Professional Documents
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Session = 2K17-2K21.
List of Experiments
10 Study and Analysis of Three Phase Star Connected RLC Series Branch
11 Modeling of RLC loads;
➢ Star connected Balanced RLC loads
➢ Star connected Unbalanced RLC loads
➢ Delta connected Balanced RLC loads
➢ Delta connected Unbalanced RLC loads
12 “To Improve the Power Factor using Capacitor Bank on ETAP 12.06”
13 “Study of HVAC and HVDC transmission system”
14 “Comparison between Overhead and Underground system”
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Experiment # 1
Objective:
Introduction to Power Transmission System
Theory:
Introduction:
In early days, there was a little demand for electrical energy so that small power stations were
built to supply lighting and heating loads. However, the widespread use of electrical energy by
modern civilisation has necessitated to produce bulk electrical energy economically and
efficiently.
The increased demand of electrical energy can be met by building big power stations at
favourable places where fuel (coal or gas) or water energy is available in abundance. This has
shifted the site of power stations to places quite away from the consumers.
The electrical energy produced at the power stations has to be supplied to the consumers. There
is a large network of conductors between the power station and the consumers. This network
can be broadly divided into two parts viz., transmission and distribution.
Electric Supply System:
The conveyance of electric power from a power station to consumers’ premises is known
as electric supply system.
Main Components of Electric Supply System:
An electric supply system consists of three principal components viz., the power station, the
transmission lines, the distribution system and finally the utilization.
Power Generation Electric power is produced at the power stations which are
located at favourable places, generally quite away from the
consumers.
Power Transmission It is then transmitted over large distances to load centres with
the help of conductors known as transmission lines.
Fig. 7.1.shows the layout of a typical a.c. power supply scheme by a single line diagram. It may
be noted that it is not necessary that all power schemes include all the stages shown in the
figure.
Reason of step up voltage in transmission:
The primary reason to step up voltage in transmission is to increase efficiency of power
system. When we steps up the voltage through transformer the current steps down as the input
and output power of transformer remain same. When current steps down the I^2R losses and
size of conductor reduced.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Generating station • G.S. represents the generating station where electric power is
produced by 3-phase alternators operating in parallel.
Primary transmission • Generally the primary transmission is carried at 66 kV, 132 kV,
220 kV or 400 kV.
Conductors They carry the electric power from sending end stations to the receiving
end stations.
Supports They may be the poles or towers and keep the conductors at a suitable
level from the ground.
Insulators They are attached to the supports and insulate the conductors from the
ground.
Transmission line insulations havetwo functions:
• To insulate energized components from earthed structures at
rated operating voltages and specified switching and lightning
impulses.
• To support the conductor system up to ultimate mechanical load
limits and transfers the mechanical load to structure.
Miscellaneous They include phase plates, danger plates, lightning arrestors, anti
Items climbing wires etc.
Transmission line It has many functions as:
earth
• Provide an electrical path for lightning and fault current to earth.
• Ensure the safety of people.
• Provide an earth (i.e zero) potential reference to ground under
normal circuit conditions for the dissipation of leakage current.
Types of Transmission:
There are two types of transmission of voltages:
1. AC transmission
2. DC transmission
The electric power can be transmitted either by means of d.c. or a.c. Each system has its own
merits and demerits. It is, therefore, desirable to discuss the technical advantages and
disadvantages of the two systems for transmission of electric power.
D.C. transmission.
For some years past, the transmission of electric power by d.c. has been receiving the active
consideration of engineers due to its numerous advantages.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Advantages.
The high voltage d.c. transmission has the following advantages over high voltage a.c.
transmission :
(i) It requires only two conductors as compared to three for a.c. transmission.
(ii) There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems in d.c.
transmission.
(iii) Due to the absence of inductance, the voltage drop in a d.c. transmission line is less than
the a.c. line for the same load and sending end voltage. For this reason, a d.c. transmission line
has better voltage regulation.
(iv) There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire cross-section of the line conductor
is utilised.
(v) For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation is less in case of d.c.
system than that in a.c. system. Therefore, a d.c. line requires less insulation.
(vi) A d.c. line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication circuits.
(vii) The high voltage d.c. transmission is free from the dielectric losses, particularly in the case
of cables.
