)

N02 G00 X1.0 (tool away from work piece 1mm, rapid)
N03 G00 Z-1.0 (tool to left 1mm for facing)

N04 G01 X-16.0 F200 (facing cut at a feed rate 200mm/min)

N05 G00 Z1.0 (move tool to right 1mm from that

position)

N06 G00 X10.0 (move 10 mm away from the centre in x

direction)
N07G01 Z-36.0 (plane turning over a length of 35 mm)
N08 G01 X5.0 Z-30.0 (simultaneous movement in X and

Z directions for taper turning)

N09 G00 X1.0 Z66.0 (move to the starting position)

N10 M02 (end of program)

Note:

• I is the X offset is defined as the distance from the beginning of the arc to the
centre of the arc in the X-direction

• K is the Z offset is defined as the distance from the beginning of the arc to the
centre of the arc the Z direction

Example 2:

N01 G90 G71 M03 S800 (absolute, metric, start spindle at a

speed 800 rpm)

N02 G00 X0.0 Y0.0 (move tool to the beginning of cut)

N03 G02 X10.0 Z-10.0 I 0.0 K-10.0 F150 (clockwise circular interpolation, I&K are
offsets, feed rate 150mm/min)

N04 G00 Z-30.0 (move from point B to point C)

N05 G03 X15.0 Z-35.0 I5.0 K0.0 (counterclockwise interpolation, I&K are
offsets, move to point D)

N06 M02 (end of program)

Note:

• I is the X offset is defined as the distance from the beginning of the arc to the
centre of the arc in the X-direction

• K is the Z offset is defined as the distance from the beginning of the arc to the
centre of the arc the Z direction

Program without the use of canned cycles:

N01 G00 X25.0 Y35.0 Z2.0 *

N02 G01 Z-18.0 F125 *

N03 G00 Z2.0 * N04

X55.0 Y50.0 *

N05 G01 Z-18.0 F125 *

N06 G00 Z2.0 *

N07 X75.0 Y70.0 *

N08 G00 Z2.0 * N09
X0 Y0 Z50.0 *

Program using canned

cycles:

N01 G81 X25.0 Y35.0 Z-18.0

\R2.0 F125 *
N02 X55.0 Y50.0 *
N03 X75.0 Y70.0 *

N04 G80 X0 Y0 Z50.0 *

 PART PROGRAMMING WITH APT

APT is an acronym that stands for Automatically Programmed Tooling. It is a three

dimensional NC part programming system that was developed in the late 1950s and
early

1960s. Today it remains an important language in the United States and around the
world,

and most of the CAD/CAM approaches to part programming are based on APT. APT is also
important because many of the concepts incorporated into it formed the basis for other
subsequently developed systems in interactive graphics. APT was originally intended as a
contouring language, but modern versions can be used for both point-to-point and
contouring operations in upto five axes. Our discussion will be limited to the three linear
axes, x, y and z. APT can be used for a variety of machining operations. Our coverage will
concentrate on drilling (point-to-point) and milling (contouring) operations. There are more
than 500 words in the APT vocabulary. Only a small (but important) fraction of the total
lexicon will be covered here.

APT is not a language; it is also the computer program that processes the APT statements to
calculate the corresponding cutter positions and generate the machine tool control
commands. To program in APT, the programmer must first define the part geometry. Then
the tool is directed to various point locations and along surfaces of the workpart to
accomplish the required machining operations. The viewpoint of the programmer is that the
workpiece remains stationary, and the tool is instructed to move relative to the part.

To complete the program, speeds and feeds must be specific, tools must be called,
tolerances

must be given for circular interpolation, and so forth. Thus, there are four basic types
of statements in the APT language.

1. Geometry statements are used to define the geometry elements that comprise
the part.

2. Motion commands are used to specify the tool path

3. Postprocessor statements control the machine tool operation, for example, to specify
speeds and feeds, set tolerance values for circular interpolation, and actuate
other capabilities of the machine tool.

4. Auxiliary statements are a group of miscellaneous statements used to name the part

program, insert comments in the program, and accomplish similar functions.

These statements are constructed of APT vocabulary words, symbols, and numbers, all
arranged using appropriate punctuation. APT vocabulary words consist of six or fewer
characters. Such a restriction seems archaic today, but it must be remembered that APT was
developed in the 1950s, when computer memory technology was extremely limited.
Most APT statements include a slash (/) as part of the punctuation. APT vocabulary words
that immediately precede the slash are called major words, whereas those that follow the
slash are called minor words.

APT Geometry Statements

The geometry of the part must be defined to identify the surfaces and features that are to be
machined. Accordingly, the points, lines, and surfaces must be defined in the program
prior to specifying the motion statements. The general form of an APT geometry statements
is the following:

SYMBOL = GEOMETRY TYPE/descriptive data

An example of such a statement is

P1 = POINT/20.0, 40.0, 60.0

An APT geometry statement consists of three sections. The first is the symbol used to
identify the geometry element. A symbol can be any combination of six or fewer alphabetical
and numerical characters, at least one of which must be alphabetical. Also, the symbol
cannot be an APT vocabulary word. The second section of the APT geometry statement is an
APT major word that identifies the type of geometry element. Examples are POINT,
LINE, CIRCLE and PLANE. The third section of the APT geometry statement provides the
descriptive data that define the element precisely, completely, and uniquely. These data may
include numerical values to specify dimensional and position data, previously defined
geometry elements, and APT minor words.Punctuation in an APT geometry statement is
indicated in the preceding geometry statements.The geometry definition is written as an
equation, the symbol being equated to the element type, followed by a slash with
descriptive data to the right of the slash. Commas are used to separate the words and
numerical values in the descriptive data. There are a variety of ways to specify geometry
elements. In the following discussion, examples of APT statements will be presented for
points, lines, planes, and circles.

Points :

Specification of a point is most easily accomplished by designating its x-,y-, and z-

coordinates.

P1 = POINT/20.0, 40.0, 60.0

where the descriptive data following the slash indicate x-,y-, and z-coordinates. The
specification can be done in either inches or millimeters (metric). We use metric values in our
examples. As an alternative, a point can be defined as the intersection of two
intersecting lines, as in the following:

P1 = POINT/INTOF, L1, L2
where the APT word INTOF in the descriptive data stands for “intersection
of”.Other methods of defining points are also available. Several are illustrated
in Figure 1. The associated points are identified in the following APT
statements:
 P2= POINT/YLARGE, INTOF, L3, C2

P2= POINT/XSMALL, INTOF, L3, C2

P3= POINT/XLARGE, INTOF, L3, C2

P3= POINT/YSMALL, INTOF, L3, C2

P4= POINT/YLARGE, INTOF, C1, C2

P5= POINT/YSMALL, INTOF, C1, C2

P6= POINT/CENTER, C1

P7= POINT/C2, ATANGL, 45

Lines :
A line defined in APT is considered to be of infinite length in both directions. Also, APT
treats a line as a vertical plane that is perpendicular to the x-y plane. The easiest way
to specify a line is by two points through which it passes, as in Figure 2:

L1= LINE/P1, P2

The same line can be defined by indicating the coordinate positions of the two points
by giving their x-,y-, and z-coordinates in sequence; for example,

L1= LINE/20, 30, 0, 70, 50, 0In some situations, the part programmer
may find it more convenient to define a new line as being parallel to or
perpendicular to one of the axes or another line that has been
previously defined; for example, with reference to Figure 3,

L5= LINE/P2, PARLEL, L3

L6= LINE/P2, PERPTO, L3

L7= LINE/P2, PERPTO, XAXIS

where PARLEL and PERPTO are APT’s way of spelling “parallel to” and “perpendicular to”,
respectively.

Figure 3 : Defining a line using a point and parallelism or perpendicularity to another line
Lines can also be defined in relation to a point and a circle, as in Figure 4, as in the geometry
statements

L1= LINE/P1, LEFT, TANTO, C1

L2= LINE/P1, RIGHT, TANTO, C1

where the words LEFT and RIGHT are used by looking in the direction of the circle from the
point P1, and TANTO means “tangent to”.

Finally, lines can be defined using a point and the angle of the line relative to the x-axis or
some other line, as in Figure B7.5. The following statements illustrate the definitions:

L3= LINE/P1, ATANGL, 20, XAXIS L4=

LINE/P1, ATANGL, 30, L3
Planes :

A plane can be defined by specifying three points through which the plane passes, as in the
following:

PL1= PLANE/P1, P2, P3

Of course, the three points must be non-collinear. A plane can also be defined as
being parallel to another plane that has been previously defined; for instance,

PL2= PLANE/P2, PARLEL, PL1

which states that plane PL2 passes through point P2 and is parallel to plane PL1. In APT, a
plane extends indefinitely.

Circles :

In APT, a circle is considered to be a cylindrical surface that is perpendicular to the x-y plane
and extends to infinity in the z-direction. The easiest way to define a circle is by its center
and radius, as in the following two statements, illustrated in Figure 6.

C1= CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 32

C1= CIRCLE/CENTER, 100, 50, 0, RADIUS, 32

Two additional ways of defining a circle utilize previously defined points P2, P3, and P4, or
line L1 in the same figure:

C1= CIRCLE/CENTER, P2, P3, P4 (P2, P3 and P4 must not be collinear) C1=
CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, TANTO, L1
Other ways to define circles make use of existing lines L2 and L3 in Figure 7. The statements
for the four circles in the figure are the following:

C2= CIRCLE/XSMALL, L2, YSMALL, L3, RADIUS, 25

C3= CIRCLE/YLARGE, L2, YLARGE, L3, RADIUS, 25

C4= CIRCLE/XLARGE, L2, YLARGE, L3, RADIUS, 25

C5= CIRCLE/YSMALL, L2, YSMALL, L3, RADIUS, 25

Ground Rules :

Certain ground rules must be obeyed when formulating APT geometry statement.
Following are four important rules in APT:

1. Coordinate data must be specified in the order x, then y, then z, because the statement

P1=POINT/20.5, 40.0, 60.0

is interpreted to mean x = 20.5 mm, y = 40.0 mm, and z = 60.0 mm

2. Any symbols used as descriptive data must have been previously defined: for
example, in the statement

P1=POINT/INTOF, L1, L2

the two lines L1and L2 must have been previously defined. In setting up the list of
geometry statements, the APT programmer must be sure to define symbols
before using them in subsequent statements.

3. A symbol can be used to define only one geometry element. The same symbol
cannot be used to define two different elements. For example, the following
statements would be incorrect if they were included in the same program:

P1=POINT/20, 40, 60

P1=POINT/30, 50, 70
 4. Only one symbol can be used to define any given element. For example, the following
two statements in the same part program would be incorrect:

P1=POINT/20, 40, 60

P2=POINT/20, 40, 60

Contouring motions :

Contouring commands are more complicated that PTP commands because the tool’s position
must be continuously controlled throughout the move. To exercise this control, the tool is
directed along two intersecting surfaces until it reaches a third surface, as shown in Figure 8.

These three surfaces have specific names in APT:

1. Drive surface : This is the surface that guides the side of the cutter. It is pictured as a
plane in our figure.

2. Part surface : This is the surface, again pictured as a plane, on which the bottom or
nose of the tool is guided.

3. Check surface : This is the surface that stops the forward motion of the tool in the
execution of the current command. One might say that the surface “checks” the
advance of the tool.
Example 1 : Apt programming

MACHIN/CNC1

CLPRNT
STPT=POINT/0,0

L1=LINE/50,50,100,50
L2=LINE/50,50,100,150

L3==LINE/50,50,50,150

C1=CIRCLE/100,100,RADIUS,50

P1=POINT/0,0,-20

P2=POINT/50,0,-20

P3=POINT/50,50,-20

PLN=PLANE/P1,P2,P3

CUTTER/10

SPINDL/350

FEDRAT/30

COOLNT/ON

FROM/STPT
GO/TOL1,TO,L3,TO,PLN
TLRGT,GORGT/L1,TANTO,C1

GOFWD/C1,TANTO,L2

GOFWD/L2,PAST,L3

GOLFT/L3,PAST,L1

GOTO/STPT
COOLNT/OFF
FINI

Note: GO/TO is used to initiate a sequence of contouring motions. Example: motion start up
command in contouring to position cutter against the drive surface, part surface and check
surface. GOTO moves the cutter to only one point. E.g. GOTO/STPT
Example 2 : Apt programming

MACHIN/TMATIC
CLPRNT

NOPOST
STPT=POINT/0,0,0

P1=POINT/125,150

P2=POINT/125,226.6

P3=POINT/377.42,150

L1=LINE/P1,P3
L2=LINE/P2,PERPTO,L1

C1=CIRCLE/294,303.18,53.18

L3=LINE/P2,LEFT,TANTO,C1

L4=LINE/P3,RIGHT,TANTO,C1

P4=POINT/0,0,-25

P5=POINT/50,0,-25

P6=POINT/50,25,-25

PL1=PLANE/P4,P5,P6

CUTTER/12

FEDRAT/300

OUTTOL/0.025

SPINDL/800

FROM/STPT
INDIRV/1,1,0

GO/TO,L1,TO,L2,TO,PL1

TLRGT,GORGT/L1,PAST,L4

GOLFT/L4,TANTO,C1

GOFWD/C1,TANTO,L3

GOFWD/L3,PAST,L2

GOLFT/L2,PAST,L1

SPINDL/OFF
GOTO/STPT
FINI
Example 3 : Apt contouring example

Example 4 : Apt contouring example

 Example 5 : Apt programmingg

P0 = POINT/ 0, -2, 0

P1 = POINT/ 0.312, 0.312, 0

P2 = POINT/ 4, 1, 0

C1 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, P1, RADIUS, 0.312

312

C2 = CIRCLE/ CENTER, P2, RADIUS, 1

L2 = LINE/ RIGHT, TANTO, C2, RIGHT, TANTO, C1

L1 = LINE/ LEFT, TANTO, C2, LEFT, TANTTO, C1

PL1 = PLANE/ P0, P1, P2

MILL = MACRO/ DIA

FROM/ P00

GO/TO, L1, TO, PL1, TO, C22

GOLFT/ L1, PAST, C1

GOFWD/ C1, PAST, L2

GOFWD/ L2, PAST, C2

GOFWD/ C2, PAST, L1

GOTO/ P0

TERMAC L1 P2 C2

CALL MILL / DIA = 0.70 P1

END FINI C1 L2
 UNIT-IV

GROUP TECHNOLOGY & FMS

4.1 Introduction

The basis for group technology is analogous to these situations. A company may
make thousands of different parts in an environment that is becoming more complex as lot
sizes get smaller and the variety of parts increases. When they are examined closely,
however, many parts are similar in some way. A design engineer faced with the task of
designing a part would like to know if the same or a similar part had been designed before.
Likewise, a manufacturing engineer faced with the task of determining how to manufacture
a part would like to know if a similar process plan already exists. It follows that there may
be economies to be realized from grouping parts into families with similar characteristics.. In
1969 V. B. Soloa defined group technology as “the realization that many problems are
similar, and that by grouping similar problems, a single solution can be found to a set of
problems thus saving time and effort.”

4.2 Key Definitions

Attribute (poly code) code Each part attribute is assigned to a fixed position in a code.
The meaning of each character in the code is independent of any other character value.

Average linkage clustering algorithm An algorithm for clustering things together based
on the average similarity of all pairs of things being clustered. The similarity of each pair is
measured by a similarity coefficient.

Bottleneck machine In this chapter, a machine in a group (cell) that is required by a

large number of parts in a different group.

Cell In this chapter, a group of machines arranged to produce similar families

of parts.

Classification The process of categorizing parts into groups, sometimes called families,
according to a set of rules or principles.

Cluster analysis the process of sorting things into groups so the similarities are high
among members of the same group and low among members of different groups.

Coding The process of assigning symbols to a part to reflect attributes of

the part.
Computer-aided process planning (CAPP) An interactive computer system that
automates some of the work involved in preparing a process plan.

Decision variables In a mathematical model, values must be assigned to these

variables. The objective is to select values that optimize the model’s performance, such as
minimal cost. Initially the best values for these variables are unknown.

Dendrogram A treelike graphical representation of cluster analysis results. The ordinate is

in some similarity coefficient scale, and the abscissa has no special meaning.