(viii) In d.c. transmission, there are no stability problems and synchronising difficulties.
Disadvantages:
(i) Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c. voltage due to commutation problems.
(ii) The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission of power at high voltages.
(iii) The d.c. switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations.
A.C. transmission.
Now-a-days, electrical energy is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed in
the form of a.c.
Advantages
(i) The power can be generated at high voltages.
(ii) The maintenance of a.c. sub-stations is easy and cheaper.
(iii) The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformers with ease and
efficiency. This permits to transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at safe potentials.
Disadvantages
(i) An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line.
(ii) The construction of a.c. transmission line is more complicated than a d.c. transmission line.
(iii) Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the line is increased.
(iv) Ana.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss of power due to charging
current even when the line is open.
A General Comparison between AC and DC Transmission:
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
AC transmission DC transmission
Power:
Power is the rate of doing work or the rate of transmitting heat that is the amount of
energy transferred or converted per unit time. It has no direction, so it’s a scalar quantity.
P=V.I
What is a Watt: Unit of Power:
The unit of power is the watt which is denoted by the symbol W and it is named after the
Scottish engineer James Watt (1736–1819).
• Electrical definition of the watt: One watt is the rate at which work is done when a
current of one ampere, I of current flows through a network which has an electrical potential
difference of one volt, V. W = V I
• Mechanical definition of the watt: One watt is the rate at which work is done when the
velocity of an object is held constant at one metre per second against constant opposing
force of one newton.
Types of Power:
Basically there are three types of Power:
1- Active or Real Power (P)
2- Reactive Power (Q)
3- Apparent Power (S)
Active Power: The power which is actually consumed or utilized in an AC Circuit is called
True power or Active Power or real power. It is measured in kilowatt (kW) or MW.
When an active component of current is multiplied by the circuit voltage V, it results in active
power. It is this power which produces torque in the motor, heat in the heater, etc. This power is
measured by the wattmeter.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Reactive Power: The power which flows back and forth that means it moves in both the
direction in the circuit or reacts upon it, is called Reactive Power. The reactive power is
measured in kilovolt-ampere reactive (kVAR) or MVAR.
When the reactive component of the current is multiplied by the circuit voltage, it gives reactive
power. This power determines the power factor, and it flows back and forth in the circuit.
Apparent Power: The product of root mean square (RMS) value of voltage and current is
known as Apparent Power. This power is measured in KVA or MVA.When the circuit current
is multiplied by the circuit voltage, it results in apparent power.
Power Triangle:
Power Triangle is the representation of a right angle triangle showing the relation between
active power, reactive power and apparent power.
When each component of the current that is the active component (Icosϕ) or the reactive
component (Isinϕ) is multiplied by the voltage V, a power triangle is obtained shown in the
figure below:
Power Factor:
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
The cosine of the phase difference between Voltage and Current is basically known as the
Power Factor.
Or
The power factor PF or cosθis the ratio between the power that can be used in electric circuit
(real power, P) to the power from the result of multiplication of voltage and current (apparent
power, S).
This factor (-1 <cosφ<1 )represents the fraction of the total power that is used to do the useful
work. The other fraction of electrical power is stored in the form of magnetic energy or
electrostatic energy in the inductor and capacitor respectively.
Range: It ranges from zero to one.
Power Factor cosθ = Active Power/ Apparent Power = kW/kVA = VIcosθ/VI = cosθ
Conclusion:
In this lab, we have studied a brief introduction of the Power Transmission system and major
components of the transmission system. We also studied about the two types of transmission
system and compared them as well. We studied the types of power i.e Apparent, active and
reactive power. We also studied the Power factor and all the related formulae.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Experiment # 02
Objective:
Study and Analysis of Three Phase Star Connected Resistive
Load
Apparatus:
➢ Cables
➢ Resistive Load
➢ Ammeter
➢ Voltmeter
Theory:
Resistive Load:
Any electrical load can be represented in the general form R+jX , that is, as a combination of
resistance (R) and reactance (X). If reactance (X) is zero, only resistance (R) remains and the
load is said to be resistive.
Example of Resistive Load: The simplest example of resistive load is an incandescent lamp or
a nichrome wire heater.
Power Factor: Power Factor of a resistive Load is Unity.
Reactive Power in a Resistive Load: The resistive load does not contain the reactive part. The
resistive load draws active current. The reactive current is absent in resistive loads.
As cosθ = 1
This means θ = 0 (The current and voltage are in phase with each other)
Q = S sinθ
As sin(0) = 0
Q = S (0)
Q=0
Real and Apparent Power: The real power and apparent power is equal if the load is resistive.
The power factor is unity for the resistive loads. The resistive loads consume real power from
the supply source. The real or active power consumed by resistive load is;
P= V^2/R
or
P= I^2 *R
The real and apparent power is same in the resistive loads because
Cosθ = 1
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
As P = S cosθ
Cosθ = 1
P = S(1)
P=S
Pure Resistive AC Circuit:
The circuit containing only a pure resistance of R ohms in the AC circuit is known as Pure
Resistive AC Circuit.
The presence of inductance and capacitance does not exist in a purely resistive circuit. The
alternating current and voltage both move forward as well as backwards in both the direction of
the circuit. Hence, the alternating current and voltage follows a shape of the Sine wave or
known as the sinusoidal waveform.
The wires are carried to the external circuit, giving three-phase, three-wire star connected
systems. However, sometimes a fourth wire is carried from the star point to the external circuit,
called neutral wire, forming three-phase, four-wire star connected systems.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Considering the above figure, the finish terminals a2, b2, and c2 of the three windings are
connected to form a star or neutral point.
The three conductors named as R, Y and B run from the remaining three free terminals as
shown in the above figure.
R as Red Wire
The current flowing through each phase is called Phase current Iph, and the current flowing
through each line conductor is called Line Current IL. Similarly, the voltage across each phase
is called Phase Voltage Eph, and the voltage across two line conductors is known as the Line
Voltage EL.
So in the star connected Load, the Line current is equal to the phase current
IL = Iph
Connection Scheme:
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Procedure:
1) Check all the wires if they are in working condition with the help of multi meter.
2) Connect positive side of Phase A of the Trainer to the positive side of the Resistive
Load (R1).
3) Connect positive side of Phase B of the trainer to the positive side of the Resistive Load
(R2)
4) Connect positive side of Phase C of the trainer to the positive side of the Resistive Load
(R3)
5) Common all the negative terminals of the supply side as well as the three resistive loads
and connect them to the neutral of the trainer.
6) The above stated connections will make a 3phase star connected load
7) Connect the potential earth of the load trainer to the supply trainer.
8) Set the trainer at supply frequency = 50Hz and Supply Voltage = 50V.
9) Insert a voltmeter in parallel to the phase and neutral to find out the phase voltage.
10) Insert an ammeter in series to find the phase current.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
11) The values of phase voltages and phase currents will be same for all the three phases
A,B and C as it is a balanced load (irrespective of the angle difference).
12) Turn on the fuses of the trainer to ensure safety while performing the experiment.
13) Perform the experiment for another balanced 3 phase resistive load as well.
14) Note down the values in the observations table
Trainer Connections:
Table of Observations:
VL 52.15V 49.02V
IL 135.9 mA 42.2 mA
Q(var) 0 0
Conclusion:
In this lab we have studied about the 3 phase star connected resistive load and performed the
experiment how to connect the load to make a star connection keeping in view all the necessary
safety requirements. We also analyzed the phase volatges, phase currents and how to determine
the line currents and line voltages from them using the related formulae. We also determined
the Active, Reactive and Apparent Power in case of Resistive Loads. We performed the same
experiment for another value of resistances.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Experiment # 03
Objective:
Study and Analysis of Three Phase Star Connected Inductive
Load
Apparatus:
➢ Cables
➢ Inductive Load
➢ Ammeter
➢ Voltmeter
➢ 3 phase Supply
Theory:
Inductive Load:
Inductive Loads, also called Lagging Loads or Inductive Load Banks or Inductive Reactive
Loads or Power Factor Loads, are AC loads that are predominantly inductive in nature so that
the alternating current lags behind the alternating voltage when the current flows into the load.
Any devices or equipment that has coils in them are inductive in nature.
The inductor is a type of coil which reserves electrical energy in the magnetic field when the
current flow through it. The inductor is made up of wire which is wound in the form of a coil.
When the current flowing through inductor changes then time-varying magnetic field causes
emf which obstruct the flow of current.