Function layout Layout of machines in a factory such that machines of a specific type are
grouped together.

Group layout Machines in a factory are arranged as cells.

Group technology An engineering and manufacturing philosophy that groups parts

together based on their similarities in order to achieve economies of scale in a small-scale
environment normally associated with large-scale production.

Group tooling Tooling designed such that a family or families of parts can be processed
with one master fixture and possibly some auxiliary adapters to accommodate differences in
some of the part attributes, such as number of holes and sizes of holes.

Hierarchical (monocode) code The meaning of each character is dependent on the

meaning of the previous character in the code.

Hybrid (mixed) code A combination of an attribute and a hierarchical code. It

combines the advantages of both code types.

Line layout Machines in a factory are arranged in the sequence in which they are used.
The work content at each location is balanced so that materials can flow through in a
continuous manner.

Logic tree A treelike graph that represents the logic used to make a decision. This differs
from a decision tree in that the branches may contain logical expressions as well as
calculations, data elements, codes, and keys to other data.

Machine —component chart A matrix that denotes what machines a group of

components (parts) visit

Part family A group of parts having some similar attributes.

Process plan The detailed instructions for making a part. It includes such things as the
operations, machines, tools, feeds and speeds, tolerances, dimensions, stock removal,
time standards, and inspection procedures.

Production flow analysis A structured procedure for analyzing the sequence of

operations that parts go through during manufacturing. Parts that go through common
operations are grouped together as a family, and the associated machines are arranged as
a cell.

Rotational part A part that can be made by rotating the work piece. It is usually
symmetrical along one axis, such as a gear.

Similarity coefficient In this chapter, a measure of how alike two machines are in terms
of the number of parts visiting both machines and the number of parts visiting each machine
Single-linkage clustering algorithm (SLCA) An algorithm for clustering together
things that have a high similarity coefficient.

Threshold value A similarity coefficient value at which clustering is to stop. That is, no
more clusters are to be formed if the largest remaining similarity coefficient value is
below this value.

4.3 The Role of Group Technology in CAD/CAM Integration

Group technology provides a means to structure and save information about

parts, such as design and manufacturing attributes, processes, and manufacturing
capabilities that is amenable to computerization and analysis. It provides a common
language for the users. Integration of many types of part-related information would be
virtually impossible without group technology; consequently, group technology is an
important element of CAD/CAM integration. Another important aspect of the integration of
CAD and CAM in automation.

4.4 Methods for Developing Part Families

Group technology is begun by grouping parts into families based on their

attributes. Usually, these attributes are based on geometric and/or production process
characteristics. Geometric classification of families is normally based on size and shape,
while production process classification is based on the type, sequence , and number of
operations. The type of operation is determined by such things as the method of
processing, the method of holding the part, the tooling, and the conditions of processing.
For example, Figures 6.1 and 6.2 show families of parts grouped by geometric shape and
by production process. The identification of a family of parts that has similarities permits
the economies of scale normally associated with mass production to be applied to small-
lot, batch production. There fore, successful grouping of related parts into families is a key to
implementation of the group technology philosophy.

Figure 4.1: Parts grouped by geometric

shape

Figure 4.2: Parts grouped by manufacturing processes

There are at least three basic methods that can be used to form part
families:

1. Manual visual search

2. Production flow analysis

3. Classification and coding

Production flow analysis (PFA) is a structured technique developed for analysis

the sequence of operations (routings) that parts go through during fabrication. Parts that go
through common operations are grouped into part families. Similarly, the machines used to
perform these common operations may be grouped as a cell; consequently, this technique
can be used in facility layout. Initially, a machine—component chart must be formed. This is
an M x N matrix, where

M = number of machines

N = number of parts

x = 1 if part j has an operation on machine i; 0 otherwise.

If the machine—component chart is small, parts with similar operations

might be grouped together by manually sorting the rows and columns. However, a more
appealing method is to use a computer procedure to perform this work.

Figure 4.3 illustrates the use of PFA to form part families. For
this technique to be successful, accurate and efficient routings must exist for each part. In
many companies these routings do not exist. If routings exist, they are often inaccurate
from lack of maintenance or they may be very inconsistent.
Figure 4.3: (a) Component—machine chart; (b) example of production flow
analysis.
 The latter situation will occur if routings are established without using a coding and
classification system. Also, using PFA involves judgment, because some parts may not
appear to fit into a family when one or more unique operations are required. Furthermore,
additional analysis is required to determine when a particular machine should be
duplicated in another group. In Figure4.3, for example, machine D is in groups 1 and 2. In
this case, since machine D was visited by almost all of the parts, it was duplicated to keep
the groups small. Otherwise, groups 1 and 2 might have been combined into one group
having several parts with dissimilar routings. Likewise, you cannot determine how many
machines of type D are required without evaluating demands and machine capacities.

In addition, PFA does not consider part features and functional capabilities.
Therefore, this technique should not be used to form part families for design engineering.
One advantage of using production flow analysis compared to a coding and classification
system is that part families can be formed with much less effort.

If the coding and classification technique is used, parts are examined and
codes are assigned to each part based on the attributes of the parts. These codes can then
be sorted so that parts with similar codes are grouped as a part family.Because these
codes are assigned in a manner that does not require much judgment, the part families
developed by this technique do not suffer from judgment inconsistencies.

A disadvantage of using the coding and classification technique is that a large

amount of time may be required to develop and tailor a code to meet the needs of a
specific company. Afterwards, coding the parts will take an even larger amount of time.
However, when properly applied, the results are much better then when other techniques
are used. Consequently, coding and classification is the preferred approach and will be
discussed in more detail than the other approaches.

4.5 Classification and Coding

Classification of parts is the process of categorizing parts into groups,

sometimes called families, according to a set of rules or principles. The objectives are to
group together similar parts and to differentiate among dissimilar parts. Coding of a part is
the process of assigning symbols to the part. These symbols should have meanings that
reflect the attributes of the part, thereby facilitating analysis (information processing).
Although this does not sound very difficult, classification and coding are very complex
problems.
 Several classification and coding systems have been developed, and many
people have tried to improve them. No system has yet received universal acceptance;
however, because the information that is to be represented in the classification and coding
system will vary from one company to another. This seems reasonable if one understands
that the two greatest uses of group technology are for design retrieval and for group (cell)
production, and that each company has some unique needs for these functions. Although all
of these needs are not unique, enough are to prohibit the development of a universal
system. Therefore, even though classification and coding systems can be purchased, a good
rule of thumb is that 40% of a purchased system must be tailored to the specific needs of
a particular company.

One reason that a design engineer classifies and codes parts is to reduce
design effort by identifying similar parts that already exist. Some of the most significant
attributes on which identification can be made are shape, material and size. If the coding
and classification system is to be used successfully in manufacturing, it must be capable of
identifying some additional attributes, such as tolerances, machinability of materials,
processes, and machine tool requirements.

In many companies the design department does not exchange very much
information with the manufacturing department. The analogy of “design engineering throwing
the part design over the wall of manufacturing to make” is often used to describe the lack
of communication between these departments. The classification and coding system
selected by a company should meet the needs of both designs engineering and
manufacturing. A system that meets these combined needs will improve communication
between departments and facilitate computer-integrated manufacturing.

Although well over 100 classification and coding systems have been
developed for group technology applications, all of them can be grouped into three basic
types:

1. Hierarchical or monocode

2. Attribute, or polycode

3. Hybrid, or mixed
4.5.1 Hierarchical Code

In this type of code, the meaning of each character is dependent on the meaning
of the previous character; that is, each character amplifies the information of the previous
character. Such a coding system can be depicted using a tree structure as shown in
Figure 4.4-b, which represents a simple scheme for coding the spur gear shown in Figure
4.4-a. Using these figures, we can assign a code, “A11B2,” to the spur gear.

A hierarchical code provides a large amount of information in a relatively small

number of digits. This advantage will become more apparent when we look at an
attribute coding system. Defining the meaning for each digit in a hierarchical system can
be difficult, although application of the defined system is relatively simple. Starting at the
main trunk of the tree, you need to answer a series of questions about the item being
coded. Continuing in this manner, you work your way through the tree to a termination
branch.

By recording each choice as you answer each question, you will build the
appropriate code number. However, determining the meaning of each digit in the code
is complicated, because each preceding digit must first be decoded.

For example, in the code developed in Figure 4.4-b for the spur gear A11B2, a
“1” in the second position means “round with deviations” because there is an “A” in the
first position of the code. How ever, if there had been a “B” in the first position, a “1” in
the second position would have meant “boxlike.”

(a)

Figure 4.4: (a) Spur gear; (b) hierarchical code for the spur gear.
 Design departments frequently use hierarchical coding systems for part retrieval
because this type of system is very effective for capturing shape, material, and size
information. Manufacturing departments, on the other hand, have different needs which are
often based on process requirements. It is difficult to retrieve and analyze process-related
information when it is in a hierarchical structure that will be equally useful to both the design
and manufacturing organizations.

4.5.2 Attribute Code

An attribute code is also called a polycode, a chain code, a discrete code or a

fixed-digit code. The meaning of each character in an attribute code is independent of any
other character; thus, each attribute of a part can be assigned a specific position in an
attribute code. Figure 4.5 shows an example attribute code.

Using Figure 4.5 to code the spur gear illustrated in Figure 4.4-a, we
would obtain the code “22213.” Referring to Figure 4.5, we can see that a “3” in position 5
means that the part is a spur gear regardless of the values of the digits in any other
positions. If we had used this attribute code to code several parts and wanted to retrieve
all spur gears, we would only need to identify all parts with a “3” in position 5 of the
associated code.

This becomes a simple task if a computer is used. Consequently, an attribute

code system is popular with manufacturing organizations because it makes it easy to
identify parts that have similar features that require similar processing. One disadvantage of
an attribute code is that a position in the code must be reserved for each different part
attribute; therefore, the resulting code may become very long.

Figure 4.5: Attribute code example

4.5.3 Hybrid Code

In reality, most coding systems use a hybrid (mixed) code so that the advantages
of each type of system can be utilized. The first digit, for example, might be used to denote
the type of part, such as a gear. The next five positions might be reserved for a shirt
attribute code that would describe the attributes of the gear. The next digit, position 7,
might be used to designate another subgroup, such as material, followed by another
attribute code that would describe the attributes. In this manner a hybrid code could be
created that would be relatively more compact than a pure attribute code while retaining
the ability to easily identify parts with specific characteristics.

4.6. Group Technology / Cellular Manufacturing

4.6.1 Introduction

The principle of group technology is to divide the manufacturing facility into

small groups or cells of machines. The term cellular manufacturing is often
used in this regard. Each of these cells is dedicated to a specified family or set of
part types. Typically, a cell is a small group of machines (as a rule of thumb not more
than five). An example would be a machining center with inspection and monitoring
devices, tool and Part Storage, a robot for part handling, and the associated
control hardware.

The idea of GT can also be used to build larger groups, such as for instance,
a department, possibly composed of several automated cells or several manned
machines of various types. As mentioned in Chapter 1 (see also Figure 1.5) pure item
flow lines are possible, if volumes are very large. If volumes are very small, and parts
are very different, a functional layout (job shop) is usually appropriate. In the
intermediate case of medium-variety, medium-volume environments, group
configuration is most appropriate.

GT can produce considerable improvements where it is appropriate and the

basic idea can be utilized in all manufacturing environments:

• To the manufacturing engineer GT can be viewed as a role model to obtain

the advantages offlow line systems in environments previously ruled by job shop

layouts. The idea is to formgroups and to aim at a product-type layout within each
group (for a family of parts). Whenever possible, new parts are designed to be
compatible with the processes and tooling of an existing part family. This way,
production experience is quickly obtained, and standard process plans and tooling
can be developed for this restricted part set.

• To the design engineer the idea of GT can mean to standardize products and

process plans. If anew part should be designed, first retrieve the design for a

similar, existing part. Maybe, theneed for the new part is eliminated if an
existing part will suffice. If a new part is actually needed, the new plan can be
developed quickly by relying on decisions and documentation previously made for
similar parts. Hence, the resulting plan will match current manufacturing procedures
and document preparation time is reduced. The design engineer is freed to
concentrate on optimal design.

In this GT context a typical approach would be the use of composite Part

families. Consider e.g. the parts family shown in Figure 3.1.

The parameter values for the

features of this single part family
have the same allowable ranges.
Each part in the family
requires the same set of
machines and tools; in our
example: turning/lathing
(Drehbank), internal drilling
(Bohrmaschine), face milling
(Planfräsen), etc.

Raw material should be

reasonably consistent (e.g. plastic
and metallic parts require
different manufacturing
operations and should not be in
Figure 3.1. Composite Group
the same family).
Technology Part(Askin &
Standridge, 1993, p. 165).
 Fixtures can be designed that are capable of supporting all the actual

realizations of the composite parts within the family.

Standard machine setups are often possible with little or no changeover

required between the different parts within the family (same material, same fixture
method, similar size, same tools/machines required).

In the functional process (job shop) layout, all parts travel through the entire
shop. Scheduling and material control are complicated. Job priorities are difficult to
set, and large WIP inventories are used to assure reasonable capacity utilisation. In
GT, each part type flows only through its specific group area. The reduced setup
time allows faster adjustment to changing conditions.Often, workers are cross-trained
on all machines within the group and follow the job from Start to finish. This
usually leads to higher job satisfaction/motivation and higher efficiency.

For smaller-volume part families it may be necessary to include several such

part families in a machine group to justify machine utilization.

One can identify three different types group layout:

In a GT flow line concept all

parts assigned to a group follow
the same machine sequence and
require relatively proportional time
requirements on each machine.

The GT flow line operates as a

Figure 3.2a. GT flow
mixed- product assembly line
line
system; see Figure3.2a.
(Askin & Standridge, Automated transfer mechanisms
1993, p. 167). may be possible.
 The classical GT cell allows parts to move
from any machine to any other machine.
Flow is not unidirectional. However, since
machines are located in close proximity
short and fast transfer is possible.

Figure 3.2b. GT cell

(Askin & Standridge,

1993, p. 167).

The GT center may be

appropriate when

• large ma c hi n es have already

been located and cannot be moved, or

• product mix and part families are

dynamicand would require frequent relay

out.Then, machines may be located as in

a process layout by using functional
Figure 3.2c. GT
departments (job shops), but each
center
machine is dedicated to producing
(Askin & Standridge, only certain Part families. This way, only
1993, p. 167). the tooling and control advantages of
GT can be achieved. Compared to a GT
cell layout, increased material handling is
necessary.
 GT offers numerous benefits w.r.t. throughput time, WIP inventory,
materials handling, job satisfaction, fixtures, setup time, space needs, quality,
finished goods, and labor cost;

In general, GT simplifies and standardizes. The approaches to simplify,

standardize, and internalize through repetition produces efficiency.

Since a work center will work only on a family of similar parts generic
fixtures can be developed and used. Tooling can be stored locally since parts will
always be processed through the same machines. Tool changes may be required due
to tool wear only, not part changeovers (e.g. a press may have a generic fixture that
can hold all the parts in a family without any change or simply by changing a part-
specific insert secured by a single screw. Hence setup time is reduced, and
tooling cost is reduced. Using queuing theory (M/M/1 model) it is possible to show
that if setup time is reduced, also the throughput time for the system is reduced by
the same percentage.

4.6.2 How to form groupsAskin &

Standridge, 1993, Chapter 6.2 provides a
list of seven characteristics of successful
groups:

Characteristic Description

Team specified team of dedicated workers

Products specified set of products and no others

Facilities specified set of (mainly) dedicated machines equipment

Group layout dedicated contiguous space for specified facilities

Target common group goal, established at start of each period

Independence buffers between groups; groups can reach
goals independently

Size Preferably 6-15 workers

(small enough to act as a team with a common goal;
large enough to contain all necessary resources)
 Clearly, also the organization should be structured around groups. Each
group performs functions that in many cases were previously attributed to different
functional departments. For instance, in most situations employee bonuses should be
based on group performance.

Worker empowerment is an important aspect of manned cells. Exchanging

ideas and work load is necessary. Many groups are allocated the responsibility for
individual work assignments. By cross- training of technical skills, at least two workers
can perform each task and all workers can perform multiple tasks. Hence the there is
some flexibility in work assignments.

The group should be an independent profit center in some sense. It

should also retain the responsibility for its performance and authority to affect that
performance. The group is a single entity and must act together to resolve problems.

There are three basic steps in group technology

planning:

1. coding

2. classification

3. layout.

These will be discussed in separate

subsections.

4.6.3 Coding schemes

The knowledge concerning the similarities between parts must be coded somehow.
This will facilitate determination and retrieval of similar parts. Often this involves
the assignment of a symbolic or numerical description to parts (part number) based
on their design and manufacturing characteristics. However, it may also simply mean
listing the machines used by each part.

There are four major issues in the construction of a

coding system:

• part (component) population

• code detail
 • code structure, and

• (digital) representation.

Numerous codes exist, including Brisch-Birn, MULTICLASS, and KK-3. One of the most
widely used coding systems is OPITZ. Many firms customize existing coding
systems to their specific needs. Important aspects are

• The code should be sufficiently flexible to handle future as well as current parts.

• The scope of part types to be included must be known (e.g. are the parts

rotational, prismatic,sheet metal, etc.?)

• To be useful, the code must discriminate between parts with different values

for key attributes(material, tolerances, required machines, etc.)

Code detail is crucial to the success of the coding project. Ideal is a short code that
uniquely identifies each part and fully describes the part from design and
manufacturing viewpoints,

• Too much detail results in cumbersome codes and the waste of resources in

data collection.

• With too few details and the code becomes useless.

As a general rule, all information necessary for grouping the part for manufacturing
should be included in the code whenever possible. Features like outside shape,
end shape, internal shape, holes, and dimensions are typically included in the
coding scheme.

W.r.t. code structure, codes are generally classified as, hierarchical (also called
monocode), chain (also called polycode), or hybrid. This is explained in Figure 3.3
(taken from Askin & Standridge, 1993).
 Hierarchical code sttructure: the
meaning of a digit in the
e code depends
on the values of precediing digits. The
value of 3 in the third place may
indicate

• the existence of internal

threads in arotational p
part: "1232"

• a smooth internal fea

eature:

"2132"

Hierarchical codes e
are efficient; they
onlyconsider relevant inform
formation at each
digit. But they are d
difficult to learn
because of the large num
mber of conditional
inferences.

Figure 3.3a. Hierarchic

cal structure.

3b. Chain structure.

Chain code: each value

alue for each digit of the code has a cons
sistent meaning.
The value 3 in the third place
ce has the same meaning for all parts.They
ey are easier to
learn but less efficient. Certain digits may be almost meaningless for som
me parts.
 Figure 3.3c. Chain structure.

Since both hierarchical and chain codes have advantages, many

commercial codes are hybrid: combination of both:
Some section of the code is a chain code and then several hierarchical digits further
detail the specified characteristics. Several such sections may exist. One example of a
hybrid code is OPITZ.

The final decision is, code representation. The digits can be

• numeric or even binary; for direct use in computer (storage and retrieval efficiency)

alphabetic; humans are more comfortable with a coding like "S" for smooth or "T" for
thread(Gewinde) than with digits.The proper decision process involves the design
engineer, manufacturing engineer, and Computer scientist working together as a
team.

A well known coding system is OPITZ. It can have 3 sections:

• it starts with a five-digit "geometric form code"

• followed by a fourdigit "supplementary code."

• This may be followed by a company-specific four-digit "secondary code"

intended fordescribing production operations and sequencing.
 Digit 1: shows whether
the part is rotational
and also the basic
dimension ratio
(length/diameter if
rotational, length/width
if nonrotational).

Digit 2: main external

shape; partly dependent
on digit 1.

Digit 3: main internal

shape.

Digit 4: machining
Figure 3.4. Overview of the Opitz code (Askin &
require- ments for plane
Standridge, 1993, p. 167).
surfaces.

Digit 5: auxiliary
features like additional
holes, etc.

For more details on the

meaning of these digits
Figure 3.4. Opitz see Figure 6.6 in Askin
code for sample & Standridge, 1993
part (Askin &
Standridge, 1993,
p. 167).

An example for a coded Part is shown in Figure 3.5

Correct code:2 2 4 0 0
 Part coding is helpful for design and group formation. But, the
time and cost involved in collecting data, determining part families, and
rearranging facilities can be seen as the major disadvantage of GT. For designing
new facilities and product lines, this is not so problematic: Parts must be identified
and designed, and facilities must be constructed anyway. The extra effort to plan
under a GT framework is marginal, and the framework facilitates standardization
and operation thereafter. Hence, GT is a logical approach to product and facility
planning.

4.6.4 Classification (group formation)

Here, part codes and other information are used to assign parts to families. Part
families are assigned to groups along with the machines required to produce the
parts. A variety of models for forming part- machine groups are available in the
literature, as can be seen from the following figure:

Figure 3.5. Methods of group formation (xxxx).

addition to simple visual methods based on experience and the use of coding
schemes, there is a class of mathematical methods called Production Flow
Analysis (PFA).

4.6.5 Production Flow Analysis (PFA)

 To group machines, part routings must be known. Section this
presents a method for clustering part operations onto specific
machines to provide this routing information.

The basic idea is:

• identify items that are made with the same processes / the same equipment

• These parts are assembled into a part family

• Can be grouped into a cell to minimize material handling requirements.

The clustering methods can be classified into:

• Part family grouping: Form part families and then group machines into cells

• Machine grouping: Form machine cells based upon similarities in part routing and

then allocate parts to cells

• Machine-part grouping: Form part families and machine cells simultaneously.

The most typical methods are the machine-part grouping ones. Typically one
starts with a matrix that shows which part types require which machine types.
The aim is to sort the part types and machines such that some kind of block
diagonal structure is obtained:

Figure 3.6. Matrix of machine usage (Askin and

Standridge).

In case of the example in Figure 3.6, it is easy to build groups:

• Group 1: parts {13, 2, 8, 6, 11 }, machines {B, D}

• Group 2: parts { 5, 1, 10, 7, 4, 3}, machines {A, H, I, E}

• Group 3: parts { 15, 9, 12, 14}, machines {C, G, F}

4.7 INTRODUCTION TO FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

“Flexible manufacturing is a theory which permits production

systems to perform under high modified production needs. The problems
such as minimum inventories and market-response time to bump into
customer needs, response to adjust as per the deviations in the market.
In order to sweep market by reducing the cost of products and services
will be mandatory to various companies to shift over to flexible manufacturing
systems. FMSs as a possible way to overcome the said
issues while making reliable and good quality and cost effective yields.
Flexible manufacturing system has advanced as a tool to bridge the
gap between high mechanized line and CNC Machines with efficient mid volume
production of a various part mix with low setup time, low work in- process, low
inventory, short manufacturing lead time, high machine utilization and high
quality.
FMS is especially attractive for medium and low-capacity industries
such as automotive, aeronautical, steel and electronics.”
“”Flexible manufacturing system incorporates the following concepts
and skills in an automated production system .
1. Flexible automation
2. Group technology
3. Computer numerical control machine tools
4. Automated material handling between machines”
4.7.1 TYPES OF FMS
“Flexible manufacturing systems can be separated into various types
subject to their natures:”
1. DEPENDING UPON KINDS OF OPERATION
“Flexible manufacturing system can be illustrious subject to the
kinds of operation performed:”
a. “Processing operation. It performs some activities on a given job.
Such activities convert the job from one shape to another continuous up to the
final product. It enhances significance by altering the geometry, features or
appearance of the initial materials.”
b. “Assembly operation. It comprises an assembly of two or more
parts to make a new component which is called an ssembly/subassembly. The
subassemblies which are joined permanently use processes like welding,
brazing, soldering ,adhesive bonding, rivets, press fitting.”
2. BASED ON NUMBER OF MACHINES
“There are typical varieties of FMS based on the number of machines in
the system:”
a. “Single machine cell (SMC). It consists of completely automated
machines which are capable of performing unattended operations within a time
period lengthier than one complete machine cycle. It is skilful of dispensing
various part mix, reacting to fluctuations in manufacture plan, and inviting
introduction of a part as a new entry. It is a sequence dependent production
system.”
b. “Flexible manufacturing cell (FMC). It entails two or three
dispensing workstations and a material handling system. The
material handling system is linked to a load/unload station. It is a
simultaneous production system.”
c. An Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS). “It has four or more
processing work stations (typically CNC machining centers or turning centers)
connected mechanically by a common part handling system and automatically by
a distributed computer system. It also includes non-processing work stations
that support production but do not directly participate in it e.g., part / pallet
washing stations, co-ordinate measuring machines. These features significantly
differentiate it from Flexible manufacturing cell (FMC).”
Number ofmachines (M)Annual Production(Z), Flexibility (F), cost
incurred(C)
Flexible manufacturing System
Flexible manufacturing cell
Single machine cell
Fig. 3.1: Comparison for three categories of FMS
In this research, authors focused on Flexible manufacturing system
3. BASED ON LEVEL OF FLEXIBILITY
“FMS is further classified based on the level of flexibility related to the
manufacturing system. Two categories are depicted here:”
a. Dedicated FMS. “It is made to produce a certain variety of part styles. The
product design is considered fixed. So, the system can be designed with a
certain amount of process specialization to make the operation more efficient.”
b.Random order FMS. “It is able to handle the substantial variations in part
configurations. To accommodate these variations, a random order FMS must be
more flexible than the dedicated FMS. A random order FMS is capable of
processing parts that have a higher degree of complexity. Thus, to deal with
these kinds of complexity, sophisticated computer control system is used for this
FMS type.”
4.7.2 ELEMENTS OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM
“A flexible manufacturing system consists of two subsystems:”
 Physical subsystem
 Control subsystem
Physical subsystem includes the following elements:
46
1. Workstations. “It consists of NC machines, machine-tools,
inspection equipments, loading and unloading operation, and
machining area. More recent Flexible manufacturing system,
however, include other types of processing equipment also.”
2. Storage-retrieval systems. “It acts as a buffer during WIP (workin-
processes) and holds devices such as carousels used to store
parts temporarily between work stations or operations.”
3. Material handling systems. It consists of power vehicles, various
types of automated material handling equipment such as
conveyors [76], automated guided vehicles, in floor carts and
robots are used to transport the work parts and sub-assemblies to
the processing or workstation.
4.7.3 HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING
SYSTEM
1. Pallets and fixtures
2. Machining centers
3. Robots
4. Inspection equipment
5. Chip removal system
6. In process storage facility
7. Material handling systems

4.8 LAYOUT CONFIGURATIONS OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING

SYSTEM
“Flexible manufacturing system brings rewards in actual
manufacture of products as the process is designed for several products
to be run on different machines within a manufacturing facility which
allows for greater growth and stability with more diversity in the
output.
A Flexible manufacturing system is designed to provide an
effective operation sequence to ful fill the production requirements and
reasonably allocate the resources. The objectives of the system are
to shorten the throughput time and reduce the resource requirements
which include avoiding deadlock in material flow, decreasing in process
inventory , balancing the workload of all machines and make
good use of the bottleneck devices .”

4.8.1 Line layout

“An Automated guided vehicle is most efficient when the movement
is in straight-lines along the AGV path in a single-row machine layout.
Machines are arranged only on one side of AGV path [78], and in double
row machine layout, machines are arranged on both sides. A possible
arrangement of this layout is shown in fig-3.3 [79].”

4.8.2 Loop layout

“The loop layout uses conveyor systems that allow unidirectional

flow of parts around the loop. A secondary material handling system is
provided at a workstation which permits the flow of parts without any
obstruction. A possible arrangement of this layout is shown in fig-3.4

4.8.3 Ladder type layout

“Ladder type layout consists of rungs on which workstations are

located. This reduces the average travel distance thereby reducing the
transfer time between workstations.
A possible arrangement of this layout is shown in fig-3.5.
4.8.4 Carousel layout

“In the Carousel layout configuration, parts flow in one direction

around the loop. The load, unload stations are placed at one end of loop,
A possible arrangement of this layout is shown in fig 3.6

”
4.8.5 Robot centered cell

“If a handling robot is used in a Flexible manufacturing

system cell , the machines are laid out in a circle, such a layout is
called circular layout. A possible arrangement of this layout is shown in
fig-3.7.”
 Fig. 3.7: Robot centered cell
4.8.6 The open field layout
“The open field layout is also an adoption of the loop configuration.
The open field layout consists of loops and ladders organized to achieve
the desired processing requirements. This is used for the processing of a
large family of parts. The number of different machines may be limited,
and the parts are routed to different workstations depending on
availability of machines. A possible arrangement of this layout is shown
in fig-3.8

Fig. 3.8: Open Field Layout

Types of FMS

Kinds of operations

Processing vs. assembly

Type of processing

If machining, rotational vs. non-rotational

Number of machines (workstations):

Single machine cell (n = 1)

Flexible manufacturing cell (n = 2 or 3)

Flexible manufacturing system (n = 4 or

more) Single-Machine
Manufacturing Cell

Fig. 65 A single-machine CNC machining cell (photo courtesy of Cincinnati

Milacron)
 Fig. 66 Flexible Manufacturing Cell

Fig. 67 A two-machine flexible manufacturing cell for machining

(photo courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron)

 Fig. 68 A five-machine flexible manufacturing system for machining

(photo courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron)

Fig. 69

4.9 Materials Handling System

• A FMS typically needs several materials handling systems to service the

machines.
• A transport system to move workpieces into and out of the FMS (e.g. overhead
conveyors, gantry systems, AGV’s, RGV’s)
• A buffer storage system for queues of workpieces at the machines (e.g.,
pallets)
• A transfer system to load and unload the machines (e.g. robots, transfer
fixtures)

For these systems to work effectively, they must be

synchronized with the machine operations. The location and movement
of workpieces must be tracked automatically. This is done by using
sensors on the materials handling system and workstations .They may
be either contact devices (e.g. switches) or non-contact devices (e.g.
optical, tags or proximity devices).
4.9.1Automatic Guided Vehicles (AGV)
AGV is one of the widely used types of material handling device in an FMS.
These are battery-powered vehicles that can move and transfer materials by
following prescribed paths around the shop floor. They are neither physically
tied to the production line nor driven by an operator like forklift. Such vehicles
have on-board controllers that can be programmed for complicated and
varying routes as well as load and unload operations.
The computer for the materials handling system or the
central computer provides overall control functions, such as dispatching,
routing and traffic control and collision avoidance. AGV’s usually
complementing an automated production line consisting of conveyor or
transfer systems by providing the flexibility of complex and programmable
movement around the manufacturing shop.
Advantages of using AGV systems in FMS
(i) Flexibility: The route of the AGV’s can be easily altered, expanded and
modified, simply by changing the guide path of the vehicles. This is more cost
effective than modifying fixed conveyor lines or rail guided vehicles. It provides
direct access materials handling system for loading and unloading FMS cells
and accessing the automated storage and retrieval system.
(ii) Real time monitoring and control: Because of computer control,
AGV’s can be monitored in real time. If the FMS control system decides to
change the schedule, the vehicles can be re-routed and urgent requests can be
served. AGV’s are usually controlled through wires implanted on the factory
floor. The control is effected using a variable frequency approach. Radio
control, an alternative to in-floor mounted communication lines, permits two
way communications between the on-board computer and a remote computer,
independent of where the vehicle is i.e. whether it is in the parking place or
whether it is in motion.
To issue a command to a vehicle, the central computer
sends a bit stream via its transmitter using frequency shift keying methods to
address a specific vehicle. The signal transmitted from the base station is,
therefore, read by the appropriate vehicle only. The vehicle is also capable
of sending signals back to the remote controller, to report the status of the
vehicle, vehicle malfunction, battery status, and so on.
(iii) Safety: AGV’s can travel at a slow speed but typically operate in the
range 10 to 70 m/min. They have on-board microprocessor control to
communicate with local zone controllers which direct the traffic and prevent
collisions between vehicles as well as the vehicle and other objects. A bumper
is attached to some designs of AGV’s to prevent collision. AGV’s may also
incorporate warning lights, fire safety interlocks and controls for safety in
shops.
During design, the use of simulation can help detect whether
there are enough vehicles to perform the necessary load, unload and
transportation tasks and thus optimize the utilization of the AGV system.
Because these vehicles have to work in a tandem with highly organized FMS
cells as well as with automated warehouses under computer control, their level
of performance will affect the entire efficiency of the FMS.