Examples of inductive load are motors, solenoids, contactor coils, compressors, speakers,
relays, transformers, inductors, power generators, etc.
Inductive Loads are the loads in which the Current lags the voltage by a phase angle of 90° or
П/2. Inductive loads take time to develop their magnetic field when the voltage is applied, so
the current is delayed.
Power Factor: The power factor of inductive loads is always lagging and they are less than
unity.
Consider a pure inductive element connected across an AC Supply. The alternating voltage
applied is denoted by the equation,
v = Vmsinωt
Let the current flowing in the circuit be of magnitude ‘I’. The electrical energy flowing in the
circuit is stored in the form of the magnetic field in the inductor(L).
𝑑𝑖
𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Let us find out the equation of current ‘I’ that flows in the circuit. When the current starts
flowing the applied voltage equals to the voltage induced in the inductor
𝑑𝑖
𝐿 =𝑣
𝑑𝑡
Substituting v =Vmsinωt
𝑑𝑖
𝐿 = 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 =
𝐿
𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡
∫ = ∫ 𝑑𝑖
𝐿
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
𝑉𝑚
𝑖= (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡)
𝜔𝐿
𝑉𝑚 П
𝑖= (sin −( − 𝜔𝑡))
𝜔𝐿 2
𝑽𝒎
𝒊= (𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − П/𝟐))
𝝎𝑳
When sin reaches its maximum value ‘i’ will also reach its maximum value (Im)
𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 =
𝜔𝐿
So,
𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 (𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − П/𝟐))
v = Vmsinωt
𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 (𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − П/𝟐))
It is very much clear from the above given equation that the current lags the voltage by an angle
of 90° or П/2.
Phasor Diagram:
V = Vmsinωt
90°
I =Imsinωt
Inductive Reactance:
As Vm/Im = ωL
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
XL = 2ПfL
Equations for Power Consumed in the circuit:
The Power consumed in the circuit is of two types:
1. Instantaneous Power
2. Average Power
• The average power in one alteration, i.e., in a half cycle is zero, as the negative and
positive loop is under power curve is the same.
• In the purely inductive circuit, during the first quarter cycle, the power supplied by the
source, is stored in the magnetic field set up around the coil. In the next quarter cycle,
the magnetic field diminishes and the power that was stored in the first quarter cycle is
returned to the source.
This process continues in every cycle, and thus, no power is consumed in the circuit.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Formulae:
Some of the formulae which are being used in this experiment are:
Vline = √3(Vph)
Iline = Iph
XL = 2ПfL
Sph = 3 VphIph
Qph = Iph2 XL
Qtotal = 3Qph
θ = tan-1(Q/P)
Connection Scheme:
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Procedure:
1) Check all the wires if they are in working condition with the help of multi meter.
2) Connect positive side of Phase A of the Trainer to the positive side of the Inductive
Load (R1).
3) Connect positive side of Phase B of the trainer to the positive side of the Inductive Load
(R2)
4) Connect positive side of Phase C of the trainer to the positive side of the Inductive Load
(R3)
5) Common all the negative terminals of the supply side as well as the three inductive
loads and connect them to the neutral of the trainer.
6) The above stated connections will make a 3phase star connected load
7) Connect the potential earth of the load trainer to the supply trainer.
8) Set the trainer at supply frequency = 50Hz and Supply Voltage = 50V.
9) Insert a voltmeter in parallel to the phase and neutral to find out the phase voltage.
10) Insert an ammeter in series to find the phase current.
11) The values of phase voltages and phase currents will be same for all the three phases
A,B and C as it is a balanced load (irrespective of the angle difference).
12) Turn on the fuses of the trainer to ensure safety while performing the experiment.
13) Perform the experiment for another balanced 3 phase inductive load as well.
14) Note down the values in the observations table
Trainer Connections:
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Table of Observations:
Conclusion:
In this lab we have studied about the 3 phase star connected inductive load and performed the
experiment how to connect the load to make a star connection keeping in view all the necessary
safety requirements. We also analyzed the phase volatges, phase currents and how to determine
the line currents and line voltages from them using the related formulae. We also determined
the Active, Reactive and Apparent Power in case of Resistive Loads. We performed the same
experiment for another value of inductances
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Experiment # 04
Objective:
Study and Analysis of Three Phase Star Connected Capacitive
Load
Apparatus:
➢ Cables
➢ Capacitive Load
➢ Ammeter
➢ Voltmeter
➢ 3 phase supply
Theory:
Capacitive Load:
Capacitive loads are the ones involving capacitors and components which make the overall load
leading, the current leading the voltage in phase.