4.9.2Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems

A key part of any materials handling system is storage. Major advances
have been made in recent years to automate the storage and retrieval of
product and materials by employing sophisticated materials handling
machines, high-density storage techniques and computer control. Such
systems come in a variety of forms and sizes depending on the materials
handling and storage job that has to be done. They often take the form of
automated warehouses which use automatic storage and retrieval systems,
conveyors and computers to control the materials handling machines and to
track and control the inventory. The characteristics of such warehouses
include:
(i) High density storage (in some cases, large, high-rise rack
structures)
(ii) Automated handling systems (such as elevators, storage and retrieval
carousels and conveyors).
(iii) Materials tracking systems (using optical or magnetic
sensors)
In such a storage system, the computer can keep track of a large
number of different parts, products and materials and can assign bin
locations to optimize the use of storage space. When such a system is tied
into the production control system, parts and materials can be replenished as
they are consumed on the factory floor, keeping the work in process (WIP) to a
minimum.
4.10 Computer Control System:
The computer control system of an FMS integrates several sub-systems
including: CNC systems
Support system controllers
Materials handling system controller
Monitoring and sensing devices
Data communication system
Data collection system
Programmable logic controllers
Supervisory computer
 This control system must also integrate other computer
systems if existing in the factory. The FMS system must also communicate
with the following systems:

• The CAD/CAM system which generates the CNC programs for the
machine tools

• The shop floor control systems which schedules loading and routing of
the work
• The management information system (MIS) system which provides
management with reports on the performance of the system
The various controllers and computers can be arranged in the
form of a LAN for this purpose. The type of the supervisory computer depends
upon the size of FMS. A powerful server will be adequate as a control
computer.
4.10.1 Optimization of FMS
An FMS requires considerable investment. Thorough planning and
analysis should precede the purchase of a FMS as the FMS should be designed
to provide efficient operation. Following are some approaches which should be
considered in order to optimize the overall efficiency and effectiveness of FMS:
i. Minimizing the process cycle time: The process must be designed to
minimize machining and handling.
ii. Maximizing the utilization of each machine: This can be done by balancing
the work load in the system and real time scheduling.
iii. Use of automated storage systems to keep work ready for machines to
process: The raw work parts must be replenished as and when needed to
avoid starving the work centers.
iv. Provision of adequate sensors for the detection of errors or problems: This
includes the detection of the presence and absence of parts, jamming, tool
wear, machine failures, and so on. This can be done with the use of vision
systems, limit switches, proximity switches etc. In some cases special sensors
like tool monitoring systems are used.
v. Backup capabilities: Redundancy is important in ensuring trouble-free
operation of the FMS. The system should be able to run even when failures
occur (e.g., use spare tools, provision to isolate defective machines, supply of
alternative materials and transport paths, additional machine capacity).
vi. Incorporation of in-process or post-process measurement and inspection
techniques: These assure product quality and reduce scrap and rework.

vii. Use of identification marking techniques: Bar codes and RFID tags are now
popular for identifying products as well as components. This permits
automatic tracking of workpieces and tools.

A great deal of effort is required to implement FMS. They are complex

systems that require careful planning and thorough design. Some of the major
tasks in selecting a FMS are:
• Selecting a family of parts that is both similar in design as well as in
application. Group technology concepts can be used for this purpose.
• Specifications of the capabilities and performance requirements of the
subsystem and total system.

• Bench marking the performance of the alternative proposals.

• Economic justification of the system.
• Determining the size of the system.
• System simulation for optimization.
• Selection of the equipment for the FMS.

• Design of the control systems.

• Selection and training of the personnel to run the system.
Figure 33 shows a flexible manufacturing cell. The various
functional elements of the FMC are discussed below:
 Fig. 33 Flexible Manufacturing Cell
4.11. Computer Aided Quality Control or CAQC:
The use of the computers for quality control of the product is called as the
computer aided quality control or CAQC. The two major parts of quality control
are inspection and testing, which are traditionally performed manually with the
help of gages, measuring devices and the testing apparatus.
The two major parts of computer aided quality control are computer aided
inspection (CAI) and computer aided testing (CAT). CAI and CAT are performed
by using the latest computer automation and sensor technology. CAI and CAT
are the standalone systems and without them the full potential of CAQC cannot
be achieved.
The main objectives of the CAQC are to improve the quality of the
product, increase the productivity in the inspection process and reduce the lead
times in manufacturing. The implementation of CAQC in the company results in
the major change in the way the process of quality control is carried out in the
company.

Important Points and Advantages of Computer Aided Quality Control or

CAQC
Here are the advantages and the highlights of the computer aided quality control
process:
1) 100% testing and inspection: In the traditional manual process the
testing and inspection is done by the sampling process out of the hundreds and
thousands of products or parts manufactured by the company since it is not
feasible to check each and every product. With CAI and CAT hundred percent
inspection and testing can be accomplished without much difficulty. With 100%
inspection the company does not have to depend on statistical quality control
method in which it is assumed that anything less than 100% of quality is
acceptable. With computer controlled inspection, it is not necessary for the
quality control department to settle for less than perfection.
2) Inspection integrated with manufacturing process: In the traditional
process there is separate quality control department where the manufactured
product is taken for the inspection and testing. In CAQC the inspection process is
integrated with the manufacturing process and it is located along the production
line. Thus as soon as the product is manufactured it is tested immediately by the
computerized process without moving it to some other location. This helps in
reducing the overall time required for manufacturing the product.
3) Use of non-contact sensors: In the traditional process the product or the
part to be inspected is handled manually since it has to be positioned properly
for inspection on the desk or suitable location. In CAQC non-contact sensors are
used for the inspection purpose and they inspect the product without coming in
contact with the product. The non-contact sensors operated by the computer are
kept along the production line and they can check the product very quickly in the
fraction of seconds. In future with further advancements in the technology, the
robots would be used to carry-out the inspection process thus further
automating and speeding the process.
4) Computerized feedback control system: The data collected by the non-
contact sensors is sent as the feedback to the computerized control systems.
These systems would carry out the analysis of the data including statistical trend
analysis. This helps in identifying the problem going on in the manufacturing line
and find appropriate solution to it. For instance, the results from non-contact
sensors may indicate that the parts manufactured are not within the acceptable
tolerance limits. This would help the production or quality control personnel to
find out the precise location of the problem and its exact cause. The corrective
action taken quickly saves lots of time and money due to reduced wastages and
also improves the quality of the product.
5) Computer aided quality control and CAD/CAM integration: Apart from
inspection and testing, computers are used in a number of other areas of the
quality control. All the applications of CAQC can be integrated with CAD/CAM to
make the whole process of designing and manufacturing controlled by the
computers converted into fully automated process.

4.12.COMPUTER AIDED INSPECTION:

The right choice of inspection hardware and software for
Computer-Aided Inspection (CAI) can reduce inspection times by up to 90%
while improving repeatability and reproducibility (R&R) variances by up to 50%.
But stepping into this discipline can mean facing a bewildering array of choices—
contact or noncontact measurement? What software to use? How much will it
cost to get the accuracy the quality team is demanding? Determining what route
to take and what will meet your company’s inspection needs is a process of
elimination and defining requirements before you begin to spend, and potentially
waste, some serious money.

Define Your Needs First

Understanding the target is as important as hitting it. Your operation’s

requirements on accuracy, speed and price will work as opposing forces in the
decision-making process. In the early days of personal computing, there was a
popular phrase: “Better, faster, cheaper; choose any two.” In CAI this factor still
remains: Fast scanners will not be as accurate, more accurate scanners will cost
more money.

Accuracy of Scanning

Establish what is the tightest accuracy required by the design specifications

and work to them. Further establish if future products might have tighter
restrictions on accuracy or if it will remain consistent—same production
methods, similar product and materials, similar assemblies—in the known future.

Tolerances are a key part to this discussion. Not all tolerances are created
equally and some may be extremely rigid versus others where more flexibility is
acceptable. That will need to be defined by engineering and needs to be
commensurate with known process capabilities for the operation.
 Sometimes design engineers can add in particularly tight tolerances and
accuracy requirements that are simply not practical in the production world. An
accuracy of 5 microns is not needed if the production process being used will
only be accurate to plus or minus 0.5 millimeter. It is important to clearly
identify which tolerances are arbitrarily tight and which accuracy requirements
are practical.

Speed of Measurement

Fast measurements are not usually highly accurate measurements, and that
holds true for contact and noncontact methods for inspection. Fast measurement
is typically required if you have a scenario for in-line measurement, and then
has to be balanced by the tolerance requirements in place. Sampling parts is a
viable alternative to faster measurement, which can buy the time required to
ensure that measurements are being adequately checked; i.e. if you measure
one part in every 10, then you have gained 10x the time required to check the
production quality.

Price

Greater accuracy and greater speed will result in a higher cost of the equipment
required. Conversely, if you want to reduce the cost, you will forfeit either
speed, or accuracy, or both. This means that you will need to choose up to two
out of the three available factors: accuracy, speed or cost.

Identify Your Budget

A contact device can be as cheap as $8,000 while industrial CT scanners will set
you back a cool $150,000 to $500,000. Other technologies fall in between those
two extremes, and be aware, even while measurement technology has dropped
in price while gaining in accuracy and speed, metrology equipment can still cost
some serious cash. Add into that equation the cost of inspection software,
training and maintenance and you could be on the way to blowing through
budgets.

But setting the expected return on investment (ROI) is also useful here.
Measuring the price of quality is not always easy but the cost of bad quality can
become alarmingly clear very quickly. Schneider Electric, an electrical product
manufacturer that invested in an industrial CT scanner last year, managed to
identify and solve a quality problem on a production line in one hour, using the
CT scanner and inspection software. Prior to that investment, the problem
encountered would have required at least 21 days of downtime at easily a cost
of about $480,000—a single example of how the company easily achieved return
on investment.

What Technology is Right for Me?

You have a choice between contact and noncontact solutions.

Contact Solutions

Contact solutions are a more traditional and widely accepted technology, and
come in two main varieties: stationary CMMs and portable CMMs.

Stationary CMMs

Stationary coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) are typically very large

installations—gantry, bridge and horizontal systems—that are highly accurate,
expensive and much slower compared to other methods. These CMMs have zero
portability and the part being measured has to be ported to the CMM itself, not
vice versa.

Portable CMMs

Portable CMMs (PCMMs), which typically are stationed on an arm or are

observed by a tracking device, are, as the name implies, highly portable and can
be moved to a part rather than the other way around as with stationary CMMs.
They are manually operated, and lower accuracy than stationary CMMs, but also
come at a much reduced cost. Use of portable CMMs requires a lot less training,
can be used on very large parts without requiring complex set up, and it is easy
to add additional portable CMMs to increase throughput.

Noncontact Solutions:

The noncontact solutions are a relatively new approach in a time-honored

discipline. They range across laser scanners, structured light scanners and
industrial CT scanners. All of them capture the “shape” of the part so that
measurements can be made and analyzed using inspection software.
 The advantages of noncontact scanners over contact devices include fast
data collection, and more comprehensive collection of points means a clearer
view of the entire part. They are (except for CT scanners) highly portable and
flexible to use, with no or very few compensations for the data being collected.

Laser Scanners

Laser scanners use laser light to create the 3-D shape of the part as a point
cloud. They tend to be very flexible—you can mount them to CMMs and PCMMs—
and can be hand-held or mounted on tripods. Prices range from the low
thousands to above $100,000, again with the advantage being greater accuracy
at higher prices. Even then, laser light causes inherent measurement noise and
diffusion from the laser light limits the resolution possible, and laser based
systems typically have difficulties measuring highly reflective surfaces. Camera
resolution is always better than laser coherence. Your use of these scanners
should be made based on the available resolution of a scanner compared to your
tolerance requirements on the shop floor.

Structured Light Scanners

A structured light scanner uses projected light patterns and a camera system to
record the deviations of the light to record the 3-D shape of the part. Available
in multiple shades of light, these scanners are usually more accurate than laser
scanners, due to a markedly lower measurement noise. In addition, they can
deal with shiny parts. The combined light and camera technology delivers much
greater accuracy and also means much heavier datasets to deal with. They are
also less flexible, needing to be mounted and calibrated on tripods or robots.

Industrial CT Scanners

CT scanners have the advantage of being able to capture both internal and
external geometry, even to the point of being able to see and identify cracks and
fissures in a material almost down to the atomic level if you have the right
system. This kind of accuracy demands much higher prices, and CT scanners are
far less mobile—you bring the part to the scanner unit. CT scanners also have
limitations on what materials can be scanned so that needs to be carefully
checked against requirements.
Automation Using Noncontact Devices

Noncontact systems in particular can be easily automated for constantly

repetitive measurement procedures. With the right software, the measurement
analysis can also be easily automated so that go/no-go reports can be quickly
created to help identify a problem almost as soon as it begins.

Software for Inspection

There are several inspection software products on the market, all of which have
their own advantages and disadvantages.

Inspection software bridges the gap between the point collection and the design
requirements. Obviously, not all software is the same, and you need to be on the
lookout for the ease-of-use versus training requirements. You also need to
choose your software based on the capture device(s) you are using. Always
require a test run of the software using one of your typical production parts, and
if you have budget available go for a full pilot test of the complete system. This
will allow you to make considered and well-researched decisions. Consider how
you want to be given results of the measurements, as reporting types can vary
across software products.

Contact-centric software

This software is targeted primarily at contact-based measurement:

it typically cannot handle large datasets provided by noncontact
scanning as well as products developed for the noncontact
solutions. If you are certain you will only be using contact
measurement, look to FARO CAM2, Hexagon PC-DMIS, Verisurf,
BuildIt!, and Delcam PowerInspect, among others.

Noncontact Software

Inspection software for noncontact measurement is a wholly different experience

from the traditional methods, and is aimed at the new generation of
measurement. Consider if you have reference data available—normally a CAD
file—for comparison purposes, which is the best solution, even though most of
the products available also work without CAD reference data. Define if you might
need automation, and also be on the lookout for software that has been certified
by NIST for accuracy. Products include Geomagic Qualify, Rapidform XOV,
Innovmetric Polyworks, and GOM Inspect.

4.13 Other Optical Inspection Methods

Other optical sensing techniques can be used for inspection.

Conventionaloptical instruments include optical comparators and microscopes;
while laser systems can be used for scanning. In Figure 11.7 a scanning laser
device is depicted.

The system uses a laser beam that is deflected by a rotating mirror

to produce a beam of light that can be focused to sweep past an object; while
onthe other side of the object, a photo-detector senses the light sweep, except
when it is interrupted by the object, and this interruption time may be measured
and related to the size and shape of the object with great accuracy.

Figure 11.7: Scanning laser device

Linear array devices may also be used, whereby an array of closely spaced photo
diodes are placed behind an object, and used to capture planar light that is
directed at the object from the other side (see Figure 11.8). The light that is
blocked by the object may be measured by the photo diode array to indicate the
object’s dimension of interest.

Figure 11.8: Linear array measuring device

A variation of this technique uses optical triangulation methods (refer to

Figure11.9). A laser is used to focus a narrow beam at an object to form a spot
of light on the object; meanwhile, a linear array of photo diodes is used to
determine the location of the spot using triangulation. The resultant angle A and
distance L between light source and photo diodes are known; and thus, by
means of simple trigonometry, the range of the object (R) can be determined by
means of the equation:
R  L cot A
 Figure 11.9: Optical triangulation sensing
4.14 Non-contact non-optical Inspection Techniques
Other potential inspection techniques that are non-contact and non-optical are
outlined in brief
Technique Description:

Electrical Field: An electrically active probe creates an electrical field which is

affected by the proximity of an object to the probe. In typical applications, the
object to be inspected is placed at a set proximity to the probe, and the effect on
the electrical field is measured. This procedure is repeated at different distances
from the probe, and results are compared against each other to complete
inspection procedure.

Radiation: Uses x-ray radiation to accomplish non-contact inspection on metals

and weld-fabricated products. The amount of radiation absorbed by the metal is
measured and compared against standards. This allows metals that do not
absorb sufficient amounts of radiation to be quickly spotted as flawed.