Definition with respect to V and I
In a capacitive load, current and voltage are out of phase as with an inductive load. The
difference is that in the case of a capacitive load, the current reaches its maximum value
before the voltage does. The current waveform leads the voltage waveform.
Example – Capacitor Banks
In engineering, capacitive loads do not exist in a stand-alone format. No devices are
classified as capacitive in the way lightbulbs are categorized as resistive, and air conditioners
are labeled inductive.
Capacitors in large circuits are useful, however, in controlling power use. They are often
included at electrical substations to improve the overall "power factor" of the system.
Inductive loads increase the cost of a given power system and reduce the amount of power
that is converted to another form of energy.
Rating of Capacitor Banks: The rating of capacitor banks are in VAR,kVAR or MVAR.
They supply reactive power to the system.
Let Q be the reactive power of the system before the installation of capacitor.
Let Q’ be the reactive power after the installation of capacitor bank
If Qc is the VAR rating of the installed capacitor bank it means
Qc = Q – Q’
Power Factor of Capacitive Loads :Additionally, capacitors draw current that leads the
voltage sinusoidal waveform by 90° - they have a leading power factor. This contrasts with
motors and other inductive machines that have a lagging power factor. Accordingly, capacitor
banks can be added to systems with motors as a counteractive element to bring the power factor
as close as possible to unity; this minimises the flow of unproductive, unwanted reactive
currents in a circuit.
Unit of Capacitance: The unit of Capacitance in Farad (F)
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
From the above equation it is quite clear that the current leads the voltage by 90° or П/2.
Phasor Diagram:
V = Vmsinωt
Capacitive Reactance:
As Vm/Im = 1/ωC
Comparing it with Ohm’s Law
V/I = R
So we can say that 1/ωC is basically the opposition offered to the flow of AC current in the
capacitive circuit. The term 1/ωC is known as the Capacitive Reactance and it is denoted by
Xc. Its unit is ohm(Ω) as well.
XC = 1/ωC
XL = 1/2ПfC
Equations for Power Consumed in the circuit:
The Power consumed in the circuit is of two types:
1. Instantaneous Power
2. Average Power
• Hence, from the above equation, it is clear that the average power in the capacitive
circuit is zero.
• The average power in a half cycle is zero as the positive and negative loop area in the
waveform shown are same.
• In the first quarter cycle, the power which is supplied by the source is stored in the
electric field set up between the capacitor plates. In the another or next quarter cycle, the
electric field diminishes, and thus the power stored in the field is returned to the source.
This process is repeated continuously and, therefore, no power is consumed by the
capacitor circuit.
Formulae:
Some of the formulae which are being used in this experiment are:
Vline = √3(Vph)
Iline = Iph
XC = 1/2ПfC
Sph = 3 VphIph
Qph = Iph2 XC
Qtotal = 3Qph
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
θ = tan-1(Q/P)
Connection Scheme:
Procedure:
1) Check all the wires if they are in working condition with the help of multi meter.
2) Connect positive side of Phase A of the Trainer to the positive side of the Capacitive
Load (R1).
3) Connect positive side of Phase B of the trainer to the positive side of the Capacitive
Load (R2)
4) Connect positive side of Phase C of the trainer to the positive side of the Capacitive
Load (R3)
5) Common all the negative terminals of the supply side as well as the three capacitive
loads and connect them to the neutral of the trainer.
6) The above stated connections will make a 3phase star connected load
7) Connect the potential earth of the load trainer to the supply trainer.
8) Set the trainer at supply frequency = 50Hz and Supply Voltage = 50V.
9) Insert a voltmeter in parallel to the phase and neutral to find out the phase voltage.
10) Insert an ammeter in series to find the phase current.
11) The values of phase voltages and phase currents will be same for all the three phases
A,B and C as it is a balanced load (irrespective of the angle difference).
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
12) Turn on the fuses of the trainer to ensure safety while performing the experiment.