Ultrasonic Inspection: Uses very high frequency sound as an inspection

mechanism. Methods can be either manually-performed or performed
automatically. Automated methods include emitting ultrasonic waves from a
probe and reflecting them off the object to be inspected; to create a sound
pattern. This sound pattern can be compared against the sound pattern
produced by an ideal object for inspection purposes. If the produced sound
pattern matches the standard pattern the object passes the test; otherwise it
fails.
 UNIT-V

C O M P U T E R A I D E D PR O C E S S P L A N N I N G :

5 . Introduction to Process Planning:

Process planning is concerned with determining the sequence of individual

manufacturing operations needed to produce a given part or product. The
resulting operation sequence is documented on a form typically referred to as
operation sheet. The operation sheet is a listing of the production operations
and associated machine tools for a work part or assembly. Process planning is
an important stage of product development since production tooling like
jigs, fixtures, special tools etc. can be designed only after the process is
finalized.

Role of process planning

1. Interpretation of product design data

2. Selection of machining processes.
3. Selection of machine tools.
4. Determination of fixtures and datum surfaces.
5. Sequencing the operations.
6. Selection of inspection devices.
7. Determination of production tolerances.
8. Determination of the proper cutting conditions.
9. Calculation of the overall times.
10. Generation of process sheets including NC data.
Approaches to Process planning
1. Manual approach
2. Variant or retrieval type CAPP system
3. Generative CAPP system

5.1 Process Planning

Manufacturing planning, process planning, material processing, process
engineering and machine routing are a few titles given to the topic referred to
here as process planning. Process planning is that function within a
manufacturing facility that establishes which machining process and process
parameters are to be used to convert a work material (blank) from its initial
form (raw material) to a final form defined by an engineering drawing. Process
planning is a common task in small batch, discrete parts metal working
industries. The process planning activity can be divided into the following
steps:

• Selection of processes and tools

• Selection of machine tools/Manufacturing equipment
• Sequencing the operations
• Grouping of operations
• Selection of work piece holding devices and datum surfaces (set ups)
• Selection of inspection instruments
• Determination of production tolerances
• Determination of the proper cutting conditions
• Determination of the cutting times and non-machining times (setting time,
inspection time) for each operation
• Editing the process sheets.
In conventional production system, a process plan is created by a
process planner. It requires a significant amount of time and expertise to
determine an optimal routing for each new part design. However, individual
engineers will have their own opinions about what constitutes the best routing.
Accordingly there are differences among the operation sequences developed
by various planners.
Efficient process planning requires the service of experienced
process planners. Because of the problems encountered with manual process
planning, attempts have been made in recent years to capture the logic,
judgment and experience required for this important function and incorporates
them into computer programs.
Based on the features of a given part, the program automatically
generates the sequence of manufacturing operations. The process planning
software provides the opportunity to generate production routings which are
rational, consistent and perhaps even optimal.

It has the following advantages:

i. Reduces the skill required of a planner.
ii. Reduces the process planning time.
iii. Reduces the process planning and manufacturing cost.
iv. Creates more consistent plans.
v. Produces more accurate plans.
vi. Increases productivity.

The current approaches for computer aided process planning can be classified
into two groups:
i. Variant
ii. Generative

Fig. 10 Structure of a Computer Aided Process Planning System

Fig. 11 Activities in Process Planning

In a computerized process planning system a formal structure and a

knowledge database are required in order to transform the engineering design
information into the process definition. A brief description of the operation of a
computer aided process planning software is given in the following section.

5.2. Methods of Computer Aided Process Planning

The ultimate goal of a system is to integrate design and production
data into a system that generates useable process plans. As already mentioned
there are two approaches:
i. Variant process planning
ii. Generative process planning
5.2.1. Variant Process Planning
A variant process planning system uses the similarity among
components to retrieve the existing process plans. A process plan that can be
used by a family of components is called a standard plan. A standard plan is
stored permanently with a family number as its key. A family is represented
by a family matrix which includes all possible members. The variant process
planning system has two operational stages:
• A preparatory stage and
• A production stage.
During the preparatory stage, existing components are coded,
classified, and subsequently grouped into families. The process begins by
summarizing process plans already prepared for components in the family.
Standard plans are then stored in a data base and indexed by family matrices
(Fig. 12).

Fig. 12 Process Family Matrix

The operation stage occurs when the system is ready for production. An
incoming part is first coded. The code is then input to a part family search
routine to find the family to which the component belongs. The family number
is then used to retrieve a standard plan.
Some other functions, such as parameter selection
and standard time calculations, can also be added to make the system
more complete (Fig. 13). This system is used in a machine shop that
produces a variety of small components.

Fig. 13 Part Search and Retrieval

Design of Variant Process Planning System

The following are the sequences in the design of a variant process planning
system:
i. Family formation
ii. Data base structure design

v. Search algorithm development and implementation

vi. Plan editing

v. Process parameter selection/updating
Family Formation
Part family classification and coding were discussed earlier. This
is based on the manufacturing features of a part. Components requiring
similar processes are grouped into the same family. A general rule for part
family formation is that all parts must be related. Then, a standard process
plan can be shared by the entire family. Minimum modification on the standard
plan will be required for such family members.
Data Base Structure Design

The data base contains all the necessary information for an

application, and can be accessed by several programs for specific application.
There are three approaches to construct a data base: hierarchical, network,
and relational.
Search Procedure

The principle of a variant system is to retrieve process plans

for similar components. The search for a process plan is based on the search
of a part family to which the component belongs. When, the part family is
found, the associated standard plan can then be retrieved. A family matrix
search can be seen as the matching of the family with a given code. Family
matrices can be considered as masks. Whenever, a code can pass through
a mask successfully, the family is identified.
Plan Editing and Parameter Selection

Before a process plan can be issued to the shop, some

modification of the standard plan may be necessary, and process parameters
must be added to the plan. There are two types of plan editing: One is the
editing of the standard plan itself in the data base, and the other is editing of
the plan for the component. For editing a standard plan, the structure of the
data base must be flexible enough for expansion, additions, and deletions of
the data records.

A complete process plan includes not only operations but also

process parameters. The data in the process parameter files are linked so that
we can go through the tree to find the speed and feed for an operation. The
parameter file can be integrated into variant planning to select process
parameters automatically.
5.2.2 Generative Process Planning

Generative process planning is a system that synthesizes process

information in order to create a process plan for a new component
automatically. In a generative planning system, process plans are created
from information available in manufacturing data base without human
intervention. Upon receiving the design model, the system can generate the
required operations and operation sequences for the component. Knowledge of
manufacturing must be captured and encoded into efficient software. By
applying decision logic, a process planner’s decision making can be imitated.
Other planning functions, such as machine selection, tool selection, process
optimization, and so on, can also be automated using generative planning
techniques.

The generative planning has the following advantages:

i. It can generate consistent process plans rapidly.
ii. New process plans can be created as easily as retrieving the plans of
existing components.
iii. It can be interfaced with an automated manufacturing facility to provide
detailed and up-to-date control information.

Fig. 14 shows the modular structure of a generative CAPP

system.
The generative part consists of:
• Component representation module
• Feature extraction module
• Feature process correlation module
• Operation selection and sequencing module
• Machine tool selection module
• Standard time / cost computation module
• Report generation module

In order to generate a more universal process planning

system, variables such as process limitations, and capabilities, process costs
and so on, must be defined at the planning stage. Several of methods
have been proposed for creating generative process plans. A few methods
that have been implemented successfully are:
i. Forward and backward planning
ii. Input Format
iii. CAPP based on CAD models
iv. CAPP based on decision logic either using decision trees or decision tables v.
CAPP based on artificial intelligence

Fig. 18 Schematic representation of CAPP

5.3.Benefits derived from CAPP

• Process rationalization and standardization:
computer automated preparation of operation routings is more likely to be
consistent, logical, and optimal than its manual counterpart. The process plans
will be consistent because the same computer software is being used by all
planners
• Increased productivity of process planners:
With CAPP, there is reduced clerical effort, fewer errors are made, and the
planners have immediate access to the process planning database. These
benefits translate in to higher productivity of the process planners.
• Reduced lead time for process planning:
Working with CAPP system, the process planner is able to prepare a route
sheet for a new part in less time compared to manual preparation. This leads to
overall reduction in manufacturing lead time.
• Improved legibility:
The computer prepared document is neater and easier to read than
manually written route sheets. CAPP systems employ standard text, which
facilitates interpretation of the process plan in the factory.
• Incorporation of other application programs:
The process planning system can be designed to operate in conjunction with
other software packages to automate many of the time-consuming
manufacturing support functions.
Advantages and limitations of Variant CAPP:
– Investment in hardware and software is not much.
– The system offers a shorter development time and lower manpower
consumption to develop process plan.
– The system is very reliable and reasonable in real production environments
for small and medium size companies.
– Quality of process plan depends on knowledge and background of process
planner.

Computer Aids
Variant (Retrieval) CAPP Methodology

Fig. 22 Variant (Retrieval) CAPP Methodology

Fig. 23 Variant CAPP procedure
 Generative CAPP Methodology

5.4.MACHINABILITY DATA SYSTEMS:

In a machine shop, process planning should include selection of the cutting
conditions that are to be used in the various machining operations. The cutting
conditions consist of the speed, feed and depth of cut. Depth of cut is usually
predetermined by the workpeice geometry and operation sequence. Therefore, the
problem reduces to one of determining the proper speed and feed combination.
Machinability data systems are basically intended to solve this problem.

5.4.1. Requirements of a Machinability Data System I

The requirements of a typical computerized machinability data system are as
follows.

5.4.1.1 Database Adequate data must be available within the system to determine
machinability ·information based on the requirements of design. This may be
further classified as :
1. Material Data - This should include experimentally derived feed and speed
information corresponding to various cutting tools and manufacturing operations for
a given workpiece material.

2. Tool Data - This should include information on tool material grades required for
different cutting conditions and tool parameter requirements such as rake and relief
angles for a variety of tool materials and operations.
3. Machine Data - This will include the operating limitations for the user’s range
ofmachine tools. Maximum and minimum spindle speeds, feed rates and
horsepower are the most important and must be incorporated. Information
regardingmachine rigidity and accuracy may also be stored.
Machlnability Data Systems
5.4.1.2 Decision Making Capabilities
A computerized machinability data system must make decisions about
various aspects of the machining process and hence artificial intelligence techniques
need to be incorporated for the development of such systems.
This would enable less skilled personnel to use it efficiently. Such a
system should be capable of making decisions about required machining
parameters such as feed, speed, etc., based on user input information and available
geometric information, after a systematic analysis of the database. This information
should then be processed for standardization to suit actual implementation of the
process.
For example, if the system determines the number of
cuts based on the correct speed and feed to, be say, 1.72, it should set it to 2 and
reevaluate all other variables accordingly. Selection of a suitable machine is also an
important aspect of decision making.
The system should match the required cutting parameters with the
machine specifications in its database and identify a suitable machine. lf the
available machines are unable to support these parameters, a machine with the
closest possible specifications should be selected and tested whether it could meet
the part specifications. if it does, all the parameters need to be re-evaluated to suit
the machine specifications before final recommendations are made. lf there ls no
successful compromise, the system should indicate that the particular operation is
not possible within the established framework.

Machlnability Data Systems 35‘

5.4.1.3 Interface with related systems
A machinability data system would be most effective if it is used with other
computerized systems, as it will lead to an integrated production system. An user
interface with such systems would lead to more effective utllization. Some areas
which need to be linked are as follows
5.4.1.3.1 CAPP Interface
The system should be able to obtain process planning information to help it
base its decision on cutting parameters and selection of machine. lf for some
reason, the system concludes that the specified process is not feasible, it should
convey this information back to the CAPP system, so that the process plan could be
modified accordingly.
5.4.1.3.2 CAD System
Geometric information of the component may be directly accessed by the
data system through an interface with the CAD system. The graphics capabilities of
CAD systems can be exploited for user friendly identification of machining surfaces.
The obvious advantage of such an interface would be a common database for
design and manufacturing.
Machlnabllity Data Systems_ 36
5.4.1.3.3 Tool Design Interface III
The machinability data system would need to work in coordination with a
tool design system to select the tooling to be used for manufacture. Though the
machinability data system, by itself, could determine some parameters of the
required tooling, final tool design must be established subsequently based on
availability and standards. This information should be returned back to the
machinability data system to check whether the designed tool can support the
cutting recommendations. lf not, necessary modifications must be made.
5.4.1.3.4 Simulation Interface
A simulation interface would help in checking the selected machinability data before
it is supplied to manufacture. Possibilities of tool interference with fixtures and
features of the workplece could be evaluated. Such an interface would help in error
A free implementation. The simulation interface can make use of the existing
graphic capabilities of the CAD system.

5.4.1.3.5 CAM Interface

Cutting parameters must be supplied to a CAM system, which would then generate
the NC code. This will in turn be fed to the CNC machine for manufacture. A
suitable interface must be provided for transferring the process parameters to the
NC software that generates the NC code.

5.5.Computer Generated Time Standards :

Work measurement can be defined as “ a development of a

time standard to indicate the value of a work task.” Various purposes for work
measurement are : Wage incentives ; Estimating and job costing ; Production
scheduling and capacity planning ; Measurement of worker performance .
Work measurement is related to process planning because in
a well-organized process planning system, a time standard must be determined for
each of the operation listed on the route sheet.
The techniques used to determine time standards in
manufacturing include the following ::: Direct time study ; The use of standard data
; Predetermined time standard systems ; Estimates based on previous experience ;
Work sampling.
The disadvantages of these methods are :
1. The performance rating is often disrupted by the worker ;
2. The time standard can’t be set until after the job is in the production ;
3. There tends to be variability in the standards among time study analyst ;
4. Much time is required by the time study analyst in taking the study and
calculating the standards.
The advantages of using a computerized system for generating time
standards are:
1. Reduction in time required by the time study analyst to set the standard
2.Greater accuracy and uniformity in the time standards ;
3. Ease of maintaining the method file and standard file when engineering and
method change occurs ;
4. Eliminating of controversial performance rating step; 5.The time standards can
often be set before the job gets into the production ;
6. Improved manufacturing data base for production planning, scheduling,
forecasting labor requirements, tool control and so on.
5.6.Computer integrated production planning:

5.7.CAPACITY PLANNING :
The original MRP systems that were developed in the 1970s created
schedules that were not necessarily consists with the production capabilities and
limitations of the plants that were to produce the products. In many instances,
the MRP system developed the detailed schedule based on a master production
schedule that was unrealistic. A successful production schedule must consider
production capacity. In cases where current capacity is inadequate, the firm must
make plans for changes in capacity to meet the changing production
requirements specified in the schedule.

we defined production capacity and formulated equations to determine

the capacity of a plant. Capacity planning consists of determining what labor and
equipment resources are required to meet the current MPS as well as long
term future production needs of the firm. Capacity planni9ng also identifies
the limitations of the available production resources to prevent the MRP
program from planning an un realistic master schedule.

Capacity planning is typically accomplished in two stages, as

indicated in Figure 25.8: first, when the MPS is established; and second , when
the MRP computations are done. In the MPS stage, a rough-cut capacity planning
( RCCP ) calculations is made to assess the feasibility of the master schedule .
Such a calculation indicates whether there is a significant violation of
production capacity in the MPS.

On the other hand, if the calculation shows no capacity violation,

neither does is guarantee that the production schedule can be met. This depends
on the allocation of word orders to specific work cells in the plant.. Accordingly, a
second capacity calculation is made at the time the MRP schedule is prepared..
Called capacity requirements planning ( CRP ) , this detailed calculation
determined whether there is sufficient production capacity in the individual
departments and in the work cells to complete the specific parts and
assemblies that have been scheduled by MRP. If the schedule is not compatible
with capacity, then either the plant capacity or the master schedule must be
adjusted.

Capacity adjustments can be divided into short-term adjustment and

long-term adjustments. Capacity adjustments for the short term include the
following.
• Employment levels
s : Employment in the plant can be increase or
decrease in response
sponse to changes in capacity requirements.