13) Perform the experiment for another balanced 3 phase capacitive load as well.
14) Note down the values in the observations table
Trainer Connections:
Table of Observations:
Conclusion:
In this lab we have studied about the 3 phase star connected capacitive load and performed the
experiment how to connect the load to make a star connection keeping in view all the necessary
safety requirements. We also analyzed the phase volatges, phase currents and how to determine
the line currents and line voltages from them using the related formulae. We also determined
the Active, Reactive and Apparent Power in case of capacitive Loads. We performed the same
experiment for another value of capacitances as well.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Experiment # 05
Objective: Study and analysis of three phase delta connected resistive loads.
Apparatus:
1. Resistive loads
2. Cables
3. Three phase supply
4. Voltmeter
Resistive Load:
A load having purely resistance as hindrance in path for current to flow, without any
inductance and capacitance is known as resistive load. The voltage and current are in phase to
each other. So 𝜽 = 𝟎 and 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝟏.
For example incandescent lamp and electric heaters are considered to be resistive loads.
Formulas:
𝑰𝑳 = √𝟑𝑰𝑷
𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝑷
𝑷 = 𝑽𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 ∗ 𝑰𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Observations &Measurements:
VL 29.0V 28.9V
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IL 33 mA 36 mA
Q(var) 0 0
Conclusion:
In this lab we Study and analysis th e three phase delta connected resistive loads.and take the
measurements and perform to its several times.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Experiment # 06
Objective:Study and analysis of three phase delta connected inductive load.
Apparatus:
1. Inductive loads
2. Cables
3. Three phase power supply
4. Voltmeter
5. Ammeter
Formulas:
𝑰𝑳 = √𝟑𝑰𝑷
𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝑷
𝑺 = 𝑽𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 ∗ 𝑰𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆
𝑿𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳
𝑸 = 𝑽𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 ∗ 𝑰𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
Procedure:
1. I took the apparatus.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Table of Observations:
Conclusions:
In this experiment we came to study and analysis of three phase delta connected inductive
load.annd check its response.we take the measurements and perform its several times.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Experiment # 07
Objective: Study and analysis of three phase delta connected capacitive loads.
Apparatus:
1. Capacitive loads
2. Three phase supply
3. Cables
4. Voltmeter
5. Ammeter
Procedure:
1. I took the apparatus.
2. I connected ammeter in series with load 1 and phase 1.
3. I connected phase 2 and phase 3 with load 2 and load 3.
4. I connected the second terminal of each load with first terminal of other load.
5. I measured the values.
6. I changed the loads and repeated the experiment.
7. I made calculations using the formulas and recorded them in table.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
𝑸 = 𝑰𝑷 𝟐 ∗ 𝑿𝑪
𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟑𝑷
𝑸𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟑𝑸
Table of Observations:
Conclusion:
In this experiment we came to Study and analysis of three phase delta connected capacitive
loads.We perform it and take its readings
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Experiment # 08
Objective: Study and analysis of three phase RC series (Branch)in star connected.
Apparatus:
1. Capacitive loads
2. Three phase supply
3. Cables
4. Voltmeter
5. Ammeter
𝑽𝑳 = √𝟑𝑽𝑷
𝟏
𝑿𝑪 =
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
𝑸 = 𝑰𝑷 𝟐 ∗ 𝑿𝑪
𝑷 = √𝑺𝟐 − 𝑸𝟐
𝑷
𝑷. 𝑭 =
𝑺
Table of Observations:
S 2.709VA 2.107VA
P 2.51W 1.7107W
Z 334.4 Ω 430 Ω
p.f (cosθ) 0.92 0.81
Q 1.01VAR 1.230VAR
Conclusion:
In this experiment we came to Study and analysis of three phase RC series (Branch)in star
connected and perform the experiments several times.We also take the readings
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Experiment # 09
Objective: Study and analysis of three phase RL series (Branch)in star connected.
Apparatus:
1. Inductive loads
2. Three phase supply
3. Cables
4. Voltmeter
5. Ammeter
𝑽𝑳 = √𝟑𝑽𝑷
𝑿𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳
𝑸 = 𝑰𝑷 𝟐 ∗ 𝑿𝑳
𝑷 = √𝑺𝟐 − 𝑸𝟐
𝑷
𝑷. 𝑭 =
𝑺
Table of Observations:
Conclusion:
In this experiment we came to Study and analysis of three phase RL series (Branch)in star
connected.We perform experiment several times and take its readings.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Experiment # 10
Objective: Study and analysis of three phase RLC series (Branch)in star connected.
Apparatus:
1. Capacitive loads
2. Inductive loads
3. Three phase supply
4. Cables
5. Voltmeter
6. Ammeter
Conclusion:
In this experiment we came to Study and analysis of three phase RLC series (Branch)in star
Experiment # 11
Objective: Study and analysis of three phase RLC parallel (Branch) in Star Connected.
Apparatus:
• Resistances
• Capacitances
• Inductances
• Wires
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Three phase supply
Formula:
𝑺 = 𝑽𝒑𝒉 ∗ 𝑰𝒑𝒉
𝟏
𝑿𝒄 =
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
𝑿𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳
𝑸𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 = 𝑰𝒄 𝟐 𝑿𝒄
𝑸𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 = 𝑰𝒍 𝟐 𝑿𝑳
𝑷𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
𝑷. 𝑭 =
𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
Procedure:
1. I took the apparatus.
2. I made the RLC parallel (Branch) in Star Connection.
3. I connected the voltmeter and ammeter.
4. I measured the values.
5. I changed the values of resistance, capacitance and inductance.
6. I observed and did the analysis of changes in voltage, current and power.
7. I recorded the values and wrote them in table.
Table of analysis:
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Conclusion:
In this experiment we Study and analysis of three phase RLC parallel (Branch) in Star
Connected similarly we perform it and take readings also.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Experiment #12
Objective:
Study and implementation of HVDC transmission Line using
PWM technique
Apparatus:
➢ Mat-lab software
➢ 3 phase supply
➢ VI clock measuring unit
➢ IGBT diode
➢ LC filters
➢ Converter Transformers
Theory:
Introduction:
High voltage direct current (HVDC) power systems use D.C. for transmission of bulk power
over long distances. For long-distance power transmission, HVDC lines are less expensive, and
losses are less as compared to AC transmission. It interconnects the networks that have
different frequencies and characteristics.
In AC transmission, alternating waves of voltage and current travels in the line which change
its direction every millisecond; due to which losses occur in the form of heat. Unlike AC lines,
the voltage and current waves don’t change their direction in DC. HVDC lines increase the
efficiency of transmission lines due to which power is rapidly transferred.
Phases of work:
The DC is flowing with the overhead lines and at the user end again DC is converted into AC
by using inverters, which are placed in converter substation. The power remains the same at
the sending and receiving ends of the line. DC is transmitted over long distances because it
decreases the losses and improves the efficiency.
A system having more than two converter stations and one transmission line is called a ‘two
terminal DC system’ or a ‘point-to-point system’. Similarly, if substation has more than two
converter stations and interconnecting DC terminal lines, it is called multiterminal DC
substation.
The point where two curves meet is called the breakeven distance. Above the breakeven
distance, the HVDC system becomes cheaper. Breakeven distance changes from 500 to 900
km in overhead transmission lines.
➢ A lesser number of conductors and insulators are required thereby reducing the cost
of the overall system.
➢ It requires less phase to phase and ground to ground clearance.
➢ Their towers are less costly and cheaper.
➢ Lesser corona loss is less as compared to HVAC transmission lines of similar power.
➢ Power loss is reduced with DC because fewer numbers of lines are required for
power transmission.
➢ The HVDC system uses earth return. If any fault occurs in one pole, the other pole
with ‘earth returns’ behaves like an independent circuit. This results in a more
flexible system.
➢ Due to the absence of frequency in the HVDC line, losses like skin effect and proximity
effect does not occur in the system.
➢ It does not generate or absorb any reactive power. So, there is no need for reactive
power compensation.
➢ The very accurate and lossless power flows through DC link.
Procedure:
➢ First of all, we open the mat lab version of 2016a which is used for simulation purposes.
➢ Then make the model circuit also shown in screenshots.
➢ First take the 3 phase RLC source which is nothing than a 3-phase supply.
➢ Pointing out its values and measure Ac values by VI Measure block.
➢ Then take an IGBT/diode from library tool that converts Ac to Dc.
➢ Transmit That DC and Filter its ripple by capacitor and take its graph.