• Number of temporrary workers. Increase in employment level can also

be achieved by usin
ng workers from temporary agency. Wh
hen the busy
period is passed, tthese workers move to positions at oth
her companies
where their services a
are needed

• Number of work sh
shifts. The numbers of shifts worked per
p production
period can be increas
sed or decreased.

• Number of labor ho
hours. The numbers of labor hours perr shift can be
increased or decreas
sed, through the use of overtime or reduc
ce hours.

• Inventory stockpili
iling. This tactic might be used to ma
aintain steady
employment levell du
during slow demand periods.

• Order backlogs. : Deliveries of the product to the custo

omer could be
delayed during busy
y period when production resources are insufficient to
keep up with demand.
nd.

• Workload through
h subcontracting. This involves the letting
l of the
jobs to otherr shops during busy periods , or the taking in of extra work
during slack periods.
 Capacity planning adjustments for the long term include changes in production
capacity that generally require long times. These adjustments include the
following actions:

• Investing in new equipment. This involves investing in more machines

or more productive machines to meet increased future production
requirements, ore investing in new types of machines to match changes in
product design.

• Constructing new plants. Building a new factory represents a major

investment for the company. However, it also represents a significant
increase in production capacity for the firm.

• Purchasing existing plants from other companies.

• Acquiring existing companies . This may be done to increase

productive capacity. However , there are usually more important reasons for
taking over an existing company, such as to achieve economies of scale that
result from increase market share and reducing staff.

• Closing Plants. This involves the closing of plants that will not be needed
in the future.

5.8. Shop Floor Control:

Monitoring the progress of the jobs is an integrated part of CIM.
Collection of machine data statistics, estimation of the non-production times and
machine utilization, tracking of flow of materials, determination of job completion
times and realization of schedules, etc., are necessary to evaluate the efficiency
of the functioning of the system. This requires automatic or direct data collection
from the shop floor. The techniques and technologies by which the status of
production is collected are called shop floor data collection. Fig. 24 illustrates
various types of information/data to be collected from the shop floor. These
include:
(i) Machine data (ii) Operator data (iii) Tooling data
(iv) Data relating to jobs to be done
(v) Materials data
(vi) Materials handling data
(vii) Scheduling data
(viii) Process planning data
(ix) Inspection data

Fig. 24 Components of Shop Floor Information System

Material processing is a typical example of data

collection. The various process planning methods described in Chapter 9 are
used to plan the execution of the work before the actual manufacturing
commences. It is necessary to monitor the process of the work to make sure that
the work is performed as planned. This necessitates collection of shop floor data
which includes machine data, actual completion time, and movement of the
materials and the utilization of other resources. There are several variables
affecting the manufacturing productivity. These are shown in Fig. 25. Monitoring
of shop floor data helps to identify factors which adversely affect productivity
 Fig. 25 Variables Affecting Manufacturing Productivity
3.1 Shop Floor Control
Shop floor control deals with managing the work-in-process. This
consists of the release of production orders to the factory, controlling the progress
of the orders through the various work stations, and getting the current
information of the status of the orders. This can be shown in the form of a
factory information system. (Fig. 26).
The input to the shop floor control system is the collection of
production plans. These can be in the form of master schedule, manufacturing
capacity planning and ERP data. The factory production operations are the
processes to be controlled.

Fig. 26 Factory Information System

A typical shop floor control system consists of three phases. In a computer

integrated manufacturing system these phases are managed by computer
software. These three phases connected with the production management is
shown in Fig. 27. In today’s implementation of shop floor control, these are
executed by a combination of computers and human resources. The following
sections describe the important activities connected with this task
 Fig. 27 Phases in Shop Floor Control

Order Release
The order release in shop floor control provides the documentation needed to
process a production order. The documents in the shop floor order may consists
of the following documents
(i) Route Sheet
(ii) Material requisition to draw necessary materials from the stores
(iii) Job cards or other means to report direct labour time given to the order.
(iv) Instructions to material handling personnel to transport parts between the
work centres in the factory
(v) Parts list for assembly, in the case of assembly operations.
In a typical factory which works on manual processing of data these documents
move with the production order and are used to track the progress through the
shop. In a CIM factory, more automated methods are used to track the progress
of the production orders. The order release is connected with two inputs.
Authorization proceeds through the various planning functions (MRP, capacity
planning). These provide timing and scheduling information. The engineering and
manufacturing database provides the product structure and process planning
information needed to prepare the various documents that accompany the
order through the shop.
Order Scheduling
 This module assigns the production orders to various work centres,
machine tools, welding stations, moulding machines etc., in the plant. It follows
directly from the order release module. Order scheduling executes the dispatch
function in production planning and control. The order scheduling module
prepares a dispatch list that indicates which production order should be
accomplished at the various work centres. It provides the information on the
relative priorities of the various jobs by showing the due dates for each job. By
following the dispatch list in making work assignments and allocating resources to
different jobs the master schedule can be best achieved. The order schedule
module addresses to two important activities in shop floor production control.
(i) Machine loading
(ii) Job sequencing.

Allocating the orders to the work centres is termed as

machine loading or shop loading, which refers to the loading of all machines in
the plant. In most cases each work centre will have a queue of orders waiting to
be processed. This queue problem can be solved by job sequencing. This involves
determining the order in which the jobs will be processed through a given work
centre. To determine this sequence, priorities are given to jobs in the queue and
the jobs are processed according to the priorities. Several queuing models are
available in operations management to solve this problem. This control of
priorities is an important input to the order scheduling module. Rules to establish
the priorities are:
(i) Earliest due date: These are given high priority
(ii) Shortest processing time: Shorter processing time orders are given high
priority.
(iii) Least slack time: Orders with least slack time are given high priority.
Fluctuations in market demand, equipment breakdown,
cancellation of the order by customer and defective raw material or delay in
the receipt of materials affect the priority. The priority control plan reviews the
relative priorities of the orders and adjusts the dispatch list accordingly.
Order Progress
The order progress module in the shop floor control system monitors the
status of the various orders in the plant work-in-process and other characteristics
that indicate the progress and performance of production.
The function of the order progress module is to provide the information
that is useful in managing the factory based on the data collected from the
factory. The order progress report includes:
(i) Work order status reports: These reports indicate the status of the
production orders. Typical information in the report includes the current work
centre where each order is located, processing hours remaining before completion
of each order, whether the job is on-time or behind schedule, and priority level.
(ii) Progress report: A progress report records the performance of the shop
during the period of master schedule and reports the number of operations
completed and not completed during the time period.

(iii) Exception reports: These reports bring out the deviations from the
production schedule (ex. overdue jobs).The above reports are useful to
production management in making the decisions about allocation of resources,
authorization of the overtime hours, and other capacity issues, and in identifying
areas of problems in the plant that adversely affect the implementation of the
master production schedule.
3.2 Shop Floor Data Collection
There are several of data collection techniques to gather data from the
shop floor. Some of the data are keyed by the employees and the rest are
recorded automatically. Later the data is compiled on a fully automated system
that requires no human intervention. These methods are collectively called as
shop floor data collection systems.
These data collection systems consist of various paper documents,
terminals and automated devices located through the plant in a plant. The
shop floor data collection system serves as an input to the order progress module
in shop floor (Fig.20.4). Examples of the data collection in shop floor are:
(i) To supply data to the order progress module in the shop floor control system.

(ii) To provide up to date information to the production supervisors and

production control personnel.
(iii) To enable the management to monitor implementation of master schedule.
To carry out this, the factory data collection system inputs the data
to the computer system in the plant.
Types of Data Collection Systems
The shop floor data collection systems can be classified into two
groups.
(i) On-line data collection systems
(ii) Off-line data collection systems
On-Line Data Collection Systems
In an on-line system, the data are directly entered to the computer and
are available to the order progress module. The advantage lies in the fact that
the data file representing the status of the shop is always at the current state. As
and when the changes in the order progress module are reported they can be
fed to computer and in turn to the status file. In this way the production
personnel are provided with most up-to-data information.

Off-Line (Batch) Data Collection Systems

In this the data are collected temporarily in a storage device or a
stand-alone computer system to be entered and processed by plant computer in a
batch mode. In this mode there is delay in the entry and processing of the data.
The delay may vary depending upon the situation. So this system cannot provide
real time information of shop floor status. The advantage of this system is that it
is easier to install and implement.
Data Input Techniques
As stated earlier, the data collection techniques include manual
procedures and computer terminals located on the shop floor. The manual
data collection methods require the production workers to fill out paper forms
indicating order progress data. These forms are compiled using a combination of
clerical and computerized methods. The manual data collection methods rely on
the co-operation and clerical accuracy of the employees to record a data
property on a proper document. Errors may creep in this type of method. The
common forms of errors that can be checked and rectified are wrong dates,
incorrect order numbers and incorrect operation numbers. These can be
detected and corrected. There are, however, other errors which are difficult to
identify. Another problem is that there may be a delay in submitting the
order progress for compiling. The reason is that there will be always a
time lapse between when occurrence of events and recording of events.
These problems necessitate the location of the data collection equipment in the
factory itself. The various input techniques include manual input by push-button
pads or keyboards. Error checking routines can be incorporated to detect the
syntax errors in the input. The data entry methods also include more automated
technologies, such as bar code reader, magnetic card readers etc.

An important type of equipment used in shop floor data entry is keyboard

based systems. There are various types of such systems. They are discussed in
the following sections.

Centralized Terminal
A single terminal is located centrally in the shop floor. This requires the
employees to go to the terminal and input the data. So employee’s time will be
wasted and in a big shop, this becomes inconvenient.
Satellite Terminals
These are multiple data collection centres located throughout the shop floor.
In this arrangement a balance is to be struck between the minimization of the
investment cost and maximization of the convenience of the employees in the
plant.
Work Centre Terminals
The most convenient arrangements to the employees are to have a data
collection terminal at each work centre. This reduces the time to go to the
central terminal. This can be applied when the amount of data to be collected is
very large.
5.9. MRP-I :

Introduction:

Material Requirements Planning (MRP) is software based production planning and

inventory control system used to manage manufacturing processes. Although it is
not common nowadays, it is possible to conduct MRP by hand as well.

An MRP system is intended to simultaneously meet three objectives:

• Ensure materials and products are available for production and delivery to
customers.

• Maintain the lowest possible level of inventory.

• Plan manufacturing activities, delivery schedules and purchasing activities

The scope of MRP in manufacturing:

Manufacturing organizations, whatever their products, face the same daily practical
problem - that customers want products to be available in a shorter time than it
takes to make them. This means that some level of planning is required.

Companies need to control the types and quantities of materials they

purchase, plan which products are to be produced and in what quantities and
ensure that they are able to meet current and future customer demand, all at the
lowest possible cost. Making a bad decision in any of these areas will make the
company lose money. A few examples are given below:

• If a company purchases insufficient quantities of an item used in

manufacturing, or the wrong item, they may be unable to meet contracts to
supply products by the agreed date.

• If a company purchases excessive quantities of an item, money is being

wasted - the excess quantity ties up cash while it remains as stock and may
never even be used at all. This is a particularly severe problem for food
manufacturers and companies with very short product life cycles. However,
some purchased items will have a minimum quantity that must be met,
therefore, purchasing excess is necessary.
 • Beginning production of an order at the wrong time can cause customer
deadlines to be missed.

MRP is a tool to deal with these problems. It provides answers for several
questions:

• What items are required?

• How many are required?

• When are they required?

MRP can be applied both to items that are purchased from outside suppliers and to
sub-assemblies, produced internally, that are components of more complex items.

The data that must be considered include:

• The end item (or items) being created. This is sometimes called Independent
Demand or Level “0 on BOM (Bill of materials).

• How much is required at a time.

• When the quantities are required to meet demand.

• Shelf life of stored materials.

• Inventory status records. Records of net materials available for use already in
stock (on hand) and materials on order from suppliers.

• Bills of materials. Details of the materials, components and subassemblies

required to make each product.

• Planning Data. This includes all the restraints and directions to produce the
end items. This includes such items as: Routings, Labor and Machine
Standards, Quality and Testing Standards, Pull/Work Cell and Push
commands, Lot sizing techniques (i.e. Fixed Lot Size, Lot-For-Lot,
Economic Order Quantity), Scrap Percentages, and other inputs.

Outputs:

There are two outputs and a variety of messages/reports:

• Output 1 is the "Recommended Production Schedule" which lays out a detailed

schedule of the required minimum start and completion dates, with
 quantities, for each step of the Routing and Bill Of Material required to satisfy
the demand from the MPS.

• Output 2 is the "Recommended Purchasing Schedule". This lays out both the
dates that the purchased items should be received into the facility AND the
dates that the Purchase orders, or Blanket Order Release should occur to
match the production schedules.

Messages and Reports:

• Purchase orders. An order to a supplier to provide materials.

• Reschedule notices. These recommend cancelling, increasing, delaying or

speeding up existing orders.

Note that the outputs are recommended. Due to a variety of changing conditions in
companies, since the last MRP / ERP system Re-Generation, the recommended
outputs need to be reviewed by trained people to group orders for benefits in set-
up or freight savings. These actions are beyond the linear calculations of the MRP
computer software.

Problems with MRP systems:

The major problem with MRP systems is the integrity of the data. If there are any
errors in the inventory data, the bill of materials (commonly referred to as 'BOM')
data, or the master production schedule, then the outputted data will also be
incorrect. Most vendors of this type of system recommend at least 99% data
integrity for the system to give useful results.

Another major problem with MRP systems is the requirement that the user specify
how long it will take a factory to make a product from its component parts
(assuming they are all available). Additionally, the system design also assumes that
this "lead time" in manufacturing will be the same each time the item is made,
without regard to quantity being made, or other items being made simultaneously
in the factory.
A manufacturer may have factories in different cities or even countries. It is no
good for an MRP system to say that we do not need to order some material because
we have plenty thousands of miles away. The overall ERP system needs to be able
to organize inventory and needs by individual factory, and intercommunicate needs
in order to enable each factory to redistribute components in order to serve the
overall enterprise.

This means that other systems in the enterprise need to work properly both before
implementing an MRP system, and into the future. For example systems like variety
reduction and engineering which makes sure that product comes out right first time
(without defects) must be in place.

Production may be in progress for some part, whose design gets changed, with
customer orders in the system for both the old design, and the new one,
concurrently. The overall ERP system needs to have a system of coding parts such
that the MRP will correctly calculate needs and tracking for both versions. Parts
must be booked into and out of stores more regularly than the MRP calculations
take place. Note, these other systems can well be manual systems, but must
interface to the MRP. For example, a 'walk around' stock take done just prior to the
MRP calculations can be a practical solution for a small inventory (especially if it is
an "open store").

The other major drawback of MRP is that takes no account of capacity in its
calculations. This means it will give results that are impossible to implement due to
manpower or machine or suppler capacity constraints. However this is largely
dealt with by MRP II.

Generally, MRP II refers to a system with integrated financials. An MRP II system

can include finite / infinite capacity planning. But, to be considered a true MRP II
system must also include financials.

In the MRP II (or MRP2) concept, fluctuations in forecast data are taken into
account by including simulation of the master production schedule, thus creating a
long-term control[2]. A more general feature of MRP2 is its extension to
purchasing, to marketing and to finance (integration of all the function of the
company), ERP has been the next step.
5.10. MRP-II

To assist planners in tracking some of the problems associated with inventory

control, some kind of ‘feedback loop’ is needed in the M.R.P. process, not only to
automatically re-schedule certain items (when possible), and avoid excessive
manual effort in controlling the process, but to detect and report performance that
is ‘out of spec’ (such as a vendor performance report to track on-time delivery
performance).

This ‘feedback loop’ is the defining factor for an ‘M.R.P. II’ system.
Though many systems CLAIM to be an ‘M.R.P. II’ system, few actually fit the
mould exactly. Still, with automatic rescheduling capabilities for work orders and/or
repetitive build schedules, and ‘reschedule action’ reports for purchase orders and
outside contracting, the amount of actual analysis is reduced significantly. Other
information, such as vender performance reports and process utilization reports,
also help to measure the ‘performance to plan’ capability of the manufacturing
plant.

Even when the production plan is running at optimum performance,

companies still often have serious problems with the manufacturing process.
‘Hidden Cost’ issues associated with manufacturing increase the total cost of
manufacturing, but are extremely hard to track. Some of these ‘Hidden Costs’ can
be caused by excessive P.O. rescheduling or excessive ‘crash buy’ programs, excess
and/or obsolete inventory, or planning problems that cause incorrectly stocked
finished goods (too much of one, not enough of the other) that result in shortages.

Another ‘hidden cost’ issue might be frequent line stops related to a

‘limiting process’ (such as a wave solder machine or component inserter), as well as
material shortages and excessive ‘kitting’ of common components. In addition,
potential revenue losses from excessively long customer order lead times, or poor
on-time customer delivery performance, are real problems, but very difficult to
track and measure.

As such, none of these problems are tracked nor reported by any

‘standard M.R.P.’ or ‘M.R.P. II’ system. To help solve these problems, and improve
the company’s competitiveness and profitability, beyond existing capabilities, the
M.R.P. system must go beyond the standard definition of ‘M.R.P. II’.

Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP II) is defined by APICS (American

Production and Inventory Control Society, Estd. 1957) as a method for the effective
planning of all resources of a manufacturing company. Ideally, it addresses
operational planning in units, financial planning in dollars, and has a simulation
capability to answer "what-if" questions and extension of closed-loop MRP.

This is not exclusively a software function, but a marriage of people skills,

dedication to data base accuracy, and computer resources. It is a total company
management concept for using human resources more productively.

MRP II is not

Many items on this list can be part of an MRP II, but are not solely what it is.

• a computer system

• manufacturing control system

• inventory reduction plan

• Sales & Purchase System

• Material Management

Purpose

MRP II integrates many areas of the manufacturing enterprise into a single entity
for planning and control purposes, from board level to operative and from five-year
plan to individual shop-floor operation. It builds on closed-loop Material
Requirements Planning (MRP) by adopting the feedback principle but extending it to
additional areas of the enterprise, primarily manufacturing-related.

Key functions and Features

MRP II is not a proprietary software system and can thus take many forms. It is
almost impossible to visualise an MRP II system that does not use a computer, but
an MRP II system can be based on either purchased / licensed or in-house
software.
Almost every MRP II system is modular in construction. Characteristic basic
modules in an MRP II system are:

• Master Production Scheduling (MPS)

• Item Master Data (Technical Data)

• Bill of Materials (BOM) (Technical Data)

• Production Resources Data (Manufacturing Technical Data)

• Inventories & Orders (Inventory Control)

• Purchasing Management

• Material Requirements Planning (MRP)

• Shop Floor Control (SFC)

• Capacity planning or Capacity Requirements Planning (CRP)

• Standard Costing (Cost Control)

• Cost Reporting / Management (Cost Control)

• Distribution Resource Planning (DRP)

together with ancillary systems such as:

• Business Planning

• Lot Traceability

• Contract Management

• Tool Management

• Engineering Change Control

• Configuration Management

• Shop Floor Data Collection

• Sales Analysis and Forecasting

• Finite Capacity Scheduling (FCS)

and related systems such as:

• General Ledger
 • Accounts Payable (Purchase Ledger)

• Accounts Receivable (Sales Ledger)

• Sales Order Management

• Distribution Requirements Planning (DRP)

• [Automated] Warehouse Management

• Project Management

• Technical Records

• Estimating

• Computer-aided design/Computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM)

• CAPP

The MRP II system integrates these modules together so that they use
common data and freely exchange information, in a model of how a manufacturing
enterprise should and can operate. The MRP II approach is therefore very different
from the “point solution” approach, where individual systems are deployed to help a
company plan, control or manage a specific activity. MRP II is by definition fully
integrated or at least fully interfaced.

MRP II systems can provide:

• Better control of inventories

• Improved scheduling

• Productive relationships with suppliers

For Design / Engineering:

• Improved design control

• Better quality and quality control

For Financial and Costing:

 • Reduced working capital for inventory

• Improved cash flow through quicker deliveries

• Accurate inventory records

• Timely and valid cost and profitability information

Industry Specifics:

MRP II systems have been implemented in most manufacturing industries. Some

industries need specialised functions e.g. lot traceability in regulated manufacturing
such as pharmaceuticals or food. Other industries can afford to disregard facilities
required by others e.g. the tableware industry has few starting materials – mainly
clay – and does not need complex materials planning. Capacity planning is the key
to success in this as in many industries, and it is in those that MRP II is less
appropriate.

This is not exclusively a software function, but a marriage of people skills,

dedication to data base accuracy, and computer resources. It is a total company
management concept for using human resources more productively.

MRP and MRPII: History and Evolution

Material Requirements Planning (MRP) and Manufacturing Resource Planning

(MRPII) are predecessors of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), a business
information integration system. The development of these manufacturing
coordination and integration methods and tools made today’s ERP systems possible.
Both MRP and MRPII are still widely used, independently and as modules of more
comprehensive ERP systems, but the original vision of integrated information
systems as we know then today began with the development of MRP and MRPII in
manufacturing.

The vision for MRP and MRPII was to centralize and integrate business information
in a way that would facilitate decision making for production line managers and
increase the efficiency of the production line overall. In the 1980s, manufacturers
developed systems for calculating the resource requirements of a production run
based on sales forecasts. In order to calculate the raw materials needed to produce
products and to schedule the purchase of those materials along with the machine
and labor time needed, production managers recognized that they would need to
use computer and software technology to manage the information. Originally,
manufacturing operations built custom software programs that ran on mainframes.

Material Requirements Planning (MRP) was an early iteration of the integrated

information systems vision. MRP information systems helped managers determine
the quantity and timing of raw materials purchases. Information systems that
would assist managers with other parts of the manufacturing process, MRPII,
followed. While MRP was primarily concerned with materials, MRPII was concerned
with the integration of all aspects of the manufacturing process, including materials,
finance and human relations.

Like today’s ERP systems, MRPII was designed to integrate a lot of information by
way of a centralized database. However, the hardware, software, and relational
database technology of the 1980s was not advanced enough to provide the speed
and capacity to run these systems in real-time, and the cost of these systems was
prohibitive for most businesses. Nonetheless, the vision had been established, and
shifts in the underlying business processes along with rapid advances in technology
led to the more affordable enterprise and application integration systems that big
businesses and many medium and smaller businesses use today (Monk and
Wagner).

5.11.COMPUTER INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEM:

"CIM is the integration of total manufacturing enterprise by using integrated
systems and data communication coupled with new managerial philosophies that
improve organizational and personnel efficiency."

 Integration of components from different suppliers: when different

machines, such as CNC, conveyors and robots, are using different
communications protocols
 Data integrity: The higher the degree of automation, the more critical is the
integrity of the data used to control the machine
 While the CIM system saves on labor of operating the machines, it requires
 extra human labor in ensuring that there are proper safeguards for the
control data signals
 Process control: Computers may be used to assist the human operators of
manufacturing facility, but there must always be a competent engineer to
handle circumstances which could not be foreseen by SW designers
5.11.1.CIMS BENEFITS:
Integration of technologies brings following benefits:
1. Creation of a truly interactive system that enables manufacturing functions to
communicate easily with other relevant functional units
2. Accurate data transferability among manufacturing plant or subcontracting
facilities at implant or diverse locations
3. Faster responses to data-changes for manufacturing flexibility
4. Increased flexibility towards introduction of new products
5 Improved accuracy and quality in the manufacturing process (continued)
6. Improved quality of the products.
7. Control of data-flow among various units and maintenance of user-library for
system-wide data.
8. Reduction of lead times which generates a competitive advantage.
9. Streamlined manufacturing flow from order to delivery.
10. Easier training and re-training facilities.

5.12.TRENDS IN MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS:

CONCEPT OF RECONFIGURABLE MANUFACTURING:
5.12.1.Reconfigurable manufacturing systems are manufacturing systems
designed to rapidly adjust their production capacity and functionality, in response to
new circumstances (e.g., changes on product demand, production of a new product
on an existing system, integration of new process technology into existing
manufacturing systems), by rearranging or changing its components.
A historical summary of key events related to reconfigurable
manufacturing systems is available .Unlike dedicated machine systems and flexible
manufacturing systems, reconfigurable manufacturing systems do not have a fixed
capacity and functionality,and they are designed through the use of reconfigurable
hardware (e.g., modular machines) and software (e.g., open-architecture control).
Flexible, agile and reconfigurable manufacturing systems concern the
adaptation of the manufacturing system to new market conditions. While flexible
manufacturing systems address expected changes, agile manufacturing systems
concern adjustment to unexpected changes orevents.
It is a partial overlapping between agile and reconfigurable manufacturing
systems;however, while agility concerns changes for the entire enterprise, re-
configurability refers to the
responsiveness of the production system to change.
Intelligent manufacturing systems are manufacturing systems enhanced
with human-like capabilities (e.g., human-like decision Making capabilities).
Holonic manufacturing systems rely on the concept of holonic systems
Accordingly, a holon is an identifiable part of a system with a unique identity, and
consists in sub-ordinate parts belonging to a larger whole. In a holonic
manufacturing system, a holon is an autonomous and cooperative manufacturing
block for transforming, transporting, storing/
validating information and physical objects . Despite the great promise of
holonic (and multi-agent) systems, they did not make significant inroads in
manufacturing plants in use today mainly due to: lack of widely accepted
standards; their implementations cover partially the manufacturing landscape; the
use proprietary standards and mechanisms; the concept of centralized decision is
difficult to accept.

Balanced automated manufacturing systems are characterized by an optimal

mix of automated and human activities. They are designed considering the socio-
economic context and other factors, such as: production cost, level of required
flexibility, desired product quality

.Biologically inspired manufacturing systems address challenges in complex

(unpredictable)manufacturing environments based on bio-inspired approaches,
tackling aspects on self organization, learning, evolution and adaptation They
easily adapt to unforeseen changes in the manufacturing environment, usually work
well even if a desired task is poorly defined, and achieve global behaviour through
interaction among (many) units
Accordingly, there is no central designer in such an engineering system;
rather, a collection of alternatives compete against one another in an attempt to
solve a given problem, and through the process of natural selection the best
solutions tend to bubble to the top. Agents,
bio-inspired computing, evolutionary computation, bio-robotics, swarm intelligence
are the most relevant technologies and approaches for bio-inspired engineering
systems . The automated design of bio-inspired engineering systems, automatic
adjustment (e.g., to continue operating
when one of the units stops working or sudden changes in the manufacturing
environment occur) and resilience are among unsolved challenges.

5.12.2.Lean Manufacturing:
Lean is a continuous improvement philosophy which is Synonymous with Kaizen or
the Toyota Production System. The history of lean management or lean
manufacturing is traced back to the early years of Toyota and the development of
the Toyota Production System after Japan’s defeat in WWII when the company was
looking for a means to compete with the US car industry through developing and
implementing a range of low-cost improvements within their business.
In brief, lean management seeks to implement business processes that achieve
high quality, safety and worker morale, whilst reducing cost and shortening lead
times. This in itself is not unique to Japan. What sets lean management apart, and
makes it particularly effective, is that it has at its core a laser-sharp focus on the
elimination of all waste from all processes.

The Seven Wastes:

So what do we mean by waste? Here we are referring to any expenditure of

resources that doesn’t add value for the customer. In lean manufacturing there are
generally considered to be seven types of waste.

1. Over-production against plan

 2. Waiting time of operators and machines
3. Unnecessary transportation
4. Waste in the process itself
5. Excess stock of material and components
6. Non value-adding motion
7. Defects in quality

Whilst we discuss these in terms of their origins in the automotive

manufacturing industry, this same thinking can apply to almost all industries. These
wastes can all be applied, for example, to the preparation and serving of a
hamburger, logistics operations or a call centre – this thinking is not limited to
manufacturing.

Labour and Equipment Effectiveness:

We can typically look at the waste within a business process by

considering the labour and equipment effectiveness. For example for labour, there’s
usually a stark difference between the paid time for a resource and the time that
the resource is actually adding value for the customer. We can define this difference
through a series of losses.
Social Loss, for example losses due to meetings, is typically the responsibility of
management
Utilisation Loss is generally the supervisor’s responsibility, and may occur if parts
are not available or the operation is not setup such that the operator can perform
at their best.
Performance Loss is the operator’s responsibility. This includes not meeting
standard times and not following standard operating procedures.
Method Loss is the responsibility of engineering and management across the
organisation. For example, if a product was not designed to be easily manufactured
then this would be the R&D team’s responsibility.
We’re often also interested in the availability and effectiveness of equipment being
used.
Plan Loss results from scheduling equipment not to run
Stop Loss results from a changeover or breakdown
Speed Loss results from running equipment below the design speed of the
machine
Quality Loss results from producing defective parts and materials
Analysis of equipment effectiveness is especially important to focus on when
dealing with high-cost equipment, such as in drilling, mining or the airline industry.
In these cases a business is only making money or providing value when its
equipment is operating.

Field Inspections:

Rather than talk about theory, let’s look at a couple of examples from industry. I’ve
chosen this first example as an introduction to two fundamental approaches used in
lean management, time studies and work sampling. This example is for an
Australian power utility and focuses on the field asset inspection process. Utility
companies, whether they be power, water, gas, or telecommunications have a
responsibility to continually assess the condition of their assets, and this is
especially true for utilities operating in a regulated environment. A power utility
typically has dozens of asset inspectors operating in the field.
The task of the asset inspector, in simple terms, is to carry out a series of visual
inspections for a pole and its associated infrastructure (wires, insulators,
transformers, etc.) and report on the current condition and any abnormalities. This
task involves differing levels of complexity depending on terrain, configuration at
the top of the pole, and reporting requirements and can take anywhere from 5 to
40 minutes for a single pole.

Time studies:

Time studies and work sampling can be used to analyse asset inspection process.
Time studies involve analysing individual cycles of a process, in this case the
inspection of a single pole. The motion of the inspector and movement of tools is
recorded and each individual element (step) in the process is listed along with the
time required to complete it.
…a technique of establishing an allowed time standard for performing a given task,
based on measurement of the work content of the prescribed (standard) method,
with due allowance for fatigue and for personal or unavoidable delays.
Definition of time study, from: Salvendy, G. Handbook of Industrial Engineering,
Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1992.
Time studies are used to help us understand:
- What elements (steps) exist within the process?
- What order are they performed?
- Does a standard operating procedure exist, and is it being adhered to?
- Is there variability in the way the process is run from cycle to cycle, or between
inspectors?
We can then use the results of the time study to understand where improvements
can be made to reduce the time required for the task and improve consistency.
Improvements are found through analysing each element and then working through
a process of eliminate, combine, rearrange and simplify.
Eliminate – Question whether or not the work or operation can be omitted, and
eliminate those which are unnecessary. It is necessary to consider elimination
before any other improvements.
Combine and Separate – For those operations which cannot be eliminated, study
the manner in which they should be performed. The study should be done without
bias from accepted ideas or prejudice. Attempt to reorganize work in as simple a
way as possible. This is combination and separation.
Rearrange and Substitute – Consider questions such as when to do, in what
order, how can work be done easily, etc.
Simplify – Consider improvements to make each operation simple and easy, to
shorten distances, to lessen weight etc.
An example of each in the context of the asset inspection example is given here:
Eliminate – Remove the need for the inspector to walk around the car to fetch
tools, by storing tools on the same side of the car as the inspector.
Combine and Separate – Merge the tasks of wire inspection by binoculars and
photographing top of pole by providing inspector with binoculars that include a
camera function.
Rearrange and Substitute – This can refer to changing the order of the
elements or changing the layout of the work area. An example of the later would be
to attach lighter tools required for the inspection to the inspector and attach other
tools to a board which can be easily attached and detached to the pole (e.g. by use
of magnets).
Simplify – Reduce the time required to upload photos during each inspection by
using wireless upload to laptop rather than wired upload.
Through some simple changes and low-cost improvements, its possible to develop a
standard layout and procedure that allows the inspector to complete 58% more
inspections in the same amount of time.