➢ Then convert it into AC again by using IGBT/Diode.
➢ Pwm is connected with IGBT.
➢ In last, a load is connected and here we check the results so the Scope is used for
output results and save the simulation.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Simulation Work
Simulation project:
Output Readings:
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
DC Transmission:
Conclusion:
Considering all the advantages of DC, it seems that HVDC lines are more proficient than AC
lines. But, the initial cost of HVDC substation is very high and their substation equipment is
quite complicated. Thus, for long distance transmission it is preferable that power is generated
in AC, and for transmission, it is converted into DC and then again converted back into AC for
final use. This system is economical and also improves the efficiency of the system.
Faizan Masood 2k17-ELE-104
Experiment # 13
Objective: Study and of comparison of High Voltage AC & High Voltage DC transmission.
Theory:
HVDC transmission system has many more advantages over HVAC, such as stability,
controllability etc. For distances longer than the break even distance, HVDC system becomes
more cost effective. Submarine HVDC links can be more suitable for connecting offshore wind
farms as they prove to be more efficient and cost effective than undersea HVAC cables. Hence,
there is an increasing interest in HVDC transmission. Still, HVAC system will remain much
longer as it has its own advantages in transmission and distribution, such as it can be easily
stepped up and stepped down. HVDC is actually a complement for AC systems rather than a
rival.
However the terminal converter station in HVDC are much more expensive which are not
required for HVAC transmission. Over a specific distance, called as break even distance, HVDC
line becomes cheaper than HVAC lines. The break even distance for overhead lines is around
600km and for submarine lines it is around 50km.
Losses: Skin effect is absent in DC. Also, corona losses are significantly lower in the case of
DC. An HVDC line has considerably lower losses compared to HVAC over long distances.
Controllability: Due to the absence of inductance in DC, an HVDC line offers better voltage
regulation. Also, HVDC offers greater controllability as compared to HVAC.
Short Circuit Current: In longer distance HVAC transmission, short circuit current level in
the receiving system is high. An HVDC system does not contribute to the short circuit current of
the interconnected AC system.
Power factor acts as a control parameter as it controls the apparent and reactive power, as it is
explained by the following example
Case 1:
Let, V =220V , I = 1.3A , θ = 50°
The Reactive Power = Q = V I sinθ = (220)(1.3)(sin50°) = 219.07Kvar
The Active Power = P = V I cosθ = (220) (1.3) (cos50°) = 183.83 Watts
Case 2:
(When the angle θ is increased)
Let, V =220V , I = 1.3A , θ = 75°
Q = (220) (1.3) (sin75°) = 276.25 Kvar
P = (220) (1.3) (cos75°) = 74.02 watts
Case 3:
(When the angle θ is decreased)
Let, V =220V , I = 1.3A , θ = 15°
Q = (220) (1.3) (sin15°) = 74.02 Kvar
P = (220) (1.3) (cos15°) = 276.25 watts
Comparison Table:
Comparison Table:
Experiment # 14
Objective: Study and of comparison of High Voltage AC & Low Voltage AC transmission.
Apparatus:
• Resistances
• Transformers
• Watt meters
• Wires
• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Three phase supply
Theory:
Low Voltage Ac (LVAC):The International Electro technical Commission (IEC) defines
supply system low voltageas voltage in the range 50 to 1000 V AC or 120 to 1500 V DC.
In electrical power systems low voltagemost commonly refers to the mains voltages as used by
domestic and light industrial and commercial consumers. "Low voltage" in this context still
presents a risk of electric shock, but only a minor risk of electric arcs through the air.
High Voltage Ac (HVAC): The term high voltage usually means electrical energy at
voltages high enough to inflict harm on living organisms. Equipment and conductors that carry
high voltage warrant particular safety requirements and procedures. In certain industries, high
voltagemeans voltage above a particular threshold. High voltage is used in electrical power
distribution, in cathode ray tubes, to generate X-rays and particle beams, for ignition, and in high
power amplifier vacuum tubes and other industrial, military and scientific applications.
Comparison
between LVAC and HVAC:
Low Voltage Alternating Current High Voltage Alternating Current
Conclusion:
In this experiment we came to Study and of comparison of High Voltage AC & Low Voltage AC
transmission.We perform the practical and take the readings.