Standard Work

Time studies play a role in the development of standard work, often defined as
standard operating procedures (SOPs). Standard work plays a critical role in
achieving the following:
- Determine the capacity of equipment and facilities
- Enable effective work scheduling, maximizing output and utilization
- Give management data to trace the difference between standard and actual times
- Compare the time needed for different work methods
- Evaluate the productivity of equipment to be purchased
- Facilitate efficient layout of the production floor
- Balance work force with the available work
- Facilitate accurate cost determination in advance of actual production
- Identify and resolve safety and quality issues

Work Sampling

Work sampling is often used together with time studies. The purpose of work
sampling is to understand how an operator uses his or her time during the course
of a day’s work. A record of activities is taken at a set interval, for example every
minute, and a day is summarised according to time spent performing main tasks,
performing auxiliary tasks and idle.
The purpose of work sampling is to help identify how more time can be allowed for
performing main (value-adding) tasks as opposed to auxiliary tasks such as setup
and shutdown, and tasks that are not work-related.
Although not the main role of work sampling, the mere act of carrying out a work
sampling activity can help in identifying a wide range of improvement topics
relevant to the task be studied.
 Lean Concepts and Tools

So these were just a couple of examples, with a focus on wasted

movement (6th in the list of wastes above) because it is easy to visualise. Lean
management and lean manufacturing encompasses so much more. Some of the
concepts and tools that are commonly encountered in lean are shown here.
- Process Levelling and Flow
- Performance Management
- Push vs Pull Production
- Visual Management
- Standardisation
- Target Setting
- 5S
- TPM
- SMED
- Kanban
- Pokayoke
- Just-In-Time
However, lean is not so much about using a set of tools to implement
spot changes, but more about how to foster continuous and sustained
improvement across companies – and this is an area that Japanese companies
are particularly strong in and an area where much of the English literature available
on lean is lacking.

5S:

5S is a set of practices that is the foundation of a lean company. A simple definition

of the five practices follows:
Seiri (Sort) – Identify and separate the necessary, occasionally used and
unnecessary items.
Seiton (Set in Order) – Arrange necessary and occasionally used items into clear
designated storage positions.
Seiso (Shine) – Thoroughly clean the workplace and equipment. Cleaning is an
inspection.
Seiketsu (Standardise) – Visual aids, 5S manuals, 5S audits. Standardise 1-3S.
Shitsuke (Sustain) – Practice 5S to the point where it is a natural part of your
work.

In Japan there are entire books devoted to the practice of 5S, and
different companies have different interpretations and implementations of these
practices to suit their own requirements and philosophy. A few visual examples
follow:

Above: The process of simply carrying out 2S, that is Sort and Set in Place, makes
it easier to find tools when needed, and with less chance of injury.
When there is a defined place for everything, such as in the example above, or
when using shadow boards, it is very easy to understand if something is missing
with one glance. This helps avoid stoppages to search for tools in a manufacturing
environment, and in some environments such as hospitals, can mean the difference
between life and death in an emergency situation.

Simply setting and maintaining a defined order for manuals in this nurse’s station in
Japan reduced the amount of document-related work time by more than half. Note
the use of the yellow and pink tape, which allows us to tell if anything is missing or
in the wrong place with one glance.

The above photo is from a foundry in Japan, the use of standard layouts here helps
shop floor managers determine with one glance if production is ahead or behind. If
there are no completed products at the position where the flags are, this represents
a situation whereby production is behind.

This steel coil handling facility near Nagoya represents a fine example of 5S
achievement. The productivity, quality and safety outcomes of such a work
environment are significant. This provides a foundation allowing for standard work,
visual management, and other elements of lean management to be applied
effectively.

Kanban

Toyota is one of the largest companies in the world, ranking at about 14th in terms
of revenue and with 300,000 employees globally. The company manufactures
approximately 10 million cars per year. If we were to assume 30,000 parts to each
car on average, that’s 300 billion parts handled annually as part of Toyota’s global
operations.
It may be surprising to learn that the scheduling and inventory management
system at the heart of these operations is not a complex enterprise resource
planning system, but a remarkably simple concept – that of the kanban card.
There’s a lesson here for the future CIO or CTO that the best solution for handling
complexity isn’t always going to be a high-cost cutting edge information system. By
considering process first and then system, Toyota could identify this tool as being
an appropriate solution to help manage their supply chain.
The use of kanban is governed by a simple set of rules. The kanban rules are as
follows:
1. Take kanban off container when you use the first part
2. Next process gets kanban from previous process
3. Only produce the product and volume specified on the triggered kanban
4. Don’t produce anything without a kanban
5. Always transport product with a kanban
6. Don’t use anything without a kanban attached

Whilst the concept is simple, use of kanban is not recommended

for most companies. Proper implementation of kanban requires strict discipline to
be effective, and without a good foundation of 5S and other lean fundamentals,
implementation of kanban is destined for failure. Some of the best lean companies
in Japan, such as Rinnai, waited 10 years after commencing their lean journey
before considering the use of kanban – without the lean fundamentals and culture
properly established, a kanban system can be damaging.
5.12.3. Sustainable Manufacturing:
The link between manufacturing and its operations to the natural environment is
gradually becoming recognized. Progress, profitability, productivity and
environmental stewardship are now seen as needing consideration by
manufacturing organizations. Improving environmental stewardship and
sustainability, while maintaining profitability and productivity, are increasingly
viewed as strategic goals of manufacturing companies.
5.12.3.1. Manufacturing and the Environment
Traditionally strategies for manufacturing have considered production
process comparisons for the volume/variety matrix of the products . Today,
manufacturing strategies generally account for products and processes, as well as
other parameters like practices, so as to incorporate organizational and
philosophical elements of manufacturing strategy.
This yields more general viewpoint. A technological dimension is included,
since manufacturing is heavily technologically driven.
Manufacturing operations and the natural environment are becoming increasingly
linked.
The technology category relating to the environment and manufacturing is
affected by the following three factors:
Product: The manufacturing strategy for environmentally benign products often
involves a design process which accounts for environmental impacts over the life of
the product. Consequently it is normally associated with the use of design for
environment (DFE) and life
cycle analysis (LCA) methods. Designing products to be environmentally benign can
contribute to their successful introduction and maintenance. Product flexibility, for
example, allows for environmental improvements, like materials substitution, while
retaining competitiveness. The expected decrease in product life cycles with
increased product customization is likely to make flexibility increasingly important.
Process: Environmental improvements related to manufacturing processes are
linked to reduction, reuse, recycling and remanufacturing. Zero-emission (i.e.,
closed-loop) manufacturing views the manufacturing system as an industrial
ecosystem, and requires the reuse of wastes or
by-products within the manufacturing system. Thus, zero-emission manufacturing
requires capabilities for pollution prevention (e.g., substitution) and waste reuse.
Flexible manufacturing also requires the capability for material flexibility, and
manufacturing equipment that can
accommodate variations in material flows can assist in enhancing sustainability
while maintaining competitiveness. For instance, more efficient and recyclable
packaging designs can make packaging more sustainable.
Practices: An important environmentally-based influence on organizational
manufacturing practices is ISO 14000 certification, which can support
organizational practices but does not make environmental improvements a
certainty on its own . Practices can be used strategically
to improve manufacturing, through such other activities as benchmarking and
performance measurement, since such schemes assist managers in developing and
maintaining new environmental programs and technology.
These three factors overlap in some areas and are interdependent and synergistic.
5.12.3.2. Manufacturing and Sustainability
Sustainable manufacturing evolved from the concept of sustainable development,
which was coined in the 1980s to address concerns about environmental impact,
economic development, globalization, in equities and other factors. Sustainable
production was introduced at the 1992 UNCED conference in Rio de Janeiro as a
guide to help companies and governments transition towards sustainable
development.
Research into these areas is ongoing by many [23]. Several definitions
exist for sustainable manufacturing and production. For instance, sustainable
manufacturing is defined by the U.S. Department of Commerce defines as “the
creation of manufactured products that use processes that minimize negative
environmental impacts, conserve energy and natural resources, are safe for
employees, communities, and consumers and are economically sound,” while the
Lowell Center for
Sustainable Production defines sustainable production as “the creation of goods and
services using processes and systems that are Non-polluting, conserving of energy
and natural resources, economically viable, safe and healthful for workers,
communities, and consumers, socially and creatively rewarding for all working
people”.
Sustainability has been interpreted in many ways, considering various
requirements for many applications and different objectives. For manufacturing
applications, the definition of sustainability requires refinement. Companies have
developed and applied numerous approaches for integrating sustainability into
industrial operations, including people planet profits, sustainable management,
ecological sustainability, and the “triple bottom line” method. The latter method is
described by Elkington as a business case for sustainability, which involves a
holistic approach relying on the principles of economic prosperity, environmental
stewardship and corporate responsibility.
To accelerate sustainable industrial production by diffusing knowledge,
facilitating benchmarking of products and production processes, and promoting eco-
innovation, development of new technological and systemic solutions to global
environmental challenges.
There are four primary categories of input resources to manufacturing
organizations, as shown on the left side of Table 1. These lead to corresponding
outputs, shown on the right side of Table 1. Business generally seeks to reconfigure
physical, human, information and
financial resources so that the financial resources exiting the system are larger than
those that enter. Sustainability requires that corporations satisfy social and
environmental objectives or constraints while undertaking this reconfiguration.
Inputs Corresponding outputs:
Economic resources- Wealth, profits
Human resources -Education, training, skills
Natural and artificial resources- Products, goods
Information resources- Knowledge, know-how
Many aspects of sustainability in the context of manufacturing have been
investigated, particularly in recent years. For instance modelling and optimization
challenges to sustainable manufacturing have been examined by Jayal et al.,
considering the product, process and system levels.
A framework for sustainable production has been proposed by Nasr et al.
Who also provide a strategic approach to remanufacturing, which the authors
identify as a key enabler to sustainable production. Approaches and methodologies
for design sustainable supply chains and an evaluation of their performance have
been described by Shuaib et al. as have novel approaches to reverse logistics and
closed loop supply chains .
The evolution of the sustainability of manufacturing anticipated by the
authors is described in Table 2. Traditional uses for manufacturing were developed
without a focus on sustainability .Investments in plants and corresponding
improvement and optimization efforts have typically been driven by increased
productivity, reduced operating costs and work effort, and enforced regulatory
compliance. Business decisions can increase the utilization efficiency of energy,
materials, human and
information resources as well as related technology and equipment.
Future manufacturing systems are likely to be based on strategies
that seek to optimize the capability to meet immediate facility needs in a way that
enhances the environmental quality of future generations and the business
prospects for the company in the future. The energy systems for manufacturing
facilities have advanced to improve operating cost structures, including load
curtailment and shedding, and energy monitoring, as well as control of generators,
HVAC systems, and thermal plants. The anticipated approaches in Table 2 can help
meet the goals of sustainability.
Table 2. Possible future evolution of the sustainability of manufacturing

.
The successful implementation of sustainability into manufacturing
organizations is dependent on many factors. Some examples follow:
Information: The quantitative and qualitative information required to make
assessments is needed, e.g., the quantity and type of metal a process uses, the
quantity and type of pollutants emitted. However, such information is not always
readily available and can be sometimes be
difficult if not impossible to acquire.
Management and culture: Sustainability issues, e.g., environmental
stewardship efforts, tend to be dealt with in specialized departments rather than
holistically by management. This can lead to inconsistent application and tends to
discourage the development of a sustainability-oriented culture in the organization.
Procedures: Decision makers and staff are often not provided with the
methodologies and procedures needed to ensure an organization’s sustainability
objectives and strategies are applied effectively, efficiently, consistently and
robustly. One reason for this problem is that the number
of variables to be taken into account in decision-making is usually very large.
Employees need to take sustainability issues into account effectively in decision
making and actions if sustainability objectives are to be achieved.
5.12.3.3. Models for Manufacturing and Improved Sustainability
Various models have been developed for implementing sustainability in
manufacturing by improving the sustainability of manufacturing. Recently,
frameworks for sustainable manufacturing, production and supply chains have been
put forth [26,27], and modeling and optimization tools have
been developed [25]. Harland et al. [34] propose an environmental health and
safety technology engagement model (Table 3) that illustrates the potential for
implementing sustainability objectives during the development of a product or
process.
This model includes three phases: research, development and
commercialization. A significant time period, often lasting years, is normally
involved in designing a new manufacturing product or process, and Table 3 shows
the potential for implementing sustainability objectives differs with the time and
phase of development.
Manufacturing engineers and designers need to recognize this
dependence to integrate sustainability effectively into processes or products. Rather
than considering the environmental factors only at one point in the product or
process development cycle, a long-term commitment over the entire design
process, from early research to process development, is usually more effective for
integrating sustainability into manufacturing .
Sustainability can be addressed in each of the three phases of the model:
Research: The first significant opportunity to influence the design process for
sustainability is during the research phase at the pre-competitive level. At this
phase, specific sustainability requirements and not-yet regulated concerns can be
evaluated and examined, e.g., energy and resource use, pollution and climate
change impacts. Early evaluation helps to ensure appropriateattention to
sustainability at a time when it can be affected greatly, e.g., research can focus on
solving manufacturing environmental issues.
Development: During the development phase, effort to improve environmental
performance is focused on system design and equipment selection using
appropriate methods tools and methods,e.g., design for environment,
environmental footprint assessment, and life cycle analysis.
Collaboration with vendors helps promote environmental improvements. The
potential formodifications that enhance sustainability characteristics is high during
this phase.
Commercialization: The efforts introduced during the development phase are
extended and refined during commercialization activities, and involve cooperation
with suppliers, vendors and customers.
Table 3. Model for potential for implementing sustainability in manufacturing *.

The semiconductor equipment company Intel is an example of a

company that strives to build sustainability into its products and processes prior to
commercialization . Intel operates under a two-year model for new product
development, alternating between silicon manufacturing technology one year and
microprocessor architecture the next.
This model introduces a new manufacturing process technology in the
first year, allowing, for instance, reductions in semiconductor size and the
subsequent manufacture of more semiconductors on a single wafer or placement of
more transistors in an equivalent space. In the second year, this model introduces
a new chip architecture or design with the same manufacturing technology. Each
step provides the opportunity to establish objectives and strategies to reduce
environmental impact, and Intel has worked with suppliers of semiconductor
manufacturing equipment and materials to improve the environmental performance
of various technologies using this approach.
5.12.3.4. Needs to Enhance Manufacturing Sustainability
The present examination highlights the importance of integrating sustainability,
design for environment, life cycle assessment and other tools with manufacturing
and relevant decision making structures. Several specific needs exist to enhance
further manufacturing sustainability:
Approach: A more comprehensive, broad and integrated approach is needed for
sustainability, which encompasses economic, social, environmental and other
relevant considerations. An approach that goes beyond individual companies can
make the manufacturing industry
more sustainable.
Methods and tools: Enhanced methods and tools for manufacturing are needed
to foster and support sustainability.
Data: More detailed, comprehensive and robust data are needed to support
environmental impact and sustainability assessments, and measures across the
overall product life cycle. Such data needs to be standardized where feasible.
manufacturing company practices: Manufacturing companies should
incorporate sustainability into their practices holistically. Practices that would be
helpful include: improved measuring and monitoring of sustainability indicators by
companies, company policies and governance
that focus on sustainability, improved efforts to control a company’s environmental
impact, establishing a sustainability-supportive company culture and working
conditions, enhancing awareness of sustainability among suppliers and customers,
responding to their requirements and
measures, and engaging the community to promote sustainability.
Government policies: Governments and relevant agencies need to incorporate
into policies, programs and operations stronger consideration of sustainability,
environmental factors, and clean processes. This requires cooperation between
internal and external partners.
Research: Significant collaborative research is needed in industry and academia
in the fields of sustainability, manufacturing, design and environmental impact.
5.12.3.5. Importance of Manufacturing Sustainability
The importance of adopting sustainable manufacturing measures and strategies by
companies are numerous and are becoming increasingly recognized. For instance,
climate change is increasingly seen
as caused by anthropomorphic activities and potentially having very serious
consequences, while resources (e.g., energy, materials, water) are now seen as
subject to scarcities and in many cases non renewability
that can affect operations.
Also, the global economic crisis of the last several years has raised
questions about the viability and ultimately sustainability of existing business
practices that aim for economic growth, but pay little attention to mitigating the
negative impacts beyond the company. As a consequence, pressures for sustainable
manufacturing have become increasingly put forward by many stakeholders, e.g.,
employees, investors, suppliers, customers, competitors, communities,
governments, regulatory bodies.